SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY

Villamor, Roberto E. Psych 3A 3. Personal attitudes and dispositions

also shape behavior.
Instr. Kristine Mangampo 4. Social influence shapes behavior.
5. Social behavior is biologically rooted
Week 1: Introduction to Social Psychology - Nature and nurture; Inter[play of
biological, psychological and social
Social Psychology influences.
- The scientific study of how people think,
feel and behavior in social situations. **Social Neuroscience - integration of biological and
- It focuses on individuals, how they social perspectives that explores the neural and
perceive, interact and influence each psychological bases of social and emotional behavior.
other and how group situations affect
Social Psychology and Related Disciplines
behavior of individuals.
1. Sociology - focuses more attention on
social behavior while psychology makes
- It is drawn by two (2) principles.
the subject of the perpetrator as its
Sociology Focuses on group behavior concern.
in terms of society and
social institutions.
2. Anthropology - study of social behavior
Psychology Centers on behavior of in a specific cultural superstructure.
individuals.
3. Political Science - politics affects
everyone and is timeless
- The scientific study of
Social Thinking How we perceive 4. Education - will provide knowledge to
ourselves and others/ humans in living their lives from birth to
What we believe/
death.
Judgements we
make/ Our attitudes 5. Biology - discusses interplay of heredity
and environment
Social Influence Culture/ Pressures to 6. Communication Science - provides
conform/ Persuasion/ direction as to how we communicate
Groups of people properly by considering psychological
factors.
Social Relations Prejudice/
Aggression/ Attraction 7. Natural Science - psychology is driven
and intimacy/ Helping by experiments carried out from natural
science.
8. Philosophy - ‘Investigation of what is’
9. International Relation - social
Big Ideas in Social Psychology
psychology studies relationships and
1. We construct our own social reality.
interactions that occur between groups
(Constructivism)
of people.
10. Leadership Science - social
2. Our social intuitions are powerful but
psychology tackles the science of
sometimes perilous.
leadership.
- Our social intuitions guide and
11. Health Science - mental health also is
deceive us; It shapes our fears,
included in overall health maintenance.
impressions and
relationships.
History of Social Psychology
1898 Earliest social psychology
experiments were Research by Alice Eagly,
conducted before 1900 Susan Fiske, Tory Higgins,
Richard NIsbett, Shelley
1908 First social psychology Taylor focused on social
textbook was published cognition

1940’s - 1950’s Kurt Lewin and Leon 1974 Stanley Milgram studied
Festinger - refined the obedience and showed the
experimental approach to importance of conformity
studying behavior. pressures in social groups.

Kurt Lewin - referred to as 1968 John Darley and Bibb

the “Father of Social Latane developed the
Psychology” as he focused ‘Bystander Effect’
on the dynamic
interactions among people. 1972 Irving Janis studied why
intelligent people
Leon Festinger - sometimes made decisions
published Research that led to disastrous
Methods in the Behavioral results when they worked
Sciences back in 1954. together.

And in 1957 he developed 1974 Leonard Berkowitz -

the “Cognitive pioneered the study of
Dissonance Theory” human aggression

WWII Adolf Hitler’s behavior and Gordon Allport and

dictatorship energized Muzarif Sherif focused on
research in social intergroup relations to
psychology. potentially reduce
stereotyping, prejudice
1936 Muzafir Sherif study and discrimination
conformity
Late 20th Views expanded from
1952 Solomon Asch also Century social psychology into field
focused on conformity attitudes; Formal models
of persuasion were also
1954 Social psychologists pioneered.
voiced opinions on ‘Brown
vs Board of Education Stressed the relationship
Supreme Court’ that between attitudes and
helped end racial behavior
segregation.
21st Century The field of neuroscience
1960 Philip Zimbardo - became a strong driving
“Stanford Prison force in social psychology.
Experiment” demonstrated
the powerful role of social
situations on human
behavior.

1970 Orientation in social Self Schema

psychology leaned toward
- A mental template;
cognitive psychology.
 - Set of specific beliefs by which you - Emphasis on the group or
define yourself; affects how you community.
evaluate others. - Prioritizes the well-being of the
- This is affected by one’s perception; collective over individual
How our brain organizes information interests
from our basic senses. - Cooperation and
interdependence; Promotes
Determining Self-Schema solidarity and cohesion.
1. Social Comparison - evaluation one’s
opinion and abilities by comparing
oneself to others. Self-Concept
2. Others Judgements - Basing off what An individual's perception and awareness of
other people think of us. themselves. It encompasses beliefs, ideas, and
judgments about one's own identity, abilities,
Two (2) Primary Concepts in Self- and characteristics. (Who Am I?)
Schema
Components of Self-Concept
1. Looking Glass Self (Charles 1. Positive/Negative Self
H. Cooley Concept
2. Private Self
Derived from the idea that our 3. Public Self
self-concept is like a reflection in
a mirror, shaped by our Self-Efficacy
perceptions of how others see An individual's belief in their own ability to
and evaluate us. accomplish specific tasks or achieve particular
goals
“The way you perceive yourself is
how others perceive you.” Locus of Control
The extent to which people perceive
2. Social Self Theory (George outcomes as internally controllable by
Hebert Mead) their efforts or as externally controlled by
outside forces
Self emerges from social
interaction and develops over A. External Locus
time. - People with an external
locus of control believe
that external factors,
The Self and Culture such as luck and fate,
largely determine the
1. Individualism outcomes in their lives.
- Emphasis on individual rights
and freedoms
- Prioritizes personal autonomy
and independence. B. Internal Locus
- Self-reliance and individual - Belief that one's actions
achievement; Promotes and decisions influence
competition life outcomes. (Personal
control)
2. Collectivism
Learned Helplessness - Self-Determination Forms of Self-Presentation
A. Learned Helplessness
- Sense of hopelessness and 1. False Modesty - downplaying their
resignation learned when a own abilities or achievements despite
human or animal perceives no actually being quite competent or
control over repeated bad accomplished
events
2. Humble Bragging - a person pretends
B. Self- Determination to be modest or self-deprecating while
- Refers to a person's ability to actually showcasing their achievements
make choices and decisions
based on their own values and 3. Self-Handicapping - Protecting one’s
desires. self-image with behaviors that create a
handy excuse for later failures
Self Serving Bias
- Tendency to perceive oneself favorably 4. Self-Monitoring - being attuned to the
way one presents oneself in social
Forms of Self-Serving Bias situations and adjusting one’s
1. Self-Serving Attributions performance to create the desired
- Tendency to attribute impression
positive outcomes to
oneself and negative
outcomes to other
factors. Attribution Theory
- The act of attributing the cause of a
2. Unrealistic/ Illustory behavior to an event
Optimism - It has three (3) dimensions;
- Believing ourselves 1. Locus - can be internal or
immune to misfortune external
2. Stability - the reliability of the
3. False Consensus cause
- Tendency to 3. Control - asks whether the
overestimate the behavior can be controlled by
commonality of one’s the individual
opinions and one’s - Attribution can shape future behaviors
undesirable. and does not occur at all times. It only
occurs when the individual is introduced
4. False Uniqueness Event to new things
- When an individual
believes they are more Fundamental Attribution Error
unique or special The act of overestimating the
dispositional factor and
underestimate the situational
Self Presentation factors
The process by which people control how they
are perceived by others and the intentional or Intuition
unintentional process of portraying oneself to - This refers to the “gut-feeling” of an
others individual.
 - Has two (2) systems; Automatic and
Deliberate
Judgemental Overconfidence
- The tendency to be Territoriality Infringements
overconfident at our 1. Invasion
judgements; Implies - An outsider physically enters
continuation bias someone else’s territory, usually
with the intention of taking it
Self-Fulfilling Beliefs from its current owner
- One’s belief that one can (Colonization)
influence behavior causing the
belief to become try 2. Violation
- a temporary infringement of
someone’s territory. Usually, the
Territoriality goal is not ownership but
- Refers to the natural tendency of annoyance or harm.
individuals and groups to establish and
defend certain areas or spaces as their 3. Contamination
own - The infringer fouls someone
else’s territory by putting
- Territoriality involves psychological something awful in the territory
ownership, which helps fulfill three
human needs: Territoriality Defenses
1. For efficacy 1. Prevention Defense
2. For self-identity - One anticipates infringement
3. For place identity and acts to stop it before it
occurs
Type of Territoriality
1. Primary Territoriality 2. Reaction Defense
- Spaces owned by individuals or - Are responses to an
primary groups, controlled on a infringement after it happens
relatively permanent basis by
them and central to their daily 3. Social Boundary Defense
lives. - Social boundary defense
consists of a ritual engaged in
2. Secondary Territoriality by hosts and visitors.
- Less important but possess (Passwords)
moderate significance to their
occupants
Crowding
3. Public Territory A concept related to how the presence of others
- Areas open to anyone in good in a particular environment can affect an
standing with the community individual's behavior and experiences.

4. The physical self may be considered

as a body territory
Personal Space and Privacy
5. Two other types of territories exist;
Objects and Ideas Personal Space
 - Refers to the physical and psychological - We remember things that match our
area around an individual that they current beliefs better than those that
consider their "personal territory" or don't align with our belief
"bubble."

Privacy
- It is the ability to control and limit the Schemas are development through;
access that other individuals or groups 1. Automatic Conditions
have to one's personal information, Cognitions/thoughts that are outside of
actions, or space. our awareness, and are automatic and
unintentional.
Four Categories of Privacy
1. Information privacy concerns 2. Accommodation
about access to personal When existing schemas change on the
information basis of new information.

2. Physical privacy concerns about 3. Assimilation

access to persons and personal When existing knowledge influences
spaces new conflicting information to better fit
with our existing knowledge, thus
3. Decisional privacy concerns reducing the likelihood of schema
about governmental and other change
third-party interference with
personal gains Social Cognition and its Effects on on Mental
Health Issues
4. Proprietary concerns about the
appropriation and ownership of 1. Depression
interests in human personality - A mood disorder characterized
by persistent feelings of
Three Significant Concepts sadness and hopelessness
1. Confidentiality
2. Security How Social Cognition Affects
3. Anonymity Depression: People with depression
may exhibit negative biases in social
Social Cognition cognition,
- The mental processes involved in
perceiving, interpreting, and responding 2. Loneliness
to social information, such as the - A subjective feeling of isolation
thoughts, emotions, and intentions of and a lack of meaningful social
others. connections

Confirmation Bias How Social Cognition Affects

- The tendency for people to seek out and Loneliness: Social cognition can
favor information that confirms their influence how individuals perceive social
expectations and beliefs interactions and relationships. They may
struggle interpreting social cues.
Reconstructive Memory Bias
3. Psychosis
 - Refers to a severe mental state It has the potential to affect how individuals are
characterized by a treated and limit opportunities based on
disconnection from reality, often preconceived notions rather than merit.
involving hallucinations,
delusions, and impaired
thinking.

How Social Cognition Affects Psychosis:

Social cognition plays a role in how individuals Common Forms of Prejudice
perceive and interpret social situations. People Racial Prejudice
experiencing psychosis may misinterpret social - Prejudice against or hostility toward
cues or believe that others are conspiring people of another race or color of an
against them. alien culture

4. Social Anxiety Gender Prejudice

- A persistent fear of one or more - A form of prejudice and discrimination
social situations where based on stereotypical beliefs about sex
embarrassment may occur and or gender
the fear or anxiety is out of
proportion Prejudice in Religion
- Prejudice in religion involves forming
How Social Anxiety Affects Social Anxiety judgments or holding preconceived
:Those with social anxiety may have a cognitive opinions about individuals or groups
bias that leads them to overestimate the based on their religious beliefs.
likelihood of negative social outcomes.
Political Prejudice
- This involves making assumptions,
forming stereotypes, or passing
Prejudice judgments solely because of someone's
- A preconceived negative judgment of a political views.
group and its individual members
Social Aggression and Anxiety
Stereotype
- A belief about the personal attributes of Social Aggression
a group of people A type of aggressive behavior that is directed at
other people. It can take many
Discrimination forms, including verbal abuse, bullying, physical
- Unjustified negative behavior toward a violence, and spreading rumors
group or its members
Theories on Aggression
Emotional Sources of Prejudice
Prejudice often stems from emotions like fear, Social Learning Theory
insecurity, or ignorance. People may harbor This theory posits that individuals learn
biases when they feel threatened, uncertain, or aggressive behaviors by observing and imitating
lack understanding about others who seem those around them
different from them Social Information Processing Theory
This theory focuses on how people process
Power of Prejudice social cues and interpret the intentions of others.
In the context of social aggression, individuals
may perceive ambiguous actions or statements situations to desensitize them to their
as hostile, leading to aggressive responses. anxiety triggers

Evolutionary Psychology C. Comorbidity: Social anxiety often co-

Social aggression may have evolved as a occurs with other mental health
strategy for competition within social groups. conditions like depression and
This perspective suggests that individuals generalized anxiety disorder
engage in relational aggression to gain social
advantage or protect their status within a group Gender DIfferences in Aggression and
Anxiety
Biological Theories
This perspective focuses on the role of genetics Gender and Social Aggression
and brain chemistry in aggression. Research suggests that females tend to engage
in more relational aggression, while males may
Psychological Theories display more physical aggression. These
Focuses on the role of factors such as learning, differences can be influenced by societal
personality, and frustration in aggression. For expectations and socialization
example, people who are exposed to violence in
their childhood or who have antisocial Gender and Social Anxiety
personality disorder are more likely to be Social anxiety is more prevalent in females than
aggressive males. This gender difference may be related to
societal pressures and expectations, as women
Social Theories often face greater scrutiny in social contexts.
This view focuses on the role of factors such as
poverty, inequality, and discrimination in
aggression. For example, people who live in Prosocial Behavior
poverty or who are discriminated against are Defined as any act performed with the goal of
more likely to be aggressive benefiting another person.

Altruism – Helping others purely out of

Social Anxiety the desire to benefit someone else, with
Social anxiety is a mental health condition no benefit to oneself
characterized by a fear of social situations; It
can manifest as excessive self-consciousness, Evolutionary Psychology and Prosocial
fear of judgment, and avoidance of social Behavior
interactions.
Evolutionary theory explains prosocial behavior
Concepts associated with Social Anxiety in different ways.

A. Cognitive Distortions: Individuals with A. Kin selection: The idea that behaviors
social anxiety may engage in cognitive that help a genetic relative are favored
distortions, such as catastrophizing by natural selection.
(assuming the worst will happen) or
mind-reading (believing others are
judging them negatively).
B. Exposure Therapy: A common B. Norm of reciprocity: The expectation
treatment for social anxiety is exposure that helping others will increase the
therapy, which involves gradually likelihood that they will help us in the
exposing individuals to feared social future.
 people.When it comes to actual behavior, it is
C. Group selection: Social groups with true that religious people are more likely to help
altruistic members are more likely to than other people are if the person in need of
survive in competition with other groups. help shares their beliefs, but religious people are
not more likely to help strangers (In-group
Social Exchange Theory: The Costs and Favoritism)
Rewards of Helping
Social exchange theory argues that prosocial Effects of Mood on Prosocial Behavior
behavior is not necessarily rooted in our genes. People are more likely to help if they are in an
Instead, people help others in order to maximize especially good mood. Being in good mood
social rewards and minimize social cost. increase helping for 3 reasons;
1. Good moods make us look on the bright
Empathy and Altruism: The Pure Motive for side of life.
Helping
According to the empathy-altruism hypothesis, 2. Helping is an excellent way of
when people feel empathy toward another prolonging a good mood.
person they attempt to help that person purely
for altruistic reasons 3. Good mood increases the amount of
attention to ourselves, and this factor in
Gender Differences and Prosocial Behavior turn makes us more likely to behave
In many cultures, the male sex role includes according to our values and ideals.
helping in chivalrous and heroic ways, whereas
the female sex role includes helping in close, Sadness - this can also lead to an increase in
long-term relationships. helping, because when people are sad, they are
motivated to engage in activities that make them
Cultural Differences and Prosocial Behavior feel better.
People are willing to help both in-group and
out-group but for different reasons. Guilt - when people have done something that
has made them feel guilty, helping another
In-group - the group which an individual person balances things out, reducing their guilty
identifies as a member feelings.

People are more likely to feel empathy Situational Determinants of Prosocial

toward members of their in-groups who Behavior
are in need, and the more empathy they
feel, the more likely they are to help. A. Environment: Rural versus Urban
People are less likely to help in dense,
Out-group - any group which an urban setting
individual does not identify
Urban Overload Hypothesis
People engage in such acts from out- The idea that people living in
groups members when they have cities are less likely to help while
something to gain, such as feeling people in small towns are more
good about themselves or making a likely to help.
good impression on others.
Religion and Prosocial Behavior B. Residential Mobility
There is a pervasive stereotype that religious People who have lived for a long time in
people are more moral and engage in more one place are more likely to engage in
prosocial behavior than nonreligious
 prosocial behaviors than are people who exposed to them occurs; Internal, personal
have recently moved to an area. characteristics are invisible

Bystander Effect and Prosocial Behavior - Produces proximity or propinquity effect

The larger the number of bystanders, the less due to mere exposure effect.
likely any one of them is to help - It occurs only when the initial impression
was fairly neutral
To help in an emergency, people must meet
five conditions: 3. Physiological Arousal and Misattribution
1. They must notice the event A. Excitation transfer effect - where one
2. Interpret it as an emergency misattribute physiological reactions to
3. Assume responsibility environmental stimuli as attraction
4. Know how to help
5. Implement their decision to help. What Makes us Physically Attractive
1. Bilateral symmetry
Media and Prosocial Behavior 2. Average faces
The role of media can help in: 3. Waist-to-hips and waist-to-shoulder
- Increasing people’s empathy toward ratios
someone in need.
- Increase the accessibility of thoughts
about helping others. Conflict and Peace

Increasing Helping Behavior Conflict: A perceived incompatibility of actions

1. Increasing the Likelihood That or goals.
Bystanders Will Intervene
2. Increasing Volunteerism Peace: A condition marked by low levels of
3. Positive Psychology and Prosocial hostility and aggression and by mutually
Behavior beneficial relationships.

Attraction and Intimacy Causes of Conflict

Causes of Attraction 1.Social Dilemmas

1. Similarity - Validates our worldview; It It typically arises from various parties pursue
sets Advantage of differences between their self-interests, often (ironically) to their
two people in a relationship collective detriment

A. Similarity-attraction *Social Trap: A situation in which the conflicting

hypothesis; observable both in parties, by each rationally pursuing its self-interest,
friendships become caught in mutually destructive behavior.
and romantic relationships
*Tragedy of the Commons a metaphor for a social
B. Assortative mating within
dilemma where people overuse a shared resource
romantic relationships and destroy its value
C. Similarity in demographic
variables A. Fundamental Attribution Error
B. Evolving Motives: Second, motives
often change. At first, people are eager
2. Mere Exposure and Proximity - where to make some easy money, then to
liking things and people more as you get
 minimize their losses, and finally to save
face and avoid defeat

C. Outcome need not sum zero: Games

in which outcomes need not sum to
zero. With cooperation, both can win;
with competition, both can lose

Resolving Social Dilemmas

● Regulation - laws, rules and regulations
● Small Groups - Lessen tendency of
dilemmas as each person feels more
responsible and effective
● Communication – enables cooperation.
Discussing the dilemma forges a group
identity
● Changing the Payoffs
● Appealing to Altruistic Norms

2. Competition
Hostilities often arise when groups compete for
scarce jobs, housing, or resources. When
interests clash, conflict erupts.

3. Perceived Injustice
Refers to lack of fairness in a situation (Equality,
Equity, social power etc.)

Misperception
Misperceptions of the other’s motives and goals
primarily affect conflict.

Mirror-Image Perception: Reciprocal

views of each other often held by parties
in conflict; for example, each may view
itself as moral and peace-loving and the
other as evil and aggressive.

Ways to achieve and maintain Peace

1. Contact: contact between those of
different groups predicts tolerance

2. Cooperation Common external threats

build cohesiveness; (Superordinate
Goal: A shared goal that necessitates
cooperative effort)

3. Communication
4. Conciliation