Thermodynamics Lectures 2nd Year

6.Steam Power Cycles

The heat engines are cyclic devices and that the working fluid of a heat
engine returns to its initial state at the end of each cycle. Work is done by the working
fluid during one part of the cycle and on the working fluid during another part. The
difference between these two is the net work delivered by the heat engine. The
efficiency of a heat-engine cycle greatly depends on how the individual processes that
make up the cycle are executed. The net work, thus the cycle efficiency, can be
maximized by using processes that require the least amount of work and deliver the
most that is, by using reversible processes.
Reversible cycles cannot be achieved in practice because the irreversibilities
associated with each process cannot be eliminated. However, reversible cycles
provide upper limits on the performance of real cycles. Heat engines and refrigerators
that work on reversible cycles serve as models to which actual heat engines and
refrigerators can be compared. Reversible cycles also serve as starting points in the
development of actual cycles and are modified as needed to meet certain
requirements.

Rankine Cycle
Many of the impracticalities associated with the Carnot cycle can be
eliminated by superheating the steam in the boiler and condensing it completely in the
condenser, as shown schematically on a T-s diagram in Figure below. The cycle that
results is the Rankine cycle, which is the ideal cycle for vapor power plants. The
ideal Rankine cycle does not involve any internal irreversibilities and consists of the
following four processes:
Isentropic compression in a pump, Process (1-2): Water enters the pump at state 1
as saturated liquid and is compressed isentropically to the operating pressure of the
boiler. The water temperature increases somewhat during this isentropic compression
process.

Constant pressure heat addition in a boiler, Process (2-3): Water enters the boiler
as a compressed liquid at state 2 and leaves as a superheated vapor at state 3. The
boiler is basically a large heat exchanger where the heat originating from heat source
is transferred to the water at constant pressure. The boiler, together with the section
where the steam is superheated (the superheater), is often called the steam generator.

Isentropic expansion in a turbine, Process (3-4): The superheated vapor at state 3

enters the turbine, where it expands isentropically and produces work by rotating the
connected shaft. The pressure and the temperature of steam drop during this process
to the values at state 4, where steam enters the condenser. At this state, steam is
usually a saturated liquid–vapor mixture with a high quality.

(41/121)
Thermodynamics Lectures 2nd Year

Constant pressure heat rejection in a condenser, Process (4-1): State 4, steam is

condensed at constant pressure in the condenser, by rejecting heat to a cooling
medium. Steam leaves the condenser as saturated liquid state 1 and enters the pump,
to completing the cycle.

Simple Ideal Rankine Cycle

The area under the process curve on a T-s diagram represents the heat
transfer for internally reversible processes, it can be seen that the area under process
curve 2-3 represents the heat transferred to the water in the boiler and the area under
the process curve 4-1 represents the heat rejected in the condenser. The difference
between these two (the area enclosed by the cycle curve) is the net work produced
during the cycle.

Energy Analysis of the Cycle

All four components associated with the Rankine cycle (pump, boiler,
turbine, and condenser) are steady-flow devices, and thus all four processes that make
up the Rankine cycle can be analyzed as steady-flow processes. The kinetic and
potential energy changes of the steam are usually small relative to the work and heat
transfer terms and are therefore usually neglected. Then the steady-flow energy
equation per unit mass of steam can be expressed as follows:

(𝑄𝑖𝑛 − 𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 ) + �𝑊𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝 − 𝑊𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒 � = ℎ𝑒 − ℎ𝑖

• For pump: 𝑄 = 0 & 𝑊𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝 = ℎ2 − ℎ1 𝑘𝑗/𝑘𝑔

Or 𝑊𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝 = 𝑣(𝑃2 − 𝑃1 ) 𝑘𝑗/𝑘𝑔

Where h 1 =h f
R R R R at v=v 1 =v f
R R R R at P= P 1
R

• For boiler: 𝑊=0 & 𝑄𝑖𝑛 = ℎ3 − ℎ2

(42/121)
Thermodynamics Lectures 2nd Year

• For turbine: 𝑄=0 & 𝑊𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒 = ℎ3 − ℎ4

• For condenser: 𝑊=0 & 𝑄𝑖𝑛 = ℎ4 − ℎ1

𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑊𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒 − 𝑊𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝 = 𝑄𝑖𝑛 − 𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡

𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝜂𝑡ℎ = =1−
𝑄𝑖𝑛 𝑄𝑖𝑛

Example (6.1) A steam power plant operates on a simple ideal Rankine cycle between
the pressure limits of 3 MPa and 50 kPa. The temperature of the steam at the turbine
inlet is 300°C, and the mass flow rate of steam through the cycle is 35 kg/s. Show the
cycle on a T-s diagram with respect to saturation lines, and determines (a) the
thermal efficiency of the cycle and (b) the net power output of the power plant.

Solution:

ℎ1 = ℎ𝑓 = 340.54 𝑘𝑗/𝑘𝑔 𝑎𝑡 𝑃 = 50 𝑘𝑝𝑎

𝑣1 = 𝑣𝑓 = 0.00103 𝑚3 /𝑘𝑔 𝑎𝑡 𝑃 = 50 𝑘𝑝𝑎

𝑊𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝 = 𝑣(𝑃2 − 𝑃1 ) = 0.00103 × (3000 − 50) × 1000 = 3.04 𝑘𝑗/𝑘𝑔

𝑊𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝 = ℎ2 − ℎ1 → ℎ2 = ℎ1 + 𝑊𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝 = 340.54 + 3.04 𝑘𝑗/𝑘𝑔

𝑘𝑗 𝑘𝑗
At 𝑃3 = 3 𝑀𝑝𝑎 & 𝑇3 = 300 °𝐶 → ℎ3 = 2994.3 𝑘𝑔
& 𝑠3 = 6.5412 𝑘𝑔.𝐾

𝑆4 −𝑆𝑓 6.5412−1.0912
At 𝑃4 = 50 𝑘𝑝𝑎 & 𝑠4 = 𝑠3 → 𝑋4 = = = 0.8382
𝑆𝑓𝑔 6.5019

ℎ4 = ℎ𝑓 + 𝑋4 ℎ𝑓𝑔 = 340.54 + 0.8382 × 2304.7 = 2272 𝑘𝑗/𝑘𝑔

𝑄𝑖𝑛 = ℎ3 − ℎ2 = 2994.3 − 343.58 = 2650.6 𝑘𝑗/𝑘𝑔

𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 = ℎ4 − ℎ1 = 2272.3 − 340.54 = 1931.8 𝑘𝑗/𝑘𝑔

𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑄𝑖𝑛 − 𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 2650.6 − 1931.8 = 718.9 𝑘𝑗/𝑘𝑔

𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 1931.8
𝜂𝑡ℎ = 1 − =1− = 27.1 %
𝑄𝑖𝑛 2650.7

𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝑚° × 𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 35 × 718.9 = 25.2 𝑀𝑊

(43/121)
Thermodynamics Lectures 2nd Year

Actual Rankine Cycle

The actual cycle differs from the ideal Rankine cycle, as a result of
irreversibilities in various components. Fluid friction and heat loss to the surroundings
are the main sources of irreversibilities.
Fluid friction causes pressure drops in the boiler, the condenser, and the
piping between various
components. As a result, steam
leaves the boiler at a somewhat
lower pressure. Also, the pressure
at the turbine inlet is somewhat
lower than that at the boiler exit
due to the pressure drop in the
connecting pipes. The pressure
drop in the condenser is usually
very small. To compensate for
these pressure drops, the water
must be pumped to a higher
pressure than the ideal cycle calls
for. This requires a larger pump
and larger work input to the pump.
The other major source of irreversibility is the heat loss from the steam to
the surroundings as the steam flows through various components. To maintain the
same level of net work output, more heat needs to be transferred to the steam in the
boiler to compensate for these undesired heat losses. As a result, cycle efficiency
decreases.

(44/121)
Thermodynamics Lectures 2nd Year

Of particular importance are the

irreversibilities occurring within the pump
and the turbine. A pump requires a greater
work input, and a turbine produces a
smaller work output as a result of
irreversibilities. Under ideal conditions, the
flow through these devices is isentropic.
The deviation of actual pumps and turbines
from the isentropic ones can be accounted
for by utilizing isentropic efficiencies,
defined as

𝑊𝑝𝑠 ℎ2𝑠 −ℎ1

𝜂𝑝 = = For compressor
𝑊𝑝𝑎 ℎ2𝑎 −ℎ1

𝑊𝑇𝑎 ℎ3 −ℎ4𝑎
𝜂𝑇 = = For turbine
𝑊𝑇𝑠 ℎ3 −ℎ4𝑠

Where states 2a and 4a are the actual exit states of the pump and the turbine,
respectively, and 2s and 4s are the corresponding states for the isentropic case.

Example (6.2) A steam power plant operates on the cycle shown in the figure below.
If the isentropic efficiency of the turbine is 87 % and the isentropic efficiency of the
pump is 85 %, determine (a) the thermal efficiency of the cycle and (b) the net power
output of the plant for a mass flow rate of 15 kg/s.

Solution:
The thermal efficiency of a cycle is the ratio of the net work output to the heat input.

𝑊𝑝𝑠 𝑣1 (𝑃2 − 𝑃1 ) 𝑣1 (𝑃2 − 𝑃1 )

𝜂𝑝 = = → 𝑊𝑝𝑎 =
𝑊𝑝𝑎 𝑊𝑝𝑎 𝜂𝑝

(45/121)
Thermodynamics Lectures 2nd Year

(0.001009)(16 × 106 − 9 × 103 )

𝑊𝑝𝑎 = = 18.98 𝑘𝑗/𝑘𝑔
0.85
𝑊𝑇𝑎
𝜂𝑇 = → 𝑊𝑇𝑎 = 𝜂 𝑇 × 𝑊𝑇𝑠 = 𝜂 𝑇 × (ℎ5 − ℎ6𝑠 )
𝑊𝑇𝑠

𝑊𝑇𝑎 = 0.87 × (3583.1 − 2115.3) = 1277 𝑘𝑗/𝑘𝑔

Heat input to the boiler is:

𝑄𝑎𝑑𝑑 = (ℎ4 − ℎ3 ) = (3647.6 − 160.1) = 3487.5 𝑘𝑗/𝑘𝑔

Net work output is:

𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑊𝑇𝑎 − 𝑊𝑝𝑎 = 1277 − 18.98 = 1258.02 𝑘𝑗/𝑘𝑔

𝑊 1258.02
𝜂𝑡ℎ = 𝑄 𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 3487.5
= 36.1 %
𝑎𝑑𝑑

The power output from the plant is:

𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝑚° × 𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 15 × 1258.02 = 18.9 𝑀𝑊

Improving the Rankine Cycle Efficiency

Steam power plants are responsible for the production of most electric power
in the world, and even small increases in thermal efficiency can mean large savings
from the fuel requirements.
The basic idea behind all the modifications to increase the thermal efficiency
of a power cycle is the same: Increase the average temperature at which heat is
transferred to the working fluid in the boiler, or decrease the average
temperature at which heat is rejected from the working fluid in the condenser.
Three ways can be illustrated to accomplish the subject:

1. Lowering the Condenser Pressure:

Lowering the operating pressure of the

condenser automatically lowers the temperature
of the steam, and thus the temperature at which
heat is rejected. The effect of lowering the
condenser pressure on the Rankine cycle
efficiency is illustrated on a T-S diagram in this
figure. For comparison purposes, the turbine
inlet state is maintained the same. The shaded
area on this diagram represents the increase in
net work output as a result of lowering the
condenser pressure from P 4 to P 4 -
R R R RP

(46/121)
Thermodynamics Lectures 2nd Year

2. Superheating the Seam at High Temperature

The average temperature at which heat

is transferred to steam can be increased without
increasing the boiler pressure by superheating
the steam to high temperatures. The effect of
superheating on the performance of vapor power
cycles is illustrated on a T-S diagram in this
figure. The shaded area on this diagram
represents the increase in the net work. The total
area under the process curve 3-3- represents the
P P

increase in the heat input. Thus both the net

work and heat input increase as a result of
superheating the steam to a higher temperature.
The overall effect is an increase in thermal
efficiency, however, since the average temperature at which heat is added increases.

3. Increasing The Boiler Pressure

Another way of increasing the average temperature during the heat-

addition process is to increase the operating pressure of the boiler, which
automatically raises the temperature at which boiling takes place. This, in turn,
raises the average temperature at which heat is transferred to the steam and thus
raises the thermal efficiency of the cycle.
The effect of increasing the boiler pressure on the performance of vapor
power cycles is illustrated on a T-s diagram in this figure. Notice that for a fixed
turbine inlet temperature, the cycle shifts to the left and the moisture content of
steam at the turbine exit increases. This undesirable side effect can be corrected.

(47/121)
Thermodynamics Lectures 2nd Year

Example (6.3) Consider a steam power plant operating on the ideal Rankine cycle.
Steam enters the turbine at 3 MPa and 350°C and is condensed in the condenser at a
pressure of 10 kPa. Determine (a) the thermal efficiency of this power plant, (b) the
thermal efficiency if steam is superheated to 600°C instead of 350°C, and (c) the
thermal efficiency if the boiler pressure is raised to 15 MPa while the turbine inlet
temperature is maintained at 600°C.

Solution:

a) From steam tables

State 1: P 1 =10 kpa h 1 =191.81 kJ/kg= h f

R R R R R R at 10 kpa

v 1 =0.00101 m3/kg=v f at 10 kpa

R R P P R R

State 2 : P 2 =3 Mpa & s 1 =s 2

R R R R R

W pump =v 1 (P 2 -P 1 )=(0.00101)(3000-10)x103=3.02 kJ/kg

R R R R R R R R P P

W pump =h 2 -h 1
R R R R R R then h 2 =191.81+3.02=194.83 kJ/kg
R R

State 3: P 3 =3 Mpa & T 3 =350 oC thus, h 3 =3116.1 kJ/kg & s 3 =6.745 kJ/kg.K
R R R R P P R R R R

State 4: P 4 =10 kpa & s 4 =s 3

R R R R R R

𝑠4 −𝑠𝑓 6.745−0.6492
𝑋4 = = = 0.8128
𝑠𝑓𝑔 7.4996

ℎ4 = ℎ𝑓 + 𝑋4 ℎ𝑓𝑔 = 191.81 + 0.8128 × 2392.1 = 2136.1 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔

𝑄𝑖𝑛 = ℎ3 − ℎ2 = 3116.1 − 194.83 = 2921.3 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔

𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 = ℎ4 − ℎ1 = 2136.1 − 191.81 = 1944.3 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔

𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 1944.3
𝜂𝑡ℎ = 1 − = 1− = 33.4 %
𝑄𝑖𝑛 2921.3

(48/121)
Thermodynamics Lectures 2nd Year

It means that, the thermal efficiency increases from 26.0 to 33.4 % as a

result of lowering the condenser pressure from 75 to 10 kPa. At the same time,
however, the quality of the steam (dryness fraction) decreases from 0.886 to 0.813.

b) States 1 and 2 remain the same in this case, and the enthalpies at state 3 (3 MPa
and 600°C) and state 4 (10 kPa and s 4 = s 3 ) are determined to be:
R R R R

h 3 = 3682.8 kJ/kg
R R

h 4 = 2380.3 kJ/kg
R R (X 4 = 0.915)
R R

𝑄𝑖𝑛 = ℎ3 − ℎ2 = 3682.8 − 194.83 = 3488.0 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔

𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 = ℎ4 − ℎ1 = 2380.3 − 191.81 = 2188.5 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔

𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 2188.5
𝜂𝑡ℎ = 1 − = 1− = 37.3 %
𝑄𝑖𝑛 3488.0

Therefore, the thermal efficiency increases from 33.4 to 37.3 % as a result of

superheating the steam from 350 to 600°C. At the same time, the quality of the steam
(dryness fraction) increases from 0.813 to 0.915.

c) State 1 remains the same in this case, but the other states change. The enthalpies at
state 2 (15 MPa and s 2 =s 1 ), state 3 (15 MPa and 600°C), and state 4 (10 kPa and
R R R R

s 4 =s 3 ) are determined in a similar manner to be:

R R R R

h 2 =206.95 kJ/kg & h 3 =3583.1 kJ/kg & h 4 =2115.3 kJ/kg X 4 =0.804

R R R R R R R R

𝑄𝑖𝑛 = ℎ3 − ℎ2 = 3583.1 − 206.95 = 3376.2 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔

𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 = ℎ4 − ℎ1 = 2115.3 − 191.81 = 1923.5 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔

𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 1923.5
𝜂𝑡ℎ = 1 − = 1− = 43 %
𝑄𝑖𝑛 3376.2

The Reheat Rankine Cycle

Increasing the boiler pressure increases the thermal efficiency of the

Rankine cycle, but it also increases the moisture content of the steam to unacceptable
levels. Therefore, the desirable approach is expanding the steam in the turbine in two
stages, and reheats it in between. In other words, modify the simple ideal Rankine
cycle with a reheat process. Reheating is a practical solution to the excessive
moisture problem in turbines, and it is commonly used in modern steam power plants.

The figure below explain T-s diagram of the ideal reheat Rankine cycle and
the schematic of the power plant operating on this cycle. The ideal reheat Rankine
cycle differs from the simple ideal Rankine cycle in that the expansion process takes

(49/121)
Thermodynamics Lectures 2nd Year

place in two stages. In the first stage (the high pressure turbine), steam is expanded
isentropically to an intermediate pressure and sent back to the boiler where it is
reheated at constant pressure, usually to the inlet temperature of the first turbine stage.
Steam then expands isentropically in the second stage (low-pressure turbine) to the
condenser pressure. Thus the total heat input and the total turbine work output for a
reheat cycle become:

𝑄𝑎𝑑𝑑 = 𝑄𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦 + 𝑄𝑟𝑒ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 = (ℎ3 − ℎ2 ) + (ℎ5 − ℎ4 )

𝑊𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑊𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛І + 𝑊𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛ІІ = (ℎ3 − ℎ4 ) + (ℎ5 − ℎ6 )

The incorporation of the single reheat in a modern power plant improves the
cycle efficiency by 4 to 5 percent by increasing the average temperature at which heat
is transferred to the steam.

The reheat temperatures are very close or equal to the turbine inlet
temperature. The optimum reheat pressure is about one-fourth of the maximum cycle
pressure. For example, the optimum reheat pressure for a cycle with a boiler pressure
of 12 MPa is about 3 MPa.

Example (6.4): Consider a steam power plant operating on the ideal reheat Rankine
cycle. Steam enters the high-pressure turbine at 15 MPa and 600°C and is condensed
in the condenser at a pressure of 10 kPa. If the moisture content of the steam at the
exit of the low-pressure turbine is not to exceed 10.4 %u, determine (a) the pressure
at which the steam should be reheated and (b) the thermal efficiency of the cycle.
Assume the steam is reheated to the inlet temperature of the high-pressure turbine.

Solution:

a) State 6: P 6 =10 kpa & X 6 =0.896

R R R R

S 6 =S f +X 6 S fg =0.6492+0.896(7.34996)=7.3688 kJ/kg.K
R R R R R R R R

(50/121)
Thermodynamics Lectures 2nd Year

h 6 =h f +X 6 h fg =191.8+0.896(2392.1)=2335.1 kJ/kg
R R R R R R R R

Thus, T 5 =600 oC & S 5 =S 6

R R P P R R R

And, P 5 =4.0 Mpa & h 5 =3674.9 kJ/kg

R R R R

From that steam should be reheated at a pressure of 4 Mpa to prevent a moisture

content greater than 10.4 %.

b) The thermal efficiency calculated as follows:

State 1: P 1 =10 kpa R R

h 1 =h f @ 10 kpa=191.81 kJ/kg
R R R R & v 1 =v f @ 10 kpa=0.00101 m3/kg
R R R R P P

State 2: P 2 =15 Mpa & S 2 =S 1 R R R R R R

𝑊𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝 = 𝑣1 (𝑃2 − 𝑃1 ) = 0.00101 × (15 × 106 − 10 × 103 ) = 15.14 𝑘𝐽⁄𝑘𝑔

𝑊𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝 = ℎ2 − ℎ1 → ℎ2 = 191,81 + 15.14 = 206.96 𝑘𝐽⁄𝑘𝑔

State 3: P 3 =15 Mpa & T 3 =600 oC R R R R P P

From steam tables h 3 =3583.1 kJ/kg & S 3 =6.6796 kJ/kg.K R R R R

State 4: P 4 =4 Mpa & S 3 =S 4 R R R R R R

From steam tables h 4 =3155.0 kJ/kg & T 4 =375.5 oC R R R R P P

𝑄𝑖𝑛 = (ℎ3 − ℎ2 ) + (ℎ5 − ℎ4 )

𝑄𝑖𝑛 = (3583.1 − 206.95) + (3674.9 − 3155.0) = 3896.1 𝑘𝐽⁄𝑘𝑔

𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 = ℎ6 − ℎ1 = 2335.1 − 191.8 = 2143.3 𝑘𝐽⁄𝑘𝑔

𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 2143.3
𝜂𝑡ℎ = 1 − = 1 − 3896.1 = 45 %
𝑄𝑖𝑛

(51/121)
Thermodynamics Lectures 2nd Year

The Regenerative Rankine Cycle

A practical regeneration process in steam power plants is accomplished by

extracting, or “bleeding,” steam from the turbine at various points. This steam, which
could have produced more work by expanding further in the turbine, is used to heat
the feedwater instead. The device where the feedwater is heated by regeneration is
called a regenerator, or a feedwater heater (FWH).

Regeneration not only improves cycle efficiency, but also provides a

convenient means of deaerating the feedwater (removing the air that leaks in at the
condenser) to prevent corrosion in the boiler. It also helps control the large volume
flow rate of the steam at the final stages of the turbine (due to the large specific
volumes at low pressures). Therefore, regeneration has been used in all modern steam
power plants since its introduction in the early 1920s.

A feedwater heater is basically a heat exchanger where heat is transferred

from the steam to the feedwater either by mixing the two fluid streams (open
feedwater heaters) or without mixing them (closed feedwater heaters). Regeneration
with both types of feedwater heaters is discussed below.

1. Open Feedwater Heaters: It is an open (or direct-contact) feedwater heater

is basically a mixing chamber, where the steam extracted from the turbine mixes with
the feedwater exiting the pump. Ideally, the mixture leaves the heater as a saturated
liquid at the heater pressure. The schematic of a steam power plant with one open
feedwater heater (also called single-stage regenerative cycle) and the T-s diagram of
the cycle are shown in figure below.

In an ideal regenerative Rankine cycle, steam enters the turbine at the boiler
pressure (state 5) and expands isentropically to an intermediate pressure (state 6).
Some steam is extracted at this state and routed to the feedwater heater, while the
remaining steam continues to expand isentropically to the condenser pressure (state
7). This steam leaves the condenser as a saturated liquid at the condenser pressure
(52/121)
Thermodynamics Lectures 2nd Year

(state 1). The condensed water, which is also called the feedwater, then enters an
isentropic pump, where it is compressed to the feedwater heater pressure (state 2) and
is routed to the feedwater heater, where it mixes with the steam extracted from the
turbine. The fraction of the steam extracted is such that the mixture leaves the heater
as a saturated liquid at the heater pressure (state 3). A second pump raises the pressure
of the water to the boiler pressure (state 4). The cycle is completed by heating the
water in the boiler to the turbine inlet state (state 5).

In the analysis of steam power plants, it is more convenient to work with

quantities expressed per unit mass of the steam flowing through the boiler. For each 1
kg of steam leaving the boiler, (y) kg expands partially in the turbine and is extracted
at state 6. The remaining (1-y) kg expands completely to the condenser pressure.
Therefore, the mass flow rates are different in different components. If the mass flow
rate through the boiler is mo , for example, it is (1 − 𝑦) × 𝑚𝑜 through the condenser.
P P

This aspect of the regenerative Rankine cycle should be considered in the analysis of
the cycle as well as in the interpretation of the areas on the T-s diagram. The heat and
work interactions of a regenerative Rankine cycle with one feedwater heater can be
expressed per unit mass of steam flowing through the boiler as follows:

𝑄𝑎𝑑𝑑 = ℎ5 − ℎ4

𝑄𝑟𝑒𝑗 = (1 − 𝑦) × (ℎ7 − ℎ1 )

𝑊𝑡𝑢𝑟,𝑜𝑢𝑡 = (ℎ5 − ℎ6 ) + (1 − 𝑦) × (ℎ6 − ℎ7 )

𝑊𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝,𝑖𝑛 = (1 − 𝑦) × 𝑊𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝,Ι + 𝑊𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝,ΙΙ

𝑦 = 𝑚6𝑜 ⁄𝑚5𝑜

𝑊𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝,Ι = 𝑣1 (𝑃2 − 𝑃1 )

𝑊𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝,ΙΙ = 𝑣3 (𝑃4 − 𝑃3 )

The thermal efficiency of the Rankine cycle increases as a result of

regeneration. The cycle efficiency increases further as the number of feedwater
heaters is increased. The optimum number of feedwater heaters is determined from
economic considerations.

Example (6.5) Consider a steam power plant operating on the ideal regenerative
Rankine cycle with one open feedwater heater. Steam enters the turbine at 15 MPa
and 600°C and is condensed in the condenser at a pressure of 10 kPa. Some steam
leaves the turbine at a pressure of 1.2 MPa and enters the open feedwater heater.
Determine the fraction of steam extracted from the turbine and the thermal efficiency
of the cycle.
(53/121)
Thermodynamics Lectures 2nd Year

Solution:

State 1: P 1 =10 kPa & saturated liquid

R R R

Thus, h 1 =h f at 10 kPa=191.81 kJ/kg & v 1 =v f at 10 kPa=0.00101 m3

R R R R R R R R P

State 2: P 2 =1.2 MPa S 2 =S 1

R R R R R R

𝑊𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝,Ι = 𝑣1 (𝑃2 − 𝑃1 ) = 0.00101 × (1.2 × 106 − 10 × 103 ) = 1.2 𝑘𝐽⁄𝑘𝑔

𝑊𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝,Ι = ℎ2 − ℎ1 → ℎ2 = 191.81 + 1.2 = 193.01 𝑘𝐽⁄𝑘𝑔

State 3: P 3 =1.2 Mpa & saturated liquid

R R

Thus, v 3 =v f at 1.2 Mpa=0.001138 m3/kg & h 3 =h f at 1.2 Mpa=798.33 kJ/kg

R R R R P P R R R R

State 4: P 4 =15 Mpa & S 4 =S 3

R R R R R R

Thus,
𝑊𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝,ΙΙ = 𝑣3 (𝑃4 − 𝑃3 ) = 0.001138 × (15 × 106 − 1.2 × 106 ) = 15.7 𝑘𝐽⁄𝑘𝑔

𝑊𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝,ΙΙ = ℎ4 − ℎ3 → ℎ4 = 798.33 + 15.7 = 814.03 𝑘𝐽⁄𝑘𝑔

State 5: P 5 =15 Mpa & T 5 =600 oC

R R R R P P

Thus, h 5 =3583.1 kJ/kg & S 5 =6.6796 kJ/kg.K

R R R R

State 6: P 5 =1.2 Mpa & S 6 = S 5

R R R R R

Thus, h 6 =2860.2 kJ/kg & T 6 =218.4 oC

R R R R P P

State 7: P 7 =10 kpa & S 7 = S 5

R R R R R

𝑆7 − 𝑆𝑓 6.679 − 0.6492
𝑋7 = = = 0.8041
𝑆𝑓𝑔 7.4996
ℎ7 = ℎ𝑓 + 𝑋7 ℎ𝑓𝑔 = 191.81 + 0.8041 × 2392.1 = 2115.3 𝑘𝐽⁄𝑘𝑔
The energy analysis of open feedwater heaters is identical to the energy analysis of
mixing chambers. The feedwater heaters are generally well insulated (Q=0), and they
do not involve any work interactions (W=0). The energy balance of the feedwater
heater is:
𝐸𝑖𝑛 = 𝐸𝑜𝑢𝑡 → � 𝑚𝑜 ℎ = � 𝑚𝑜 ℎ
𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑢𝑡
ℎ −ℎ 798.33−193.01
𝑦ℎ6 + (1 − 𝑦) × ℎ2 = 1 × ℎ3 → 𝑦 = ℎ3 −ℎ2 = 2860.2−193.01 = 0.227
6 2
𝑄𝑎𝑑𝑑 = ℎ5 − ℎ4 = 3583.1 − 814.03 = 2769.1 𝑘𝐽⁄𝑘𝑔
𝑄𝑟𝑒𝑗 = (1 − 𝑦)(ℎ7 − ℎ1 ) = (1 − 0.227) × (2115.3 − 191.81) = 1486.9 𝑘𝐽⁄𝑘𝑔
𝑄𝑟𝑒𝑗 1486.9
𝜂𝑡ℎ = 1 − =1− = 46.29 %
𝑄𝑎𝑑𝑑 2769.1

(54/121)
Thermodynamics Lectures 2nd Year

2. Closed Feedwater Heaters: It is another type of feedwater heater used in

steam power plants, in which heat is transferred from the extracted steam to the
feedwater without any mixing taking place. The two streams now can be at different
pressures, since they do not mix. The schematic of a steam power plant with one
closed feedwater heater and the T-s diagram of the cycle are shown in figure below. In
an ideal closed feedwater heater, the feedwater is heated to the exit temperature of the
extracted steam, which ideally leaves the heater as a saturated liquid at the extraction
pressure. In actual power plants, the feedwater leaves the heater below the exit
temperature of the extracted steam because a temperature difference of at least a few
degrees is required for any effective heat transfer to take place.

The condensed steam is then either pumped to the feedwater line or routed to
another heater or to the condenser through a device called a trap. A trap allows the
liquid to be throttled to a lower pressure region but traps the vapor. The enthalpy of
steam remains constant during this throttling process.

(55/121)
Thermodynamics Lectures 2nd Year

Example (6.6): A steam power plant operates on an ideal reheat–regenerative

Rankine cycle and has a net power output of 80 MW. Steam enters the high-pressure
turbine at 10 MPa and 550°C and leaves at 0.8 MPa. Some steam is extracted at this
pressure to heat the feedwater in a closed feedwater heater. The rest of the steam is
reheated to 500°C and is expanded in the low-pressure turbine to the condenser
pressure of 10 kPa. Show the cycle on a T-s diagram with respect to saturation lines,
and determine (a) the mass flow rate of steam through the boiler and (b) the thermal
efficiency of the cycle. Assume that the feedwater leaves the heater at the
condensation temperature of the extracted steam and that the extracted steam leaves
the heater as a saturated liquid and is pumped to the line carrying the feedwater.

Solution:

(56/121)
Thermodynamics Lectures 2nd Year

Comparison between the Open and Closed Feed Water Heater

The open and closed feedwater heaters can be compared as follows:

• Open feedwater heaters are simple and inexpensive and have good heat transfer
characteristics.
• They also bring the feedwater to the saturation state.
• For each heater, a pump is required to handle the feedwater.
• The closed feedwater heaters are more complex because of the internal tubing
network, and thus they are more expensive.
• Heat transfer in closed feedwater heaters is also less effective since the two
streams are not allowed to be in direct contact.
• Closed feedwater heaters do not require a separate pump for each heater since the
extracted steam and the feedwater can be at different pressures.

Most steam power plants use a combination of open and closed feedwater heaters, as
shown in figure below.

Example (6.7): Consider a steam power plant that operates on an ideal reheat–
regenerative Rankine cycle with one open feedwater heater, one closed feedwater
heater, and one reheater. Steam enters the turbine at 15 MPa and 600°C and is
condensed in the condenser at a pressure of 10 kPa. Some steam is extracted from the
turbine at 4 MPa for the closed feedwater heater, and the remaining steam is
(57/121)
Thermodynamics Lectures 2nd Year

reheated at the same pressure to 600°C. The extracted steam is completely condensed
in the heater and is pumped to 15 MPa before it mixes with the feedwater at the same
pressure. Steam for the open feedwater heater is extracted from the low-pressure
turbine at a pressure of 0.5 MPa. Determine the fractions of steam extracted from the
turbine as well as the thermal efficiency of the cycle.

Solution;

The fractions of steam extracted are determined from the mass and energy balances of
the feedwater heaters:

Closed feedwater heater:

𝑜 𝑜
𝐸𝑖𝑛 = 𝐸𝑜𝑢𝑡

𝑦ℎ10 + (1 − 𝑦)ℎ4 = (1 − 𝑦)ℎ5 + 𝑦ℎ6

(58/121)
Thermodynamics Lectures 2nd Year

ℎ5 −ℎ4 1087.4−643.92
𝑦 = (ℎ = (3155−1087.4)+(1087.4−643.92) = 0.1766
10 −ℎ6 )+(ℎ5 −ℎ4 )

Open feedwater heater:

𝑜 𝑜
𝐸𝑖𝑛 = 𝐸𝑜𝑢𝑡

𝑧ℎ12 + (1 − 𝑦 − 𝑧)ℎ2 = (1 − 𝑦)ℎ3

(1−𝑦)(ℎ3 −ℎ2 ) (1−0.1766)(640.09−192.3)

𝑧= (ℎ12 −ℎ2 )
= (3014.8−192.3)
= 0.1306

The enthalpy at state 8 is determined by applying the mass and energy equations to
the mixing chamber, which is assumed to be insulated:
𝑜 𝑜
𝐸𝑖𝑛 = 𝐸𝑜𝑢𝑡

1 × ℎ8 = (1 − 𝑦)ℎ5 + 𝑦ℎ7

ℎ8 = (1 − .01766)(1087.4) + 0.1766 × 1101.2

ℎ8 = 1089.8 𝑘𝐽⁄𝑘𝑔

𝑄𝑖𝑛 = (ℎ9 − ℎ8 ) + (1 − 𝑦)(ℎ11 − ℎ10 )

𝑄𝑖𝑛 = (3583.1 − 1089.8) + (1 − 0.1766)(3674.9 − 3155) = 2921.4 𝑘𝐽⁄𝑘𝑔

𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 = (1 − 𝑦 − 𝑧)(ℎ13 − ℎ1 )

𝑄𝑖𝑛 = (1 − 0.1766 − 0.1306)(2335.7 − 191.81) = 1485.3 𝑘𝐽⁄𝑘𝑔

𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 1485.3
𝜂𝑡ℎ = 1 − =1− = 49.2 %
𝑄𝑖𝑛 2921.4

Also it can be re-write;

𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑊𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏,𝑜𝑢𝑡 − 𝑊𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝,𝑖𝑛

𝜂𝑡ℎ = =
𝑄𝑖𝑛 𝑄𝑖𝑛

Where,

𝑊𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏,𝑜𝑢𝑡 = (ℎ9 − ℎ10 ) + (1 − 𝑦)(ℎ11 − ℎ12 ) + (1 − 𝑦 + 𝑧)(ℎ12 − ℎ13 )

𝑊𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝,𝑖𝑛 = (1 − 𝑦 − 𝑧)𝑊𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝,І + (1 − 𝑦)𝑊𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝,ІІ + (𝑦)𝑊𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝,ІІІ

(59/121)
Thermodynamics Lectures 2nd Year

Exercises
Problem (6.1) A steam power plant operates
on the reheat Rankine cycle. Steam enters the
high-pressure turbine at 12.5 MPa and 550°C at
a rate of 7.7 kg/s and leaves at 2 MPa. Steam is
then reheated at constant pressure to 450°C
before it expands in the low-pressure turbine.
The isentropic efficiencies of the turbine and the
pump are 85 percent and 90 percent,
respectively. Steam leaves the condenser as a
saturated liquid. If the moisture content of the
steam at the exit of the turbine is not to exceed 5
percent, determine (a) the condenser pressure,
(b) the net power output, and (c) the thermal
efficiency. [reference: Thermodynamics an
Engineering Approach, by Michael A. Boles,
prob. 10-38,p-593]

Ans. (a) 9.73 kPa, (b) 10.2 MW, (c) 36.9 percent

Problem (6.2) Consider an ideal steam regenerative Rankine cycle with two
feedwater heaters, one closed and one open. Steam enters the turbine at 12.5 MPa and
550°C and exhausts to the condenser at 10 kPa. Steam is extracted from the turbine at
0.8 MPa for the closed feedwater heater and at 0.3 MPa for the open one. The
feedwater is heated to the condensation temperature of the extracted steam in the
closed feedwater heater. The extracted steam leaves the closed feedwater heater as a
saturated liquid, which is subsequently throttled to the open feedwater heater. Show
the cycle on a T-s diagram with respect to saturation lines, and determine (a) the mass
flow rate of steam through the boiler for a net power output of 250 MW and (b) the
thermal efficiency of the cycle. [reference: Thermodynamics an Engineering
Approach, by Michael A. Boles, prob. 10-47,p-594]

Ans. (200.2 kg/s, 45.4 %)

(60/121)
Thermodynamics Lectures 2nd Year

Problem (6.3) How do the following quantities change when the simple ideal
Rankine cycle is modified with regeneration? Assume the mass flow rate through the
boiler is the same.

Turbine work output: (a) increases, (b) decreases, (c) remains the same

Heat supplied: (a) increases, (b) decreases, (c) remains the same

Heat rejected: (a) increases, (b) decreases, (c) remains the same

Moisture content at turbine exit: (a) increases, (b) decreases, (c) remains the same

[reference: Thermodynamics an Engineering Approach, by Michael A. Boles, prob.

10-39C,p-594]

Problem (6.4) A steam power plant operates on an ideal regenerative Rankine

cycle. Steam enters the turbine at 6 MPa and 450°C and is condensed in the condenser
at 20 kPa. Steam is extracted from the turbine at 0.4 MPa to heat the feedwater in an
open feedwater heater. Water leaves the feedwater heater as a saturated liquid. Show
the cycle on a T-s diagram, and determine (a) the net work output per kilogram of
steam flowing through the boiler and (b) the thermal efficiency of the cycle.
[reference: Thermodynamics an Engineering Approach, by Michael A. Boles, prob.
10-44,p-594].

Ans.: (a) 1017 kJ/kg, (b) 37.8 %

Problem (6.5) Consider a steam power plant that operates on a simple ideal
Rankine cycle and has a net power output of 45 MW. Steam enters the turbine at 7
MPa and 500°C and is cooled in the condenser at a pressure of 10 kPa by running
cooling water from a lake through the tubes of the condenser. Show the cycle on a T-s
diagram with respect to saturation lines, and determine (a) the thermal efficiency of
the cycle, and (b) the mass flow rate of the steam. [reference: Thermodynamics an
Engineering Approach, by Michael A. Boles, prob. 10-22,p-591].

Ans.: (a) 38.9 percent, (b) 36 kg/s

(61/121)