Ecosystem:

An ecosystem is a community of living organisms (plants, animals, and microbes) interacting

with each other and their non-living environment (such as air, water, and soil).

Ecosystems can be as small as a pond or as large as a forest or an ocean. Each part of an ecosystem
depends on the others, creating a network of connections that maintain energy flows , health and
stability of the environment.

Types of Ecosystem

A. Natural Ecosystems

Natural ecosystems are self-sustaining environments that occur without human intervention.
They maintain themselves through natural processes such as photosynthesis, nutrient cycles,
and predator-prey relationships. Examples include:

1 .Terrestrial Ecosystems: These are land-based ecosystems and include forests, deserts,
grasslands, and tundras. Each has its own unique climate, vegetation, and wildlife.

• Forests: Areas with lots of trees. They provide oxygen and absorb carbon
dioxide. Forests are home to many unique animals and plants. They also help
stabilize the climate and protect watersheds.
• Deserts: Very dry areas with little vegetation. They have special plants and
animals that can live with little water. Deserts can be hot or cold. Many desert
species are nocturnal to avoid daytime heat.
• Grasslands: Open areas with mostly grass, few trees. They support grazing
animals like cows and their predators. Grasslands often have rich soil, making
them ideal for agriculture. They also act as important carbon sinks.
• Tundras: Cold areas with no trees, found in the Arctic and on high mountains.
They have frozen ground and a short growing season. Special cold-adapted
plants and animals live here.
3. Aquatic Ecosystems: These ecosystems are water-based and can be divided into
freshwater and marine ecosystems.
• Freshwater Ecosystems: Includes rivers, lakes, streams, ponds, and wetlands.
These ecosystems are vital for drinking water, agriculture, and as habitats for
many species. Freshwater ecosystems support a wide variety of fish, plant life.
• Marine Ecosystems: Includes oceans, coral reefs. They cover most of Earth's
surface and are home to a vast array of marine life. Marine ecosystems are
crucial for global climate regulation and support the world's largest living
structures—coral reefs.

B. Artificial Ecosystems

Artificial ecosystems are created and maintained by humans. They often require ongoing
human management to sustain them. Examples include: urban areas, aquarium, zoo,
agricultural land.
Structure of Ecosystem

A. Biotic Components (Living)

1. Producers (Autotrophs): These organisms, primarily plants and algae, convert

sunlight into energy through photosynthesis. This energy is then used by the entire
ecosystem. Producers form the base of the food chain and are crucial for the survival
of all other organisms. Without them, there would be no primary source of energy for
life.
2. Consumers (Heterotrophs): These are organisms that consume other living things
for energy.
o Primary Consumers (Herbivores): Animals that eat plants, such as deer,
rabbits, and insects. They directly depend on producers for their energy and
nutrients.
o Secondary Consumers (Carnivores): Animals that eat herbivores, like
snakes and birds. They play a vital role in controlling the population of
primary consumers.
o Tertiary Consumers: Top predators that eat secondary consumers, such as
lions and eagles. They help maintain the balance of the ecosystem by
controlling the populations of other consumers.
o Omnivores: Animals that eat both plants and animals, such as bears and
humans. They have a flexible diet and can adjust to different food sources in
their environment.
3. Decomposers ( micro consumers): These organisms, including fungi, bacteria, and
earthworms, break down dead material and recycle nutrients back into the ecosystem.
They decompose organic matter, returning essential nutrients to the soil, which are
then used by producers. This process is vital for nutrient cycling and maintaining soil
health.

B. Abiotic Components (Non-Living)

1. Sunlight: The primary source of energy for ecosystems, driving photosynthesis in

producers.
2. Water: Essential for all living organisms, it influences the types of species that can
survive in an ecosystem.
3. Air: Provides oxygen for respiration and carbon dioxide for photosynthesis.
4. Soil: Contains nutrients and supports plant life.
5. Temperature: Affects the metabolic rates of organisms and the types of species that
can live in an ecosystem.

Energy Flow in the ecosystem

The Role of the Sun
The energy flow in the ecosystem is one of the major factors that support the survival of such a great
number of organisms. For almost all organisms on earth, the primary source of energy is solar energy.
It is amusing to find that we receive less than 50 per cent of the sun’s effective radiation on earth.
Most of the sun’s radiation that falls on the earth is usually reflected back into space by the
earth’s atmosphere. This effective radiation is termed as the Photosynthetically Active
Radiation (PAR).

Overall, we receive about 40 to 50 percent of the energy having Photosynthetically Active

Radiation and only around 2-10 percent of it is used by plants for the process of
photosynthesis. Thus, this percent of PAR supports the entire world as plants are the
producers in the ecosystem and all the other organisms are either directly or indirectly
dependent on them for their survival.

Producers: The Foundation of the Food Web

Producers, also called autotrophs, occupy the first trophic level in an ecosystem. They use the
energy captured from the sun to create organic molecules through photosynthesis. These
organic molecules serve as the primary source of energy and nutrients for other organisms in
the ecosystem. Producers not only sustain themselves but also provide energy for herbivores,
the primary consumers.

Consumers: The Energy Transfer

Consumers are organisms that cannot produce their own food and rely on other organisms for
energy. They are divided into different trophic levels based on their feeding habits:

• Primary Consumers: Herbivores that feed directly on producers (e.g., deer, insects).
• Secondary Consumers: Carnivores that prey on primary consumers (e.g., lions,
frogs).
• Tertiary Consumers: Apex predators that consume secondary consumers (e.g.,
eagles, sharks).
• Omnivores: Organisms that eat both plants and animals, thus operating at multiple
trophic levels (e.g., bears, humans).

Each transfer of energy from one trophic level to the next results in a significant loss of
energy, primarily as heat due to metabolic processes.

Decomposers: The Recyclers

Decomposers, such as fungi, bacteria play a crucial role in the ecosystem by breaking down
dead organic matter and waste products. This decomposition process releases nutrients back
into the soil, making them available for producers to use. Decomposers ensure the recycling
of essential elements and maintain the flow of energy within the ecosystem.

The Energy Pyramid :The concept of an energy pyramid visually represents the flow of
energy through an ecosystem
Biodiversity

It encompasses the variety of life forms on Earth, across all different levels of organization,
including genes, species, and ecosystems.

It refers to all species living things on earth or in a specific ecosystem. It can classified into
three main types:

1. Genetic Diversity:
o The variety of genes within a species.
o The different breeds of dogs or the various strains of rice. This diversity
allows species to adapt to changes in the environment, helping them survive
diseases and other challenges.
2. Species Diversity:
o The variety of species within a habitat or a region.
o A rainforest with thousands of different species of trees, insects, birds, and
mammals. The Amazon Rainforest is a classic example, home to an estimated
400 billion individual trees representing 16,000 species.
3. Ecosystem Diversity:
o The variety of ecosystems in a given geographical location.
o The different types of ecosystems such as forests, deserts, grasslands, rivers,
and oceans. The Great Barrier Reef in Australia is an example of a diverse
marine ecosystem, teeming with marine life including corals, fish, and other
sea creatures.

Biodiversity is essential for ecosystem productivity, resilience, and adaptability. It provides

numerous ecosystem services that contribute to human well-being, including food, clean
water, medicine, and recreation.

Importance of Biodiversity

1. Ecological Stability: Biodiverse ecosystems are more resilient to environmental

changes and disturbances. They can recover more quickly from natural disasters,
climate change, and human activities.
2. Ecosystem Services: Biodiversity contributes to essential ecosystem services such as
pollination, nutrient cycling, water purification, and soil formation. These services are
critical for human survival and well-being.
3. Medical and Scientific Value: Many medicines and scientific discoveries are derived
from the diverse range of species on Earth. Biodiversity provides a genetic pool that
can be used for research and developing new treatments.
4. Food Security: A diverse range of species ensures a stable and nutritious food supply.
It also allows for the development of crops that can withstand pests, diseases, and
changing climate conditions.
5. Cultural and Recreational Value: Biodiversity enriches cultures and traditions. It
also provides opportunities for recreation, tourism, and spiritual experiences,
contributing to human well-being and economic development.
Threats to Biodiversity

1. Habitat Loss: Deforestation, urbanization, and agricultural expansion lead to the

destruction and fragmentation of habitats, making it difficult for species to survive.
2. Climate Change: Changes in temperature, precipitation patterns, and extreme
weather events disrupt ecosystems and force species to adapt, migrate, or face
extinction.
3. Pollution: Chemicals, plastics, and waste contaminate air, water, and soil, harming
wildlife and disrupting ecosystems. Pollution can lead to diseases and death in plants
and animals.
4. Overexploitation: Overfishing, logging, and poaching deplete species at
unsustainable rates, leading to population declines and extinctions.
5. Illegal Hunting: Poaching and illegal hunting of wildlife for trade, trophy hunting,
and other purposes severely reduce populations of threatened and endangered species.
6. Exotic Species: Non-native species introduced to new environments can outcompete,
or bring diseases to native species, leading to declines or extinctions of native species.

Conservation of biodiversity

It refers to the practice of protecting and managing the variety of life forms on
Earth, including genes, species, and ecosystems, to ensure their sustainability and
health.

Objectives of Biodiversity Conservation

1. Protecting Species: Safeguarding all species, especially those that are endangered or
threatened, to prevent extinction and maintain biodiversity.
2. Preserving Habitats: Maintaining and restoring natural habitats to ensure that species
have a safe and healthy environment to thrive.
3. Sustainable Use: Ensuring that the use of natural resources, such as water, minerals,
and timber, is sustainable and does not harm biodiversity.
4. Maintaining Genetic Diversity: Preserving the genetic diversity within species to
ensure their adaptability to environmental changes and resilience to diseases.
5. Cultural and Aesthetic Value: Protecting biodiversity that holds cultural, spiritual,
and aesthetic significance for various communities, contributing to their cultural
heritage and well-being.
6. Enhancing Ecosystem Services: Protecting ecosystems that provide essential
services like pollination, water purification, climate regulation, and soil fertility.
7. Promoting Awareness and Education: Increasing public understanding of the
importance of biodiversity and encouraging actions that support conservation efforts.
8. Supporting Legislation and Policies: Enforcing and promoting laws and policies
that protect biodiversity and regulate activities that threaten it.
9. Encouraging Community Involvement: Engaging local communities in
conservation efforts, recognizing their knowledge, and involving them as stewards of
biodiversity.
Conservation Efforts to Achieve These Objectives(strategies)

• Creating Protected Areas: Establishing national parks, wildlife reserves, and marine
sanctuaries.
• Restoring Habitats: Replanting forests and rehabilitating wetlands.
• Sustainable Practices: Implementing sustainable agriculture, forestry, and fishing
practices.
• Combating Illegal Activities: Strengthening anti-poaching measures and controlling
the trade of exotic species.
• Promoting Research: Supporting scientific research to monitor biodiversity and
develop conservation strategies.
• Global Collaboration: Working with international organizations and agreements to
address biodiversity loss on a global scale.

Methods of conservation of bio diversity

1. In-Situ Conservation

In-situ conservation refers to the protection of species in their natural habitats. This method
aims to preserve the ecosystems and the natural interactions among species. Some examples
include:

• National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries: Protecting large areas of land or water
where species can live without significant human interference.
• Biosphere Reserves: Regions with minimally disturbed ecosystems that are legally
protected to promote conservation.
• Sacred Groves: Specific areas protected by local communities due to cultural or
religious beliefs.

Advantages: Natural habitat preservation, Ecosystem protection, Less stressful for species

2. Ex-Situ Conservation

Ex-situ conservation involves protecting species by removing them from their natural habitats
and maintaining them in controlled environments. This is often used when species are
critically endangered. Some examples include:

• Seed Banks: Storing seeds from various plant species to preserve genetic diversity.
• Botanical Gardens: Cultivating plants for conservation, research, and education.
• Zoos and Aquariums: Housing animals in captivity for breeding programs and
educational purposes.

Advantages: Controlled environment, Emergency backup for endangered species, Facilitates

research and breeding programs

Both methods are essential for conserving biodiversity and complement each other by
addressing different aspects of species protection and recovery.