OSI Reference Model

Network Reference Models

A computer network connects two or more devices together to
share information and services. Multiple networks connected together
form aninternetwork.
Internetworking present challenges - interoperating between
products from different manufacturers requires consistent standards.
Network reference models were developed to address these challenges. A
network reference model serves as a blueprint, detailing how
communication between network devices should occur.
The two most recognized network reference models are:
 The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model
 The Department of Defense (DoD) model
Without the framework that network models provide, all network hardware
and software would have been proprietary. Organizations would have been
locked into a single vendor’s equipment, and global networks like the
Internet would have been impractical, if not impossible.
Network models are organized into layers, with each layer representing a
specific networking function. These functions are controlled by protocols,
which are rules that govern end-to-end communication between devices.
Protocols on one layer will interact with protocols on the layer above and
below it, forming a protocol suite or stack. The TCP/IP suite is the most
prevalent protocol suite, and is the foundation of the Internet.
A network model is not a physical entity – there is no OSI device.
Manufacturers do not always strictly adhere to a reference model’s blueprint,
and thus not every protocol fits perfectly within a single layer. Some
protocols can function across multiple layers.
OSI Reference Model
The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model was developed by the
International Organization for Standardization (ISO), and formalized in
1984. It provided the first framework governing how information should be
sent across a network.
The OSI model consists of seven layers, each corresponding to a specific
network function:
7 Application
6 Presentation
5 Session
4 Transport
3 Network
2 Data-link
1 Physical

Various mnemonics make it easier toremember the order of the OSI

model’s layers:
7 Application All Away
6 Presentation People Pizza
5 Session Seem Sausage
4 Transport To Throw
3 Network Need Not
2 Data-link Data Do
1 Physical Processing Please
ISO further developed an entire protocol suite based on the OSI model;
however, the OSI protocol suite was never widely implemented.
The OSI model itself is now somewhat deprecated – modern protocol suites,
such as the TCP/IP suite, are difficult to fit cleanly within the OSI model’s
seven layers. This is especially true of the upper three layers.
The bottom (or lower) four layers are more clearly defined, and
terminology from those layers is still prevalently used. Many protocols and
devices are described by which lower layer they operate at.
OSI Model - The Upper Layers
The top three layers of the OSI model are often referred to as the
upperlayers:
 Layer-7 - Application layer
 Layer-6 - Presentation layer
 Layer-5 - Session layer
Protocols that operate at these layers manage application-level
functions,and are generally implemented in software.
The function of the upper layers of the OSI model can be difficult to
visualize. Upper layer protocols do not always fit perfectly within a layer,
and often function across multiple layers.

OSI Model - The Application Layer

The Application layer (Layer-7) provides the interface between
the userapplication and the network. A web browser and an email client
are examples of user applications.
The user application itself does not reside at the Application layer - the
protocol does. The user interacts with the application, which in turn interacts
with the application protocol.
Examples of Application layer protocols include:
 FTP, via an FTP client
 HTTP, via a web browser
 POP3 and SMTP, via an email client
 Telnet
The Application layer provides a variety of functions:
 Identifies communication partners
 Determines resource availability
 Synchronizes communication
The Application layer interacts with the Presentation layer below it. As
it isthe top-most layer, it does not interact with any layers above it.
OSI Model - The Presentation Layer
The Presentation layer (Layer-6) controls the formatting and syntax
of userdata for the application layer. This ensures that data from the sending
application can be understood by the receiving application.
Standards have been developed for the formatting of data types, such as
text,images, audio, and video. Examples of Presentation layer formats
include:
 Text - RTF, ASCII, EBCDIC
 Images - GIF, JPG, TIF
 Audio - MIDI, MP3, WAV
 Movies - MPEG, AVI, MOV

If two devices do not support the same format or syntax, the

Presentationlayer can provide conversion or translation services to
facilitate communication.
Additionally, the Presentation layer can perform encryption and
compression of data, as required. However, these functions can also be
performed at lower layers as well. For example, the Network layer can
perform encryption, using IPSec.

OSI Model - The Session Layer

The Session layer (Layer-5) is responsible for establishing,
maintaining, and ultimately terminating sessions between devices. If a
session is broken,this layer can attempt to recover the session.
Sessions communication falls under one of three categories:
 Full-Duplex – simultaneous two-way communication
 Half-Duplex – two-way communication, but not simultaneous
 Simplex – one-way communication
Many modern protocol suites, such as TCP/IP, do not implement Session
layer protocols. Connection management is often controlled by lower layers,
such as the Transport layer.
The lack of true Session layer protocols can present challenges for high-
availability and failover. Reliance on lower-layer protocols for session
management offers less flexibility than a strict adherence to the OSI model.
OSI Model - The Lower Layers
The bottom four layers of the OSI model are often referred to as the
lowerlayers:
 Layer-4 – Transport layer
 Layer-3 – Network layer
 Layer-2 – Data-Link layer
 Layer-1 – Physical layer
Protocols that operate at these layers control the end-to-end transport
of databetween devices, and are implemented in both software and
hardware.

OSI Model - The Transport Layer

The Transport layer (Layer-4) does not actually send data, despite
its name. Instead, this layer is responsible for the reliable transfer of data,
byensuring that data arrives at its destination error-free and in order.
Transport layer communication falls under two categories:
 Connection-oriented – requires that a connection with specific
agreed-upon parameters be established before data is sent.
 Connectionless – requires no connection before data is sent.
Connection-oriented protocols provide several important services:
 Segmentation and sequencing – data is segmented into smaller
pieces for transport. Each segment is assigned a sequence number, so
that the receiving device can reassemble the data on arrival.
 Connection establishment – connections are established, maintained,
and ultimately terminated between devices.
 Acknowledgments – receipt of data is confirmed through the use of
acknowledgments. Otherwise, data is retransmitted, guaranteeing
delivery.
 Flow control (or windowing) – data transfer rate is negotiated to
prevent congestion.
The TCP/IP protocol suite incorporates two Transport layer protocols:
 Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) – connection-oriented
 User Datagram Protocol (UDP) - connectionless
OSI Model - The Network Layer
The Network layer (Layer-3) controls internetwork communication,
andhas two key responsibilities:
 Logical addressing – provides a unique address that identifies both
the host, and the network that host exists on.
 Routing – determines the best path to a particular destination
network, and then routes data accordingly.
Two of the most common Network layer protocols are:
 Internet Protocol (IP)
 Novell’s Internetwork Packet Exchange (IPX).
IPX is almost entirely deprecated. IP version 4 (IPv4) and IP version 6
(IPv6) are covered in nauseating detail in other guides.

OSI Model - The Data-Link Layer

While the Network layer is concerned with transporting data
between networks, the Data-Link layer (Layer-2) is responsible for
transportingdata within a network.
The Data-Link layer consists of two sublayers:
 Logical Link Control (LLC) sublayer
 Media Access Control (MAC) sublayer
The LLC sublayer serves as the intermediary between the physical
link andall higher layer protocols. It ensures that protocols like IP can
function regardless of what type of physical technology is being used.
Additionally, the LLC sublayer can perform flow-control and error-
checking, though such functions are often provided by Transport layer
protocols, such as TCP.
The MAC sublayer controls access to the physical medium, serving as
mediator if multiple devices are competing for the same physical link. Data-
link layer technologies have various methods of accomplishing this -
Ethernet uses Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection
(CSMA/CD), and Token Ring utilizes a token.
OSI Model - The Data-Link Layer
The Data-link layer packages the higher-layer data into frames, so
that the data can be put onto the physical wire. This packaging process is
referred toas framing or encapsulation.
The encapsulation type will vary depending on the underlying technology.
Common Data-link layer technologies include following:
 Ethernet – the most common LAN data-link technology
 Token Ring – almost entirely deprecated
 FDDI (Fiber Distributed Data Interface)
 802.11 Wireless
 Frame-Relay
 ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode)
The data-link frame contains the source and destination hardware (or
physical) address. Hardware addresses uniquely identify a host within a
network, and are often hardcoded onto physical network interfaces.
However, hardware addresses contain no mechanism for differentiating one
network from another, and can only identify a host within a network.
The most common hardware address is the Ethernet MAC address.

OSI Model - The Physical Layer

The Physical layer (Layer-1) controls the signaling and transferring of raw
bits onto the physical medium. The Physical layer is closely related to the
Data-link layer, as many technologies (such as Ethernet) contain both data-
link and physical functions.
The Physical layer provides specifications for a variety of hardware:
 Cabling
 Connectors and transceivers
 Network interface cards (NICs)
 Wireless radios
 Hubs
Physical-layer devices and topologies are covered extensively in other
guides.
Encapsulation and Layered Communication
As data is passed from the user application down the virtual layers of
the OSI model, each layer adds a header (and sometimes a trailer)
containing protocol information specific to that layer. These headers are
called ProtocolData Units (PDUs), and the process of adding these headers
is called encapsulation. Note that in the TCP/IP protocol suite only the
lower layers perform encapsulation, generally.
For example, a Transport layer protocol such as TCP will add a header
containing flow control, port numbers, and sequencing. The Network layer
header contains logical addressing information, and the Data-link header
contains physical addressing and other hardware specific information.
The PDU of each layer is identified with a different term:

Layer PDU Name

Application -
Presentation -
Session -
Transport Segments
Network Packets
Data-Link Frames
Physical Bits

Each layer communicates with the corresponding layer on the receiving

device. For example, on the sending device, source and destination hardware
addressing is placed in a Data-link header. On the receiving device, that
Data-link header is processed and stripped away (decapsulated) before
being sent up to the Network and other upper layers.
Network devices are commonly identified by the OSI layer they operate at;
or, more specifically, what header or PDU the device processes.
For example, switches are generally identified as Layer-2 devices, as
switches process information stored in the Data-Link header of a frame,
such as Ethernet MAC addresses. Similarly, routers are identified as Layer-
3 devices, as routers process logical addressing information in the Network
header of a packet, such as IP addresses.
Encapsulation Illustrated
The following illustrates how basic encapsulation occurs with the TCP/IP
stack, which typically performs encapsulation only at the lower layers:

During encapsulation on the sending host:

 Data from the user application is handed off to the Transport layer.
 The Transport layer adds a header containing protocol-specific
information, and then hands the segment to the Network layer.
 The Network layer adds a header containing source and destination
logical addressing, and then hands the packet to the Data-Link layer.
 The Data-Link layer adds a header containing source and destination
physical addressing and other hardware-specific information.
 The Data-Link frame is then handed off to the Physical layer to be
transmitted on the network medium as bits.
During decapsulation on the receiving host, the reverse occurs:
 The frame is received from the physical medium.
 The Data-Link layer processes its header, strips it off, and then hands
it off to the Network layer.
 The Network layer processes its header, strips it off, and then hands it
off to the Transport layer.
 The Transport layer processes its header, strips it off, and then hands
the data to the user application.
OSI Reference Model Example
A web browser serves as a good practical illustration of the OSI model and
the TCP/IP protocol suite:
 he web browser serves as the user interface for accessing a website. The
browser itself does not function at the Application layer. Instead, the
web browser invokes the Hyper Text Transfer Protocol (HTTP) to
interface with the remote web server, which is why http:// precedes every
web address.
 The Internet can provide data in a wide variety of formats, a function of
the Presentation layer. Common formats on the Internet include HTML,
XML, PHP, GIF, and JPEG. Any encryption or compression mechanisms
used on a website are also considered a Presentation layer function.
 The Session layer is responsible for establishing, maintaining, and
terminating the session between devices, and determining whether the
communication is half-duplex or full-duplex. However, the TCP/IP stack
generally does not include session-layer protocols, and is reliant on
lower-layer protocols to perform these functions.
 HTTP utilizes the TCP Transport layer protocol to ensure the reliable
delivery of data. TCP establishes and maintains a connection from the
client to the web server, and packages the higher-layer data into
segments. A sequence number is assigned to each segment so that data
can be reassembled upon arrival.
 The best path to route the data between the client and the web server is
determined by IP, a Network layer protocol. IP is also responsible for
the assigned logical addresses on the client and server, and for
encapsulating segments into packets.
 Data cannot be sent directly to a logical address. As packets travel from
network to network, IP addresses are translated to hardware addresses,
which are a function of the Data-Link layer. The packets are
encapsulated into frames to be placed onto the physical medium.
 The data is finally transferred onto the network medium at the Physical
layer, in the form of raw bits. Signaling and encoding mechanisms are
defined at this layer, as is the hardware that forms the physical
connection between the client and the web server.
IP and the DoD Model
The Internet Protocol (IP) was originally developed by the Department of
Defense (DoD), and was a cornerstone for a group of protocols that became
known as the TCP/IP protocol suite.
The DoD developed their own networking model, which became known as
the DoD or TCP/IP Model. It consists of four layers:

OSI Model DoD Model

7 Application
6 Presentation 4 Application
5 Session
4 Transport 3 Host-to-Host
3 Network 2 Internet
2 Data-link
1 Network Access
1 Physical

The consolidated DoD model is generally regarded as more practical than

the OSI model. Upper layer protocols often provide services that span the
top three layers. A converged Data-link and Physical layer is also sensible,
as many technologies provide specifications for both layers, such as
Ethernet.
The following chart illustrates where common protocols fit into the DoD
model:

Layer Example Protocols

Application FTP, HTTP, SMTP
Host-to-Host TCP, UDP
Internet IP
Network Access Ethernet

Despite the practicality of the DoD model, the OSI model is still the basis
for most network terminology.