Solid state electronics

Q: what shells whose electrons participates in chemical reactions and

determines electrical properties of matter?
A: The electron which revolve in the outer shells farthest from the nucleus has
greater energy, and bound to nucleus with minimum attractive force (the
nucleus is positive charge and electrons are negative) compared to electrons in
the inner shells close to the nucleus. the outer shell is called Valence shell,
Electron in this shell is called valence electron. This means that valence
electrons are the ones that participate in chemical reactions and determine
electronic properties of matter.

Q:What are the properties of valence electrons ?

•
1) Have more energy
2) Very weakly bound with the nucleus of their atom
compared to the electrons closest to the nucleus
2) Participate in chemical reaction that determine the
electronic properties of matter .
Q / In a hydrogen atom, what is meant by the zero energy level (𝛦 = 0)?
What is the lowest amount of energy that an electron can have in this atom?
A: It is the highest energy level in an atom.
As for the lowest amount of energy that an electron can have in a hydrogen
atom, it is equal to (−13.6 𝑒𝑉), which means when the electron gains energy of
(+13.6 𝑒𝑉) it escape from the hydrogen atom ( at the ground state ) .
let it be known that this applies only to the single atom.
Conductor: is a material that allows flow of electric current through it, electric
charges move freely in conductors, Conductors have one valence electron very
weakly bound to the nucleus. These electrons are easily escape from the
nucleus and becomes free moving (free electrons). Therefore, conductors have
plenty of free electrons, specific resistance of conductor is about
10−8 − 10−5 Ω𝑚
Insulators: is a material that do not allow electric current to flow through it in
normal conditions. Valence electrons of insulators are strongly bound to the
nucleus. Specific resistance of insulators is about (1010 − 1016 Ω𝑚).

Semiconductors: is a material, that electric charges move less freely than

conductors. The specific resistance of semiconductors ranges between that of
the conductors and that of the insulators in electric conductivity, which is
around (10−5 − 108 Ω𝑚).
Q: What does the following mean:
A: Energy bands: are secondary shells that result
from the overlapping energy levels of neighboring
atoms
Conduction
Valence Band : It contains low allowed energy band
levels , partially or completely full of electrons and
cannot be empty . Its electrons are call valence Forbidden
electrons , they cannot move among neighboring energy gap
atoms because they are so close to the nucleus and
Valence
bound to the nucleus with relatively large forces .
Band
Conduction band: it contains high allowed energy
levels , higher than allowed energy levels of valence
band . Its electrons are called conduction electrons ,
these conduction electrons can move freely to
participate in electric conduction .
Forbidden energy gap : This gap neither has allowed energy levels ( nor it allowed electrons
to occupied it ) . Each electron must gain energy form outer source in order to move from
valence band to conduction band through forbidden energy gap . This outer energy source (
thermal , light or effect of an electric field ) , this amount must be not less than the amount of
forbidden energy gap .
Q: What are the characteristics of energy bands in:
a . in Conductors ( metals for example ) :
1. Valence bands overlap with conduction bands .
2. No forbidden energy gap between valence bands and
conduction bands .
3. Electrical conductivity of metal decreases when their
temperature increases due to increase in their electrical
resistance

b . Energy bands in insulators

1. Valence band is full of valence electrons .
2. Conduction band is empty of electrons .
3. Forbidden energy gap is relatively wide
Q: What are the characteristics of energy bands in:
c . Energy bands in semiconductors:
why / at very low temperature ( at zero Kelvin 0 k ) , and
absence of light , intrinsic semiconductors behave like
insulators ?
Q: Under what conditions the intrinsic semiconductor
behave like insulators ? and What are the characteristics
Energy bands in semiconductors?
• A : at very low temperature ( at zero Kelvin 0 k ) , and
absence of light
1. Valence band are full of valence electrons .
2. Conduction band is empty of electrons .
3. Forbidden energy gap is narrow relative to insulators .
Q:why metals have high electrical conductivity?
A:Due No forbidden energy gap between valence bands and conduction bands .
Consequently, valence electrons are free to move through conductors ,

Q4(question of chapter ) Explain the reasons of the followings:

c . At absolute zero and in the dark, the conduction band in intrinsic semiconductor is
empty of electrons ?
A: at a temperature of zero Kelvin (𝑇 = 0 𝐾), it is characterized by complete heat loss.
As an intrinsic semiconductor in the dark does not have any thermal or light effect, so
the valence band is completely filled with electrons and the conduction band is devoid
of free electrons (intrinsic semiconductor behaves like an insulator)

Q / Why does the electrical conductivity of metals

‫ثغرة الطاقة‬ decrease with increasing temperature?
A: This is due to the increase in its resistance due
to the increase in the time rate of the vibrational
energy of the atoms and molecules
Q:why: the insulator has no electrical conductivity?
A: because the forbidden energy gap in the insulator is relatively wide
( around 5 𝑒𝑉 ) or more , electrons in valence band cannot pass forbidden
energy gap and move to conduction band when the supplied energy is less than
forbidden energy gap . as a result , valence band remains full of valence
electrons while conduction band is empty .

‫ثغرة الطاقة‬
Q:What is the effect of increasing temperature on the electrical conductivity
of conductors and semiconductors? Explain this .
Q: Explain the effect of temperature rise on the electrical conductivity of each
of the materials (conductor, semiconductor)
A: The electrical conductivity of conductors decreases as their temperature
increases as a result of the increase in their electrical resistance.
As for semiconductors, when their temperature increases, the electrical
conductivity increases due to the increase in the generation of
(electron-hole) pair
Q: What is the effect of placing a huge electric field or heat onto the insulator?
A: might lead to collapse of the insulator and flow of a very little current
through insulator
‫ثغرة الطاقة‬
Q: How can make intrinsic semiconductor ( like silicon ) have electric
conductivity by thermal effect ?
A: when the temperature of the intrinsic semiconductor increases to room
temperature ( 300K ) , valence electrons gain sufficient energy to break some
of covalent bonds from the source of ( thermal energy ) that enables them to
move from valence to conduction band through forbidden energy gap Then
these electrons are free movement through conduction band .
Q5(question of chapter ) | Define the followings :
4. Hole in semiconductor , and how it generates .
A: The hole: a space devoid of electrons that behaves like a positive charge
with an amount of electron charge
generated by: removing one electron from a silicon or germanium atom as a
result of thermal or light effect, or generated by removing one electron from a
silicon or germanium atom as a result of doping the semiconductor material
with acceptor atom impurity
 Q6(question of chapter) What does the amount of the followings
depend on ?
b . The rate of creating electron - hole pair in an intrinsic semiconductor ?
A: 1. Temperature of semiconductor . 2. Type of semiconductor material .
Q: what is the forbidden energy gap amount of intrinsic silicon and germanium
at
1) room temperature 300 𝐾 ? 2) 0 𝐾
A: 1) the amount will be (𝟏. 𝟏𝐞𝐕 for intrinsic silicon) and (𝟎. 𝟕𝟐 𝐞𝐕 for intrinsic
Germanium).
2) the amount will be (𝟏. 𝟐𝐞𝐕 for intrinsic silicon) and (𝟎. 𝟕𝟖 𝐞𝐕 for intrinsic
Germanium).
Note : at room temperature (300 𝐾), for the intrinsic semiconductor: the
concentration of positive holes generated in valence band is equal to free
electrons in conduction band.
Q: What is the effect of imposing an electric field on the sides of intrinsic
semiconductor crystal like silicon at room temperature ( 300 𝐾) ?
A: free electrons are attracted easily to the positive side . As a result of free
electron movement in the intrinsic semiconductor material it creates a current
is called electron current . Another current is created in valence band , it is
called holes current , the direction of positive holes inside the crystal is toward
the direction of the electric field while the electrons move in the opposite
direction of the electric field applied this means that holes move in the opposite
direction of the electrons
 Note : The total current flowing through the intrinsic semiconductor is the
sum of electrons currents and holes current . Both electrons and holes are
called Charge carriers .

Q:what determines occupancy of electrons at a given level of

allowed energy of their electrons ?
A:Occupying electrons at an allowed energy level is compared to a
particular level called Fermi Level
Q5(question of chapter ) | Define the followings :
1) Fermi level : is the highest allowed energy level that an electron can occupy
at absolute zero ( 𝑂 𝐾 )

Q: where is fermi level lies at zero kelvin in :

a) conductor b) semiconductor
c) the intrinsic semiconductor is doped with impurities
A: a) Fermi level is lies above the region which full of electrons in conduction
band . The energy level occupied by these electrons is below Fermi level
b) Fermi level lies between in the middle of the forbidden energy gap
conduction band and valence band
c) Fermi level shifts either above or below , and this shift depends on the type
of impurity added ( we will deal with that later )
Q1(question of chapter) Choose the correct statement for each of the
following :
3. Free electrons in intrinsic semiconductor at room temperature occupy :
a . Valence band .
b . Forbidden energy gap .
c . Conduction band
d . Acceptor level .

4. Electron - hole pairs are generated in intrinsic semiconductor by :

a . Recombination .
b . Ionization .
c . Doping .
d . Thermal effect .
5. Flowing current in intrinsic semiconductor is the result of :
a . Free electrons only .
b . Holes only .
c . Negative ions .
d . Both electrons and holes .
Q1(question of chapter) Choose the correct statement for each of the
following :
11. Silicon acts as insulator when :
a . Pure.
b- In the dark .
c . At absolute zero
d . All of the three choices ( a , b , c ) .
12. Time rate for generating electron - hole pair increases in semiconductor by :
a . Adding pentavalent impurities .
b . Adding trivalent impurities .
c . Increase in temperature .
d . None of the above .
18. Fermi level is :
a . Average of all energy levels .
c . Higher energy level occupied at ( 0 ° ) C.
b . Energy level at the top valence band .
d . Higher energy level occupied at 𝑂 𝐾 .
Q2(question of chapter) Write True or false , correct the false
without changing underlined :
3. Electrical conductivity in intrinsic semiconductor increases when
temperature rises . true
5 . Forbidden energy gap in germanium is ( 1.1 𝑒𝑉 ) at ( 300 𝐾 ) . false
0.72 eV
8. In conductors at 0 𝐾 the energy levels below Fermi level are
occupied by electrons . true
10. Electron - hole pairs are generated in semiconductor because of
recombination between electrons and holes . False( thermal effect)
( thermal effect )