CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background to the Study

The media plays a pivotal role in the socio-political and economic development of societies

by informing, educating, and entertaining the public. In democratic systems, the media is

often regarded as the "fourth estate," tasked with holding those in power accountable,

safeguarding the public interest, and facilitating the free flow of information. These roles are

anchored on adherence to media ethics—principles that guide journalists in the responsible

dissemination of information. Media ethics emphasize truthfulness, fairness, objectivity,

respect for privacy, and the avoidance of harm. However, compliance with these ethical

standards has become a growing concern in the modern media landscapes (Marcel, 2009).

Globally, the media industry is facing unprecedented challenges due to the rapid evolution of

technology, economic pressures, and the proliferation of social media platforms. These

changes have disrupted traditional media practices, leading to increased competition for

audience attention and advertising revenue. As a result, some media practitioners have

resorted to sensationalism, biased reporting, and misinformation to stay relevant. These

challenges are more pronounced in developing countries, including Nigeria, where structural

and systemic issues further complicate the practice of ethical journalism (Udeze, 2022).

In Nigeria, the media industry is characterized by a mix of state-owned, privately-owned, and

independent platforms, all operating under unique pressures. The country’s vibrant and

diverse media landscape has contributed to its reputation as one of the freest in Africa.

However, it has also been plagued by challenges, including political interference, inadequate

funding, lack of professionalism, and insufficient regulatory enforcement. Journalists in

Nigeria often face ethical dilemmas, balancing their roles as public watchdogs with economic

and political realities that may compromise their integrity (Udeze, 2022).

1
Abuja, the capital city of Nigeria, serves as a microcosm of the country's broader media

challenges. As a political and economic hub, Abuja hosts numerous media organizations and

is a focal point for national discourse. Journalists in the city operate in a dynamic

environment shaped by intense political activity, governmental scrutiny, and a highly

competitive media market. Despite the critical importance of ethical journalism in fostering

accountability and informed citizenship, reports of ethical violations such as biased reporting,

sensationalism, and conflicts of interest have raised concerns about the state of media ethics

in Abuja (Udeze, 2022).

Several factors contribute to these adherence issues, including inadequate training on ethical

standards, low remuneration, organizational pressure to meet commercial targets, and the

influence of political actors. The lack of a robust regulatory framework and enforcement

mechanisms further exacerbates the problem, allowing unethical practices to persist (Udeze,

2022).

Professional journalists in Nigeria face difficult and delicate ethical challenges involving

decisions on both their own ethical conduct and that of the several people with whom they

inform. This work intends to assess ethics as key to sound professionalism. Ethics is the

principle and value a person (or group of persons) uses to govern the activities they perform

and decisions they take. In an organization, thus, a code of ethics is a set of principles that

guide the organization in its programmes, policies, and decisions for the business. The ethical

philosophy an organization uses to conduct business can affect the reputation. According to

Fab-Ukozor (2011), the evolutionary phase of the struggle towards professional development

in journalism practice shows that starting from the time of Iwe Irohin and West African Pilot,

to the period of Daily Times marked an era of non-professional practice. Hence, it was the

need to improve and enhance professional practice that inspired the Daily Times of Nigeria to

establish the Times Training School in the early 70’s. This was followed by the introduction

2
of the Nigeria Institute of Journalism (NIJ) who with Daily Times of Nigeria Training wing

did their best to impact basic reporting skills to Journalists. These efforts which came before

the establishment of Mass Communication and Journalism departments in Nigerian Tertiary

Institutions churned out crop of Nigerian journalists between late 70’s and early 80’s who

could meet with the information needs of the mass media audience in the country. The mass

media are faced with the challenge of breaking even and being financially strong enough to

be independent and to withstand both internal and external influences that have always been

the bane of professionalism in the media.

Financial independence is sine qua non for any media institution which can stand the test of

time and uphold the ethics of profession. On the other hand, as an institution bestowed with

the responsibility of protecting public interest, the mass media strive to play this noble role

which the society bestowed on them. That is to be socially responsible (Nkwachi, 2015).

Therefore, with the entry recently of highly educated professionals, media in Nigeria have

insisted on certain ethical standards and accountability on the part of owners and the

journalists. This means adhering to those codes ethics that will enhance professionalism. It

also means being guided by a code of conduct that ensures professional integrity.

There is no doubt that effective and efficient practice of journalism lies in the principles of

ethical values which set to regulate its activities towards professionalism. Every organization

or profession is basically guided and directed by a set of moral principles which oversee its

general conduct. The worrisome state of media practitioners’ attitude in the conduct of their

activities necessitated the emergence of various regulatory bodies in order to curb the

excesses of media practitioners (Tsegyu & Asemah, 2014). These are the Nigerian Press

Council (NPC) and the National Broadcasting Corporation (NBC). Later, a more

comprehensive code of ethics for journalists was formulated in 1998 by the Nigeria Press

Organization (NPO), comprising the Nigerian Union of Journalist (NUJ), Newsstudy

3
Proprietors of Nigeria (NPN), Nigeria Guild of Editors (NGE), and the Nigeria Press Council

(NPC) (Egbon, as cited in Tsegyu & Asemah, 2014).

Media are social institutions that expect to make a moral contribution to the society;

therefore, there is need for the rules that will guide the journalism practice. Oso and Pate,

(2011: 145) quoted Johnson saying media are potentially “great secular church” and a system

of Evangelism for dispensing the darkness of ignorance, expelling error and establishing

truth.” On the process of their duty journalists were criticized of been subjective and their

role has been a topic of discussion. According to Briggs and Burke 2005 they said

“journalists are not to be trusted” and they are “slanderous”. (Briggs and Burke, 2005).

The reason behind this is that; the nature of ownership, the news media weather it is

government owned media or private media, the employers are working under editorial

control. Politicians who can afford to run a media house can dictate what goes into the pages

of the newspaper (Dare, 2010: 2). Government owned media tries to protect the government

interest where as private media protect the interest of owners, these leads to the violation of

stipulated code of ethics. Like the saying goes „He who pays the piper dictates the tone‟. This

research will examine the practice of the profession of journalism in Nigerian news media.

Journalism is the trade technique or profession of reporting news for the public by various

means. James Glen Stovall says “journalists meet many challenges in gathering, processing

and distributing the news...” (Stovall, 2005).

Journalists are facing serious challenges in the process of their duty. Journalists are watchdog

or gatekeepers of the society because they decide what news is and they make much

important decision about what society says to itself. Been the gatekeepers of the society the

profession is guided by journalism code of ethics to ensure journalists are doing their job

within the context. Ethics in journalism, is the code of morals that journalist are supposed to

4
uphold. These include a commitment to revealing the truth objectivity without being

influenced by self-interest; maintaining the secrecy of sources and attributing what is said to

the appropriate source (Ike, 2005). Media has become as necessary as food and clothing. It

has played significant role in strengthening the society. Media is considered as "mirror" of the

modern society, in fact, it is the media which shapes our lives. Agenda setting describes a

very powerful influence of the media, the ability to tell us what issues are important.

McCombs and Shaw pointed out that; Agenda setting is the creation of public awareness and

concern of salient issues by the news media. Two basis assumptions underlie most research

on agenda-setting: first, the press and the media do not reflect reality; they filter and shape it.

Second, media concentration on a few issues and subjects leads the public to perceive those

issues as more important than other issues. (McCombs & Shaw, 1972).

Walter Lippmann in his 1922 classic, Public Opinion, he noted that: “The news media are a

primary source of those pictures in our heads about the larger world of public affairs, a world

that for most citizens is out of reach, out of sight, out of mind.” The purpose of the media is

to inform people about current, new affairs and to talk about the latest gossip and fashion. It

tells about the people who are geographically divided. In other words, Media can contribute a

lot to a society. It can change opinions because they have access to people and this gives it a

lot of strength. This strength can either be used constructively by educating the people or it

can be used destructively

This study aims to explore these challenges, focusing on the underlying causes of ethical

lapses among journalists in Abuja and their implications for public trust and democratic

governance. By examining the interplay between individual, organizational, and systemic

factors, the research seeks to provide insights into how adherence to media ethics can be

strengthened in Abuja and, by extension, Nigeria as a whole. This will contribute to ongoing

5
efforts to promote a responsible and credible media industry that upholds the tenets of

democracy and societal development.

1.2 Statement of the Problems

Journalism plays a critical role in shaping public opinion and fostering societal development

by disseminating accurate, fair, and unbiased information. Media ethics serve as guiding

principles that ensure accountability, transparency, and respect for public trust. However,

adherence to these ethical standards is increasingly being questioned, especially in rapidly

growing urban centers such as Abuja, Nigeria, where the media landscape is characterized by

intense competition, political influences, and economic pressures.

Journalists are finding it hard to follow media ethics because they lack proper training and

guidance; people losing trust in the media due to bias stories and misinformation; Journalists

breaking rules often because of theirs little accountability or enforcement.

In Abuja, concerns have been raised regarding the consistency of journalists' commitment to

media ethics, including objectivity, fairness, privacy, and the avoidance of sensationalism.

Reports of biased reporting, political interference, sensationalized news, and the spread of

misinformation suggest potential lapses in ethical adherence. Such practices can undermine

public trust in the media, distort democratic processes, and hinder informed decision-making

among citizens.

Factors contributing to these ethical breaches remain poorly understood. Economic

constraints, such as low wages and inadequate funding of media organizations, may compel

journalists to prioritize commercial interests over ethical obligations. Similarly, the influence

of political actors and the rise of social media as a dominant platform for news dissemination

have created challenges for maintaining professional standards. These dynamics raise critical

6
questions about the ability of journalists in Abuja to navigate competing pressures while

upholding their ethical responsibilities.

This study seeks to investigate the root causes of adherence issues to media ethics among

journalists in Abuja. By exploring the challenges faced by journalists, the role of

organizational culture, and the impact of external influences, this research aims to provide a

comprehensive understanding of the problem and propose actionable solutions. Addressing

these issues is crucial for restoring public confidence in journalism, strengthening democratic

institutions, and promoting the ethical integrity of the media in Nigeria.

Studies were conducted by Apuke (2017) titled, review of some ethical issues in Nigerian

journalism practice: afganistanism, character assassination and junk journalism. The study

reviews some ethical issues in media practice in Nigeria: character assassination, junk

journalism and Aghanistanism. The study made use of qualitative research method with the

consultation of secondary sources such as books, journal articles and magazines. The study

reveals among other things that Afghanistanism is the practice of concentrating on problems

in distant parts of the world while ignoring controversial local issues, character assassination

is damaging the reputation of an individual, while junk journalism otherwise known as

sensationalism is the tendency to publish information that causes any interest or emotional

reaction. Base on the study, these ethical issues are affecting journalism practice in Nigeria.

The study recommends that sanctioning the defaulters of Aghanistanism, character

assassination and junk journalism by NBC, NUJ, NPC will go a long way in curbing the

menace of these practice among journalists.

Another study conducted by Pepple and Acholonu (2018) titled, media ethics as key to sound

professionalism in Nigerian journalism practice. The study examines the implications of

ethics as key to sound professionalism in Nigerian journalism. The study sets out to assess

7
how ethics affect the standard of journalism practice in the country, using media practitioners

in Rivers State, Nigeria as case study. The population of study consisted of the 300 registered

journalists in Rivers State of Nigeria, including the editors and managers.

The survey research method was used while the questionnaire was used as the primary

instrument for data gathering. It was revealed that despite the importance of ethics to

journalism practice, journalists’ adherences to the ethical codes were low. The study also

revealed that journalists most times go against the ethics of the profession due to sycophancy,

security reasons, desperation, greed, ethical dilemmas, and ignorance of the code of ethics.

Based on the findings of the study, it was recommended that media establishments should

liaise with the Nigerian Union of Journalist (NUJ) to ensure that only trained journalists are

employed to work as journalists. Again, the NUJ, it should institute standing disciplinary

committee to discipline erring journalists both at the State and National levels. The Ethics

Committee of the Nigeria Union of Journalists should regularly review the ethical conducts

of journalists and encourage them to adhere to their code of practice.

1.3 Research Questions

The following research questions are considered

i. What are the challenges the journalists face in adherent to professional ethics in

Abuja?

ii. Has there been gender dimensions to the challenges of adhering to professional ethics

in journalism among the journalists?

iii. What are the journalists’ perspectives on the solutions to the challenges they face in

adhering to professional ethics?

1.4 Objectives of the Study

8
The objective of this study is Investigating Adherence Issues in Media Ethics Among

Journalists in Abuja, Nigeria. Other objectives are:

i. To identify the challenges the journalists face in adherent to professional ethics in

Abuja.

ii. To examine if there are gender dimensions to the challenges of adhering to

professional ethics in journalism among the journalists.

iii. To examine the journalists’ perspectives on the solutions to the challenges they

face in adhering to professional ethics.

1.5 Statement of Hypothesis

The statement of Hypothesis is:

H0: There is no significant relationship between the challenges journalist face and their

adherence to professional ethics in Abuja.

H0: There is no significant relationship between gender dimension and challenges of

adhering to professional ethics in journalism among journalists.

H0: There is no significant relationship between the journalists’ perspectives and the

challenges they face in adhering to professional ethics.

1.6 Significance of the Study

This study will provide insights into the challenges faced by journalists in maintaining ethical

standards. It will contribute to academic literature on media ethics and offer practical

recommendations for journalists, media organizations, policymakers, and regulatory bodies to

foster ethical journalism in Abuja and beyond.

1.7 Scope of the Study

9
The study will focus on journalists working in print, broadcast, and online media

organizations in Abuja. It will explore various dimensions of media ethics, including

accuracy, fairness, objectivity, independence, and accountability.

1.8 Operational Definition of Terms

1. Media Ethics: The principles and guidelines that govern the professional conduct of

journalists, focusing on truthfulness, fairness, objectivity, and accountability in their

reporting.

2. Adherence Issues: Challenges or lapses in consistently following established ethical

guidelines, standards, or codes of conduct within the field of journalism.

3. Journalists: Media practitioners in Abuja, Nigeria, who are responsible for gathering,

analyzing, and disseminating news and information through various platforms,

including print, broadcast, and online media.

4. Investigating: The systematic process of researching, analyzing, and documenting

instances of non-compliance or challenges in media ethics among journalists.

5. Objectivity: The degree to which journalists in Abuja report news and events without

bias, ensuring fairness and neutrality in their coverage.

6. Accountability: The responsibility of journalists to answer for their professional

actions and decisions, particularly when their reporting affects public trust or violates

ethical standards.

7. Conflict of Interest: Situations where personal, financial, or political affiliations

influence the professional judgment of journalists, leading to potential ethical

breaches.

10
 8. Truthfulness: The extent to which journalists in Abuja prioritize accuracy and factual

correctness in their reporting.

9. Bias: The tendency of journalists to present news or opinions influenced by personal

beliefs, organizational interests, or external pressures, which can compromise ethical

reporting.

10. Regulatory Framework: The set of laws, policies, and ethical codes established by

media regulatory bodies in Nigeria to guide the professional conduct of journalists.

CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Conceptual Framework
2.1.1 Concept of Ethics
The word, “Ethics” according to the Advanced Learner Dictionary, is the science of morals,

the branch of philosophy which is concerned with character and conduct of a system of moral

and rules of behaviours. Udeze (2012) defines ethics as a branch of philosophy that deals

with values relating to human conduct with respect to rightness or wrongness of certain

actions and to the goodness badness of the motives and ends of such actions. Ethics has to do

with what is good and what is bad. To Ogunsiji (Agbanu, 2011), ethics is not laws in

application but is binding on all members of the profession once it has been officially

adopted. A member may be disciplined or reprimanded for contravening the ethics of his

profession. He may also be blacklisted or expelled from the profession.

Ethics is based on the Greek word “ethos” meaning character or what a good person is or

does in order to have a good character; it deals with choosing among the good or bad

opinions that individuals face. It may be seen as being concerned with that which holds

society or a profession together or provides stability and security to social or professional

cohesion (Kayode, 2011). Merrill (1982), cited in Sunday and Tommy (2011, p. 67) defines

ethics as “a branch of philosophy which aids in determining what is right.” This perhaps
11
explains why Asemah (2011) avers that “ethics may be described as the systematic study of

the principles and methods for distinguishing right from wrong and good from bad.”

Dominick (1996) sees ethics are rules of conduct or principles of morality that point us

towards the right or best way to act in a situation. Thus, media ethics is a set of principles of

conduct governing media profession. Media ethics govern the conduct of media professionals

and as such, provide standards for judging their actions (Okwurumara, 2013). Journalism

ethics investigates the “micro” problems of what individual journalists should do in a

particular situation and the “macro” problems of what news media should do, given their role

in society (Ward, 2008). This goes on to show that ethics is a necessity for journalists to

imbibe and make part of their daily work. Ethics, therefore, will help the journalists to

operate within the ambit of the law by making fair, objective and balance decisions when

confronted with a difficult situation. Rodney (2011, p. 117) notes that “ethics forces the

journalist to commitment, to thoughtful decision among alternatives, to seek the highest good

in journalism and heighten authenticity as a journalist.

Ethics controls those individual behaviour not controlled by law, since law cannot take care

of every aspect of human behaviour. Ethics serves as a guide to human conduct in a desirable

way. Ethical principles serve as ideals which allow the individual to act according to the

dictates of his conscience and judgement. Ethics then is strictly a personal-self imposed

discipline sanctioned only by conscience which worries you as to whether you are right or

wrong (Rodney, 2011, p. 117). It is in this light that ethics is viewed as a voluntary concept;

unlike law which is binding on individual members to religiously obey. Ethics on the other

hand is voluntary and self regulating. This perhaps explains why several media practitioners

flout the ethics of the profession without getting stiff punishment. People take the advantage

that since ethics is personally or individually determined they can do whatever they like. That

is why enforcing professional code of ethics for most organisations seem difficult to achieve.

12
However, the yardstick for measuring the level of professionalism among journalists is how

far they conform to or deviate from the ethics of the profession in their day to day activities.

Where professional ethics is taken for granted, the profession, its practitioners and the entire

society suffers some negative consequences (Alemoh, 2011, 305). Most professions have

internally enforced codes of practice that members of the profession must follow to prevent

exploitation of the client and preserve the integrity of members. For examples, Doctors,

Lawyers, Pharmacist, and Teachers have set of rules and regulations that govern the

behaviour of their members. Professional ethics, therefore, is a set of standards adopted by a

professional body to regulate the activities of its members. This is important because media

men are very powerful people whose activities impact society in a variety of ways. Because

of this, practitioners are expected to be guided by a code of conduct which members are

expected to observe. Journalism ethics emerged as a response to the crisis of confidence in

journalism. It appeared at the turn of the twentieth century as part of the social responsibility

of the press. The theory succeeded the libertarian or free press theory and one of its

characteristics was the rise of journalistic associations with code of ethics designed to

encourage responsible behaviour from their members. Some even went further to evolve a

media self-regulatory mechanism known variously as Press Council, Media Council and

Media Ombudsmen to maintain the highest standards of media practice. This development

became necessary as the libertarian theory had Amakiri (2010) states that to be ethical means

to be particularistic about the standards of good and bad behaviour. It means adopting a moral

position dictated by a sense of right and wrong in one’s personal life and in relationship with

others. According to Philip (2010), ethics is the application of rational thoughts by media

practitioners or professionals when they are deciding between two or more competing moral

choices. given the press unfettered freedom that gave rise to abuse, characterised by

irresponsibility, sensationalism and character assassination. The social responsibility theory

13
from the onset, stressed the need to reconcile freedom of the press with a responsibility to the

society. Consequently, there emerged a set of core journalistic values that ensures that

journalistic decisions are not based on personal biases or prejudices. In Nigeria, the Nigeria

Union of Journalists (NUJ) has articulated a number of guidelines and principles that every

media practitioner is expected to adhere to. In a nutshell , the code of professional practice

deals with the following; Editorial independence, accuracy and fairness, privacy,

privilege/non disclosure, decency, discrimination, rewards and gratification, children and

minors, access to information, social responsibility, plagiarism and copyright, among others.

It behoves on the journalists to observe these professional principles in their day-to-day

assignment. The concept of ethics is a controversial subject in the sense that it is not

universally determined. This is because so many variables come into play in determining

what is ethically right or wrong. Factors such as religion, culture and the environment play

significant role in determining what is ethically right.

In this regard, Shekhar (2010, p. 34) asserts that “the nature of a particular environment may

determine the ethical or unethical status of the Media.” For instance, most cultural practices

in Nigeria do not frown at giving of gifts and other items to strangers when they visit local

communities for a special assignment. While in the Western World, this practice may not be

obtainable, because it will be seen as a subtle way to bribe a journalist to influence his report.

Because of the controversial concept of ethics, Dominick (2009), cited in Okwurumara

(2013) observes that reporters, media organisations and stations managers have to make

ethical decisions about what should be included or should not be included in media content or

what should not be done. As a result of this, there are divergent views of what is ethical or

unethical. Rodman (2010) also notes that “many ethical consideration within media parlance

have the potentials to be controversial because there is a conflict between ethics in theory and

what journalist face in the field.”

14
The issue of ethical consideration in journalism has received great attention among scholars

over the years. For example, in 1998 American Society of Newspapers Editors (ASNE)

conducted a study titled “examining our credibility: Why newspapers credibility is dropping”.

The study found out that four fifths of the adults in the United State believed that news media

It can also be seen as that which holds society or a profession together or provides stability

and security to social or professional cohesion (Kayode’s study as cited in Tsegyu & Asemah,

2014). Okunna (1995) suggests ethics as a moral philosophy is the branch of knowledge

which is concerned with the standards of good and bad conduct or behaviour while Ezeukwu

and Nwanze (Akabogu, 2005) opined that ethic in general refers to a code or set of principles

by which men live e.g., medical ethics which means the code which regulates and guides the

behaviour of doctors in their dealings with each other and their patients. Therefore, ethics can

be said to be set of rules of behaviour or moral principles guiding the activities of a group of

persons found in a given profession. It is a Greek word “Ethos” meaning character or what a

good person is or does in order to have a good character.

Ethics is also a behaviour and moral guides, principles as well as codes which a person or

group of persons in a profession voluntarily choose to observe in the course of carrying out

their day-to-day activities, that deals with the decision to do good or bad. In every society of

the world, there are set of rules and regulations guiding the ways and manners they do things

and the absence of these rules and regulations will lead to anarchy and lawlessness in such

society. There also exists no universally accepted code of ethics for media practitioners; it

varies proportionately with culture, orientation, exposure, and demands of the society at a

particular point in time, like culture is dynamic and changes with the society in question.

However, no matter the dynamism, there are certain basic provisions that are crucial to the

practice of the profession.

15
reportage was biased. In addition, more than 80 percent of Americans are of the view that

sensational stories got ample coverage because the stories were exciting and not because they

were important (Bowles and Borden, 2004, cited in Okwurumara, 2013). This goes further to

attest to the fact that journalists’ credibility in reporting and interpreting events unfolding in

the society is fast declining on a daily basis. This further endorses the submission of Khan

(2009) that present day journalism is used to presenting one sided, unbalanced and biased

picture of a story. Nigerian media just like the ones in other parts of the world have come

under close scrutiny in recent times over unethical behaviour. Ajia (1994, p. 56) notes that:

Nigerian journalists have been found wanting, both in expertise and in credibility; several

people who are practising journalism in Nigeria did not receive adequate training due to lack

of manpower in the media industry in Nigeria; many untrained journalists have also found

their way to this noble profession. Again, some practitioners came into the profession because

of their closeness to those at the corridor of power. Such people are the ones flouting the

ethics of the profession with impunity. Throwing more light on this, Pate (2004), cited in

Alemoh (2011) observes that unholy romance between journalists and those in the corridor of

power is a subtle means of muzzling professionalism in journalism. These journalists go as

far as becoming media assistants to these political figures and in the process, drag the ethical

codes of the profession into the mud.

Okunna (1995) argues that the unethical practices found among Nigeria media practitioners is

a reflection of the moral decadence that is in the society. At present, Nigeria is a country that

is said to be crawling with all manners of ethical maladies and unethical behaviour, as well

as, a culture that had ceased to value integrity, honesty and hard work. She went further to

assert that the media do not operate in isolation, but take the shape and coloration of the

society on which they operate. Countless evidence abounds that the ethical problems in

Nigerian journalism is posed by the environment within which the practising journalist

16
operates. Momoh, cited in Egbon (2006, p. 13) further buttresses this thus: How can Nigerian

media practitioners operate in a polity where everybody breaks the rule; where the journalists

are poorly paid or not paid at all; where record keeping is so defective that people can pay

their way out of crime; where the officials who supposed to give information hoard it; where

there is total loyalty to the family and ethnic group and ritual protection for their misdeeds;

where those who hould serve enslave the people through robbery and expect them to uphold

the tenets of the profession. Corroborating further, MacBride (1980) points out that the value

system of the larger society affects the performance of the press. This is exactly the case with

Nigeria. No wonder the level of corruption among media practitioners is alarming. Ugande

(2011) did a study on “the influence of Nigerian cultural values on professional code of

media ethics.” The objective of his research was to determine whether cultural values do

affect the way journalists adhere to professional ethics. The findings of the study show that

72 percent of journalists agreed that they would not report any negative story that would

affect their cultural norms. This goes to show that some journalists may distort facts as long

as their cultural norms are in conflict with their professional code of ethics. From the

foregoing, it is evident that some journalists pay more allegiance to cultural norms than their

professional code of ethics. To a great extent, this indicates that Nigerian media practitioners

are divided along ethnic lines.

2.1.2 Professionalism and Ethical Standard

Professionalism is the conduct, aims, or qualities that characterize or mark a profession or a

professional person. Professionalism also describes the qualities, skills, competence, and

behaviours that are expected of a person in a given profession. According to Egbujor (2015),

the identity of every profession is founded on standard principles. Ethical values coexist with

the professional ideology of an occupation. She explains further that this is because ethics

exists practically in all professions in order to ensure standard practice. Ethical standards in a

17
profession are “rules governing the conduct of a person or the members of a profession and

exposes the professional obligations, guides and identity of journalists in journalism practice”

(Patching and Hirsts as cited in Egbujor, 2015). Consequently, Egbujor sees journalistic

professionalism as “norms and standards that constitute the kind of outputs that are generally

recognized as quality journalism”; these definitions expand the scope of journalistic

professionalism to include contextual issues assessing the performance of the media and the

quality of the information they convey to the public (Egbujor, 2015).

2.1.3 Journalism Code of Ethics

Journalism like any other profession has ethical codes that guide them in their activities. This

code of ethics consists of moral principles, guidelines, and rules that guide the behaviour of

journalists in course of their practice as well as their relationship with the publics. Journalism

code of ethics therefore is the set of moral principles guiding the journalism profession. They

include:

(1) Editorial independence: This entails that decision concerning the content of news should

be the responsibility of a professional journalist.

(2) Accuracy and fairness:

(i) The public has a right to know factual, accurate, balanced, and fair reporting is the

ultimate objective of good journalism and the basis of earning public trust and confidence.

(ii) A journalist should refrain from publishing inaccurate and misleading information. Where

such information has been inadvertently published, prompt correction should be made. A

journalist must hold the right of reply as a cardinal rule of justice.

18
(iii) In the course of his duties, a journalist should strive to separate facts from conjecture and

comment.

(3) Privacy: A journalist should respect the privacy of individuals and their families unless it

affects public interest.

(a) Information on the life as an individual or his family should only be published if it

impinges on public interest.

(b) Publishing of such information about an individual as mentioned above should be deemed

justifiable only if it is directed at:

(i) exposing crimes or serious misdemeanour,

(ii) exposing anti-social conduct,

(iii) protecting public health, morality, and safety,

(iv) preventing the public from being misled by some statement or action of the individual

concerned.

(4) Privilege/non-disclosure:

(i) A journalist should observe the universally accepted principle of confidentiality and should

not disclose the source of information obtained in confidence.

(ii) A journalist should not breach an agreement with a source of information obtained as

“off-the-record” or as “background information”.

(5) Decency: A journalist should dress and comport himself in a manner that conforms to

public taste.

(i) A journalist should refrain from using offensive, abusive, or vulgar language.

19
(ii) A journalist should not present lucid details, either in words or picture of violence, sexual

acts, abhorrent or horrid scenes.

(6) Discrimination: A journalist should refrain from making pejorative reference to a person’s

ethnic group, religion, sex or to any physical or mental illness or handicap.

(7) Reward and gratification: (i) A journalist should neither solicit not accept bribe,

gratification, or patronage to suppress or publish information. (ii) To demand payment for the

publication of news is inimical to the notion of news as a fair, accurate, unbiased, and factual

report of an event.

(8) Violence: A journalist should not present or report acts of violence, armed robberies,

terrorist activities or vulgar display of wealth in a manner that glorifies such acts in the eyes

of the public.

(9) Children and minors: A journalist should not identify, either by name or picture or

interview children under the age of 16 who are involved in cases concerning sexual offences,

crimes and rituals or witchcraft either as victims, witnesses, or defendants.

(10) Access to information: A journalist should strive to employ open and honest means in the

gathering of information. Exceptional methods may be employed only when the public

interest is at stake.

(11) Public interest: A journalist should strive to enhance national unity and public good.

(12) Social responsibility: A journalist should promote universal principles of human rights,

democracy, justice, equity, peace, and international understanding.

(13) Plagiarism: A journalist should not copy, wholesale or in part, other people’s work

without attribution and/or consent.

20
(14) Copyright: (i) Where a journalist reproduces a work, in print, broadcast, art work or

design, proper acknowledgment should be accorded the author. (ii) A journalist should abide

by all rules of copyright, established by national and international laws and conventions. (15)

Press freedom and responsibility: A journalist should strive at all times to enhance press

freedom and responsibility (Dare, 2020)

2.1.4 Ethical Issues for Journalists

Journalists all over world, including those practicing in Nigeria, face difficult and delicate

ethical challenges. These challenges involve decisions regarding to ethical conduct as well as

that of publics the journalists work with. These persons include president, ministers,

governors, and commissioners, media owners as well as other stakeholders, within and

outside government, who are affected by journalism activity. The following brief scenarios

are illustrative of the kinds of ethical issues that journalists may face. (1) A journalist is

offered, in confidence, information about possible illegal conduct by a stakeholder. (2) A

journalist may face the challenge of objectivity in writing news, that a News Editor has edited

a story to suit his friend because he will be looking toward the next job and, therefore, the

content of his report can be more easily influenced. (3) After reading a report by the

journalist, a General Manager complains to the Editor, “You can’t air this. The Governor will

be furious!” (4) A journalist is given money to delete what has already been said by a

politician. According to Akabogu (2005) in the Nigerian situation, all sorts of ethical issues or

problems abound. They include materialism, bribery, corruption, embezzlement, fraud,

sycophancy, and all forms of indiscipline. He further stated that the journalist has a good

number of these problems to grapple with such as sycophancy, character assassination,

pressure from within and outside, confidentiality of sources, Afghanistan, bribery,

sensationalism, plagiarism, sexism, moonlighting, invasion of privacy and others.

21
With the growing concern for non-adherence to the ethical codes, which many believe

negates all fundamental principle of fairness, equity, and balance required in journalism

practice, many scholars have explored its ethical implications. These are outlined as follows.

Commercialization of news violates the ethics and code of conduct of journalists, which

states: It is the duty of the journalist to refuse any reward for publishing or suppressing news

or comment. With the zeal to make more money, many news organizations have lost their

focus on investigative journalism. This has led to loss of variety in the news, monotony, etc.

Many have lost their mission turning to praise singing and propaganda, which has dire

consequences for the Nigerian society (Ekwo, 1996, Lai, 2000, and Ogbuoshi, 2005 as cited

in Omenugha & Oji, 2015). The person who pays the piper often calls the tune. Since the

media would not like to lose a major customer, they will do all within their reach to satisfy

such client that pays them enough money to have to his/her view projected. In return, the

client may dictate how and what he or she wants out of the news packaging of the media

house. This can extend to dictating to the media what makes news, thereby emasculating

opposing views. This is often flagrantly displayed during election times as contestants often

buy over one media house or the other, which at every news hour seize the opportunity to

praise the “client” and crush his/her opponents.

According to Udeze (2012), there is a close relationship between corruption and unethical

practice quoting Webster Unabridged Dictionary (2001), he noted that being unethical means

“the act of corrupting or state of being corrupt, moral perversion, depravity. He further stated

that to be corrupt according to same source is to be guilty of dishonest practices such as

bribery, lacking integrity, crooked etc. Udeze further emphasized that based on the definition,

corruption among journalists means all those acts that media practitioners engage in that

contravene the ethics of the media or journalistic profession which enters on truth, fairness,

22
and balance. Praise singing is one of the journalist’s worst faults particularly in Africa and

especially with the government-owned media houses.

This kind of journalism eulogizes people unnecessarily. It makes heroes out of villains and

giants out of dwarfs (Udeze, 2012) for instance in Rivers State, the Rivers State Broadcasting

Corporation and the State Television saw formers state Governor Chibuike Amaechi as a saint

when workers were owned several months salaries and pensioners died of hunger and

starvation. The media did not see anything wrong with the various abandoned project in the

administration. Secondly, the government media who at that political period were basically

partisan supporting the All-Progressive Congress, APC by airing only the news and jingles

about them without recourse to the fact that they need to balance the stories are now presently

airing only the news of the opposition party in the State, Peoples Democratic Party, PDP. This

in most cases has led to lack of public trust and loss of integrity. Moreover, those in the

private media who have in some instances proved in many occasions to be upholders of

ethical standards demanded of the watchdog in exposing corruption in the society which has

joined in the band wagon due to financial aggrandizement. In contrast with medicine and law,

media professionalization doesn’t include standards for professional training and licensing.

Other professions mandate that practitioners receive long and closely monitored professional

training. For example, doctors and lawyers undergo from four to 10 years specialized training

in addition to completing four years of college. But media practitioners are unwilling to set

requirements for professional training and have strongly resisted efforts to license journalists

(Baran & Davies, 2016).

Brown envelop under whatever guise should be avoided by journalists because it intends to

jeopardize the integrity of the journalist and could influence objectivity in news writing.

Freedom to objectivity could be compromised by gratifications as noted by Ogbondah (2023)

“Journalists must understand that compromising their morals and ethical principles can be a

23
greater threat to press freedom than anybody of oppressive laws”. Professionals in every

field, including journalism, have been reluctant to identify and censor colleagues who violate

professional standards. To do so is often seen as admitting that embarrassing problem exists.

Public trust in all media professionals might be shaken if too many people are barred from

practice. Professional societies tend to operate as closed groups in which members are

protected against outside threats and criticism, (Baran & Davies, 2006).

The owners of the media set up policies that guide how the media works. In Print you have

Editorial Policies where you state reasons for establishing the newspapers while in Radio and

Television you have the mission statement. The philosophy put in place by the owners of the

organizations control the media. Fab-Ukozor (2011, pp. 291-292) corroborated this fact when

she stated that the situation is such that the few rich ones who own the media are either

business friends of government or unprofessional journalists who appreciate the position of

the “fourth power”, but are reluctant to go headlong in search of truth due to government’s

stance of intimidation and oppression. As a result, practitioners in the country are often faced

with a conflict emanating from the need to protect their proprietor’s interests and the need to

serve public interest. Fab-Ukozor (2021) posits that the Fourth Estate or Fourth power

position of the press shoulders enormous responsibility on the journalist to watchdog society.

But how does this obligation tally with property right of mass media owners who need to

make profit from their business enterprise? She also stressed that striking a balance between

fulfilment of social responsibility obligations and the need to maximise profit has continually

remained the major focus of journalists and the media owners. Therefore, in order to generate

revenue from this source, media organizations often show, surprisingly, an otherwise

intolerable sensitivity to the feelings of big business over editorial matters. Under this

circumstance, editors walk a tight rope in trying to balance the demands of profit against the

imperatives of unfettered journalism.

24
According to Baran and Davies (2016) in the media industries, violation of professional

standards rarely has immediate, directly observable consequences. Thus, it is hard for critics

to cite violations or to identify the harm that has been done. When doctors fail people die,

when lawyers fail people go to jail unnecessarily while the result of incompetent media

practice are harder to see. For instance, recently in Nigeria, lawyers who had issues of

corruption and were charged with money laundry by the DSS were suspended by the National

Judicial Council (NJC). Regrettably, media practitioner most times has been found wanting in

not living up to ethical professional standards they subscribe to. Quite a good number have

shown weakness in resisting the temptation of materialism presented in the form of bribery

known as “brown envelop” syndrome in Nigeria. For a fee they don’t mind serving as

propagandists and spin doctors to powerful political and economic interests. The influence of

ownership of media outlets in the direction of its editorial contents is another crucial reason

that has militated against the adherence of ethical standard by Media Managers. The

ownership or media outlets have great influence in the direction of its editorial contents, as

the saying goes, “he, who pays the piper, calls the tune”. It is common knowledge in Nigeria

that government owned newspapers; Radio and Television stations, never write against the

government in power while the media practitioner in the privately owned media never go

against the desires of the owners. Poor remuneration is another challenge faced by journalists

(Baran & Davies, 2016).

2.1.5 History of Journalistic Ethics in Nigeria

As the world was moving towards full civilization in the 20th century, many things began to

emerge and reshaped. Therefore, for journalism, ethical knowledge and adherence were also

necessary to attain good judgment of events and issues. In Nigeria, the newspaper business,

which forms part of the earlier media business in the country, was growing in size and

number. Hence, it was necessary to form an association that would regulate the activities of

25
the practitioners. This demand gave birth to the Nigeria Union of Journalists in the 1950s.

Indeed, the first set of codes for the Nigeria journalists was called the code of ethics.

It was fashioned by the Nigeria Editors in 1962 (Bello et al, 2012). By 1979, both the Nigeria

Union of Journalists (NUJ) and Nigeria Guild of Editors (NGE) had their different codes

before deciding to merge with the Newspapers Proprietors Association of Nigeria (NPAN)

under the auspices of the Nigeria Press Organization (NPO) to adopt a single code for

journalism practice. As time went on, many deficiencies were discovered in the code, which

calls for a review.

The review committee was set up in 1996 and all the grey areas identified in the previous

document were addressed. The Nigerian Code of Ethics handbook which was formally

adopted in 1998 listed fifteen (15) major areas in which every journalist must adhere to the

provisions in his daily practice. It also enjoined the Nigerian Union of Journalists, the

Nigerian Guild of Editors, and the Newspaper Proprietors Association of Nigeria to ensure

the implementation of the eligibility criteria for entry into and practice of journalism in

Nigeria, as contained in the Nigeria Press Council Decree No 85 of 1992. The code is

highlighted into 15 elements namely: editorial independence; accuracy and fairness; privacy;

privilege or non-disclosure; decency; discrimination; reward and gratification; violence;

children and minors; access to information; public interest; social responsibility; plagiarism;

copyright, and press freedom and responsibility. In practice, ethical judgment is a rough path

to trade. This is because so many activities culminate in the decision of whether something is

right or wrong.

Okoye (2001) emphasized that ethics as a concept needs to constantly apply or otherwise the

universally accepted and approved ethical code that governs a given profession about the

disclosure of one’s duty and obligation. This, according to Madaki and Ikpomma (2011)

26
implies that practitioners of mass media do observe certain ethical issues as they go about

doing their daily professional duties. The major question now is whether Nigerian journalists

remember that they owe society certain obligations to operate within the confined of

stipulated rules and regulations that govern them.

However, in the Nigerian situation, all sorts of ethical issues or problems abound which may

include materialism, bribery, corruption, embezzlement, fraud, sycophancy, and all kinds of

professional indiscipline and misconduct. Rife among these ethical problems is the issue of

materialism, which is manifested in the form of bribery and acceptance of gifts popularly

called “brown envelope” (Ekeanyanwu & Obianigwe, 2012). Madaki and Ikpomma (2011)

also argued that the problem of ethical mismanagement by Nigerian journalists is a result of

the inherent societal problems that abound in the country. By clarification, corruption among

journalists in Nigeria takes different forms but the most common types are found on the

premise that they are deviations from accepted standards of behaviour in the profession of

information gathering and dissemination.

2.1.6 Concept of Mass Media Law and Ethics

Mass media laws and ethics are divided into two concepts which are; media laws and media

ethics. Mass media Laws according to Malemi (2012) was defined as the laws governing the

dissemination of ideas and information, the media of mass communication, the role of the

press and the communicating public, their rights and duties to the private individual and the

state in general. Ogbonna and Oladipupo (2016) stated that the scope, issues and concerns of

the mass media laws gave rise to different laws governing the media practice. Mass media

laws are a legal field that encompasses a variety of communications industries, such as print

media, film, broadcasting, and the Internet. With modern communications technologies, the

mass media has the ability to affect many people in a variety of ways (Malemi 2012).

27
The laws that govern these communications can be complicated and have far-reaching results.

Many of the suits brought by media lawyers involve copyright infringement, defamation,

censorship, and privacy. Privacy law is often considered to be part of mass media law.

Individuals and organizations are sometimes granted the right to keep certain information

private. Attorneys on these types of cases may protect the privacy of individual. Media Law

is a legal field that relates to regulation of the telecommunications industry, information

technology, broadcasting, advertising, the entertainment industry, censorship, and internet and

online services among others. As citizen journalism has emerged due to the advent of

internet, it is therefore paramount to state the importance of media law. Mass media laws are

thus divided into ten different conceptual laws which are; Press Freedom: This concept has

been formulated and incorporated into different international covenants. Most famous of

these covenants is the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Article 19 of the Declaration

States as follows: Everyone has the right to freedom of opinion and expression. The rights

include freedom to hold opinions without interference and to seek, receive and impact

information and ideas through any medium and regardless of frontiers (Malemi 2012).

Official Secret Act: Under official secret act, access to subsequent publication of

government’s classified documents is considered as a crime against the state. A document is

“classified” if such document or the information contained therein is to be used strictly within

government circles. This document is therefore not meant for public consumption (Malemi

2012).

The ideology behind this law is that disclosure of such document or information to the public

would endanger the society or the state. Ogbonna et al. (2016) section 97 (1) of the criminal

code provides that: Any person who being employed in the public service, who

communicates any fact which comes to his knowledge by virtue of his office and which it is

his duty to keep secret or any document which comes to his possession by virtue of his office

28
and which it is his duty to keep secret, except to some persons whom he is bound to publish

or communicate, is guilty of misdemeanor and is liable to imprisonment for two years. The

section does not put liability on the public offices at every instance of such disclosure or

communication of secret information, liability is only attached to him when he is under a duty

to keep such information, he has disclosed secret. Fatoba (2016). Subsection (2) of section 97

of the criminal code also states; Any person who being unemployed in the public service

without proper authority abstracts or makes copy of any document the property of his

employer is guilty of a misdemeanor and is liable to imprisonment for one year. The official

Secret Act came into effect in Nigeria in 1962 and was reviewed in 1990. The Act listed

matters that are classified which are more concerned with protected places to include; the

Army, the Navy and the Air force (Ogbonna et al., 2016).

Defamation: Another legal field within media law is defamation law. There are two main

types of defamation slander and libel. Both categories require the offending statements or

visual representations to have a negative impact on the reputation on the person being

defamed. This is any expression that damages the reputation of another person, exposes the

person to hatred, ridicule, contempt or causes him to be shunned or avoided by right thinking

members of society generally. It is the publication of false statement about a man to his

discredit. Malemi (2012). The tool of Defamation is thus classified into; Libel and Slander

Libel: A libel is a defamatory statement made in a visible or permanent form such as written,

printed, statement as in books, newspapers, notes, circular, letter or by way of effigy,

caricature, painting photographs, film, radio and television broadcast, and any recorded

audio-visual materials and so forth. Libel can also be considered a crime when it tends to

breach the peace. In criminal law libel is usually referred to as criminal libel. Libel is

therefore typically recorded and somehow published for public consumption (Ogbonna et al.,

2016).

29
Slander: Slander on the other hand is a statement made in a transitory form and not in a

permanent form. It is defamation made in a transient form. Slander is usually in words that is

speech and sometimes gestures which may not be accompanied with words, provided they are

not recorded in a permanent form. Slander, usually involves a defamation made verbally or

by gesture, and may or may not be recorded in some way (Ogbonna et al., 2016).

Libel is actionable per-se because the plaintiff does not have to prove damages to be able to

succeed in his claims because the law presumes general damages in his favor. However, if the

plaintiff has suffered any specific damages, he may also provide proof to it and recover it in

addition to the general damages which are usually presumed. While slander may not be

actionable per-se except in some cases where there was an allegation against the plaintiff of;

committing a crime that is punishable by imprisonment or corporal punishment, suffering

from a contagious disease which renders the person it liable to be excluded from society.

Alleging unchaste in a woman or girl, alleging that a person is unfit for any office,

profession, trade, calling or business held or being carried on by the person at the time of

publication of slander. Contempt of Court: This is defined by the Oxford Dictionary at the

offence of being disobedient to or disrespectful towards a court of law and its officers on the

form of behavior that oppose or defies authority, justice and dignity of the court (Ogbonna et

al., 2016). The Collins English Dictionary (4th edition) equally defined it as an act or

deliberate disobedience for the laws, regulations or decorum of a public authority, such as a

court or legislative body or a court room. In defining contempt J. Foswald circumscribes it as;

“any conduct that tends to bring the authority and administration of the law into disrespect or

disregard or to interfere with or prejudice parties litigant or their witness during litigation”

P.G. Osborn, thus also defined contempt of court as; “Failure to comply with an act of

superior Court or an act of resistance or result to the Court or judges or a conduct likely to

prejudice. The fair trial of an accused person punishable by fine or committal to prison”.

30
Contempt, thus guarantees the sustenance of public confidence in the legal system. Obscene

and Harmful Publications: This is the publication of obscene and harmful literatures, articles

and acts that are likely to destroy the morality of the public (Ogbonna et al., 2016).

This is under the Criminal Code Act and law section 214 -233 (a) prohibits various offences

against morality while section 233 (b) – (f) specifically prohibits obscene publications and

obscenity connotes indecency, offensive to conventional standard of decency especially by

being sexually explicit, it is defined as disgusting and morally offensive. Obscenity is defined

by the Encarta dictionary as indecent offensive to conventional standards of decency by being

sexually explicit especially through an apparent total disregard for other right or natural

justice. The legislation of the Federal Republic of Nigeria that governs obscenity is the

obscene publication Act No 15 of 1961. The aim of the 1961 Act is to prevent the publication

of any matter which tends to deprive or corrupt the public. Obscenity refers not only to sex

but also to words, magazines, pictures, celebration of horror, violence or drugs and any other

thing that is against good morals (Ogbonna et al., 2016). The provision of this Act applied to

publications other than by sound recording e.g. Radios and Television broadcast. Section 3

(1) of the obscene publication Act No. 15 provides that” An article shall be deemed obscene

for the purpose of the Act; if its effect taken as a whole is such as to deprive and corrupt

person who are likely having regard to all circumstance to reads sees or hear the matter

contained or embodied in it. Obscenity is a widely categorized concept and not only revolved

around sex, obscenity is much more and properly enumerated and classified as the display of

sex, the celebration and pleasure in horror, The display of violence and other vices which

may also be described as obscene. Sedition – Criminal Code of the Federal Republic of

Nigeria section 50 states that – seditions publication is any publication that has seditious

intentions (Ogbonna et al., 2016).

31
The Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary 9th Edition defines Sedition as the use of words

or actions that are intended to encourage people to oppose a government. Under the criminal

code section 50 (2) a sedition intention is an intention that intends; To bring hatred or

contempt or to incite disaffection against the person of the president or the governor of a

state. The government of the federation or of any state hereof as by law established or against

the administration of justice in Nigeria. To incite citizens or other inhabitants of Nigeria to

attempt to procure the alteration, otherwise than by lawful means of any other matter in

Nigeria or by law established. To raise discontent or disaffection among the citizens or other

inhabitants or Nigeria (Ogbonna et al., 2016).

To promote feelings of ill-will and hostility between different classes of the populations of

Nigeria. Section 50 – 60 of the criminal code acts therefore provides for the law of sedition

and prohibits the publication of seditious matter (i.e.) any publication that is aimed at causing

incitement or hatred or contempt against the government as by law established or any of its

principal arms or any incitement of the subjects to procure an alteration of the government.

Copyright: This the right secured by law to authors of books musical and artistic works to

prevent any unauthorized & reproduction of their work. It is an exclusive right of an author of

any literacy work to multiply copies of such work without allowing others to do so. It is the

exclusive right to publish given to an author which is made availability by the law (Ogbonna

et al., 2016).

The Black law dictionary defines copyright as. The right of literacy property as recognized

and sanctioned by positive laws. An entangle corporal rights granted by statute to the author

or originator of certain literacy or artistic productions, whereby he is invested for a limited

period, with the sole and exclusive privilege of multiplying copies. The copyright decree

1988 confers on the owners’ creators or authors of literacy, musical and artistic works the

right ownership in what they have created. It therefore gives such creator to benefit from

32
his/her creation and also encourage him to create more. Freedom of Information Act: Section

36(1) of the 1979 Constitution (now section 39(1) of 1999 constitution) states that, “Every

person shall be entitled to freedom of expression including freedom to hold opinions and to

receive and impact ideas and information without interference” (Ogbonna et al., 2016).

Freedom of information Act comprises of laws that guarantees access to date help by the

state. It establishes a right to know legal process by which requests may be made for

government-held information to be received freely or at minimal cost, FOI Act further makes

provision for the disclosure of information held by public authorities, the road to the signing

of FOI Act by president Good luck Ebele Jonathan in 2011 was a long and tortuous battle, the

freedom of information bill was first submitted to Nigeria 4th National Assembly in 1999

when the country returned to democratic governance; prior to the passing of the FOI Act,

there was no law that guaranteed citizens access to public records and information in Nigeria;

Many Nigerian Laws have secrecy clauses prohibiting the disclosure of information(Ogbonna

et al., 2016).

2.2 Empirical Literature

Studies were conducted by Apuke (2017) titled, review of some ethical issues in Nigerian

journalism practice: Afghanistan’s, character assassination and junk journalism. The study

reviews some ethical issues in media practice in Nigeria: character assassination, junk

journalism and Aghanistanism. The study made use of qualitative research method with the

consultation of secondary sources such as books, journal articles and magazines. The study

reveals among other things that Afghanistanism is the practice of concentrating on problems

in distant parts of the world while ignoring controversial local issues, character assassination

is damaging the reputation of an individual, while junk journalism otherwise known as

sensationalism is the tendency to publish information that causes any interest or emotional

reaction. Base on the study, these ethical issues are affecting journalism practice in Nigeria.

33
The study recommends that sanctioning the defaulters of Aghanistanism, character

assassination and junk journalism by NBC, NUJ, NPC will go a long way in curbing the

menace of these practice among journalists.

Tsegyu & Asemah (2014) conducted a study titled, an investigation of media practitioners’

adherence to professional ethics in Minna Nigeria. The study observed that journalism

profession has come under public scrutiny in contemporary times as a result of unethical

practices by some journalists. In Nigeria, media practitioners have been accused severally in

regards to flouting the professional standards of objectivity, balance, accuracy, fairness and

accountability which are essential canons of the profession the world over. The consequence

of this has resulted in the dwindling standard of the noble profession in the public domain and

the loss of credibility on the activities of media practitioners in the country. Thus, the study

investigated media practitioner’s adherence to journalism code of ethics, using Minna,

Nigeria as an area of study. The study was hinged on the social responsibility theory which

espouses that the media should be socially responsible to the society by performing certain

essential functions of mass communication. Using the survey method and the questionnaire

as the instrument of data collection, the researchers sampled 200 journalists who are

registered members of Nigerian Union of Journalists (NUJ) in Minna, Nigeria. Findings

reveal that media practitioners were involved in several unethical practices and the study

recommends that government, media owners and media professional associations review

upwards, the welfare package of journalists while at the same time, striving to ensure

compliance of the journalistic codes for the profession to reclaim her credibility

Another study conducted by Pepple and Acholonu (2018) titled, media ethics as key to sound

professionalism in Nigerian journalism practice. The study examines the implications of

ethics as key to sound professionalism in Nigerian journalism. The study sets out to assess

34
how ethics affect the standard of journalism practice in the country, using media practitioners

in Rivers State, Nigeria as case study.

The population of study consisted of the 300 registered journalists in Rivers State of Nigeria,

including the editors and managers. The survey research method was used while the

questionnaire was used as the primary instrument for data gathering. It was revealed that

despite the importance of ethics to journalism practice, journalists’ adherences to the ethical

codes were low. The study also revealed that journalists most times go against the ethics of

the profession due to sycophancy, security reasons, desperation, greed, ethical dilemmas, and

ignorance of the code of ethics. Based on the findings of the study, it was recommended that

media establishments should liaise with the Nigerian Union of Journalist (NUJ) to ensure that

only trained journalists are employed to work as journalists. Again, the NUJ, it should

institute standing disciplinary committee to discipline erring journalists both at the State and

National levels. The Ethics Committee of the Nigeria Union of Journalists should regularly

review the ethical conducts of journalists and encourage them to adhere to their code of

practice.

Uchechukwu & Augustina (2018) conducted a study titled, ethical issues in journalism

practice: an assessment of journalists’ adherence to mass media laws and ethics in Anambra

state, Nigeria. The study observed that In an attempt to protect lives, properties and mobilize

media practitioners to boost enabling environment for the discharge of their social

responsibility roles among competing “rights” and interests in the society, mass media laws

and ethics were introduced in Nigeria to promote unity and development. The study, “Ethical

Issues in Journalism Practice: An Assessment of Journalists’ Adherence to Mass Media Laws

and Ethics in Anambra State Nigeria”, was anchored on Social Responsibility Theory. The

study used survey research method and investigated the respondents’ awareness, channel of

exposure, knowledge and adherence to mass media laws and ethics. Data was collected

35
through questionnaire from 234 respondents drawn from a population of 565 registered

journalists under the Nigerian Union of Journalists (NUJ) Anambra State chapter. Krejcie and

Morgan table for sample size determination was used to arrive at sample size of 234.

Proportionate sampling technique and Purposive sampling technique were used to select

sample frames and study respondents.

Findings revealed low awareness level and indicated that respondents do not adhere to mass

media laws and ethics. The researchers concluded that the above findings were the reasons

for journalists’ low adherence to mass media laws and ethics in Anambra State. The

researchers recommended that stakeholders should endeavour to employ only professionals

who acquired needed knowledge on journalism and organize more training where journalism

practitioners will be exposed more to mass media laws and ethics, providing necessary

explanations to improve their knowledge and adherence to mass media laws and ethics

Ibituru et al (2018) conducted research on “Media Ethics and key to sound professionalism in

Nigerian journalism practice”. The study adopted survey research design. The populations of

800 registered journalists in River’s state were selected as to enable the researcher get

answers to research question. The objective of this study was to access how ethics affect the

standard of journalism practice in the country using media practitioners in Rivers State. The

sample of this study covered 400 journalists in total using purposive sampling and random

sampling used to select the respondent among the population of the study through the

administration of questionnaire.

The finding shows ethics as key to sound professionalism in Nigerian journalism. It was

revealed that despite the importance of ethics to journalism practice, journalists’ adherences

to the ethical codes were low and journalists most times go against the ethics of the

profession due to sycophancy, security reasons, desperation, greed, ethical dilemmas, and

36
ignorance of the code of ethics. The recommendation of this study is that media

establishments should lias with the Nigerian Union of Journalists (NUJ) to ensure that only

trained journalists are employed to work as journalists.

Again, the NUJ should institute standing disciplinary committee to discipline erring

journalists both at the state and National levels. The ethics committee of the Nigerian Union

of Journalists should regularly review the ethical conduct of journalists and encourage them

to adhere to their code of practice. In knowledge gap this present study filled is in

geographical area of study and study sample. The reviewed work based its research on just

the print media while this research gave in-depth study on the influence of mass media laws

and ethics on journalism practice in Anambra State which involved both print and broadcast

media.

Angese et al (2014) conducted research on “Assessment of the adherence to journalism code

of ethics by journalists in Bayelsa State”. The study adopted survey research design. The

population of the study comprised of the 320 registered journalists in Bayelsa State. The

objective of this study was to examine the adherence of the journalism code of ethics by

journalists. The census principle was adopted; questionnaire was used as the instrument of

data collection. Findings of the study revealed that 45% of respondents have high level of

knowledge on the code of ethics of journalism practice in Bayelsa State is low.

The recommendation of the study is that there is the need to constantly awaken the

consciousness of journalists to their ethical codes and encourage them to adhere strictly to it,

considering the fact that the rate of adherence is low, journalists need to be encouraged to

adhere to the journalists’ codes so as to maintain the credibility of the profession before the

general public. Comparing this work with my research, the research was conducted in

Bayelsa while this research would give an insight to the same issues in Anambra State. Geetal

37
Tolak (2020), conducted research on “the study and important of media ethics”. The

populations of this study 12,000 journalists in India. The study adopted Focus Group

Discussion (FGD). The objective of this study is to find out if the media acts as a bridge

between the states and public. The sample of this study covered 376 journalists in total using

purposive sampling and random sampling used to select the respondent among the population

of the study through the administration of questionnaire.

The findings show that the media is free to discharge their duties in the society but the media

need to follow ethics in collecting and disseminating their news by ensuring objectivity and

fairness in reporting of information to society. It plays the role of informer, instigator or

leader for healthy democracy at all levels. Ethics are the inner superintendent, decent

moralities, ideas and opinions that people use to analyze a situation and then decide the right

way to behave. As a result of this the media is free to discharge their duties in the society but

the media need to follow ethic in collecting and disseminating their news by ensuring

objectivity and fairness in reporting of information to society. The study states that media

ethics is concerned with how the moral media person should behave the media ethics are

values like trustworthiness, respect, responsibility, fairness, truth and self-restraints to be

practiced by the media voluntarily and preserve or promote the trust of the people and

maintain their own credibility and not betray the faith and confidence of the people.

The recommendation of this study is that journalists should be encouraged to have morality at

the forefront of their minds when carrying out their journalistic duties. Comparing this work

with the present study, the research was conducted in India while this research would give an

insight to the issues in Anambra state Nigeria. Edward L. Carter (2017) conducted research

on “Mass Communication Laws and Policy research and values of free expression”. The

study adopted survey research design. The population of this study was 123,000 media

workers in Georgia, USA. The objective of this study is known if mass communication law

38
and policy research including on values and theory of freedom of expression has played an

important role in journalism and Mass Communication quivery for decades.

The finding of this study showed that the 1992 special issue served as the bench mark for

mass communication law and policy research in quality and generally including research

focused on free speech values and theory. The recommendation of the study is that while

purely doctrinal analysis that do not contribute to theory development may still make

valuable contribution to mass communication law scholarship and practice, the ultimate

contribution of mass communication law scholars could lie in differentiating their work from

that of legal scholars generally applied to textual, historical and structural approaches applied

to mass communication law. Comparing this work with my research, the reviewed work was

focused on the of freedom of expression which is just one of the laws and ethical codes of the

media while this study focused on assessment of journalists’ adherence to mass media laws

and ethics in Anambra state Nigeria.

A study by Adeyemi (2013) found that there is a serious concern about the perception of

journalists by the public. His assessment was based on a survey carried out, which was

premised on the deontological theory of ethics and the social Responsibility theory, which

treated vital areas, such as deception and privacy. Findings from the study revealed that the

majority of the sampled population agreed that news and information disseminated by the

media was credible and reliable and that the activities of the journalists were guided by

journalists’ professional code of ethics. However, a greater number of the sampled population

were also of the opinion that journalists are largely corrupt as they freely accept bribes and

other forms of gratification and that most media outfits lacked editorial independence. The

audience believes that all is not that well with the mass media. The “audience confidence in

mass media is today at an all-time low”.

39
Another study by Olajide et al (2012) on the effects of non-professionalism in Nigerian

journalism using the survey method showed that Nigerian journalists are mostly non-

professionals. Thus, the study suggested that the regulatory bodies should enforce the code of

ethical conduct to get rid of quacks in the profession and formal education and experience

along with necessary training should form the basis for entrance into the profession. In a

similar vein, Pepple and Acholonu (2018) examined the implications of ethics as key to

sound professionalism in Nigerian journalism by setting out to assess how ethics affect the

standard of journalism practice in the country, using media practitioners in Rivers State,

Nigeria as a case study. It was discovered that despite the importance of ethics to journalism

practice, journalists’ adherence to the ethical codes was low. The study also revealed that

journalists most times go against the ethics of the profession due to sycophancy, security

reasons, desperation, greed, ethical dilemmas, and ignorance of the code of ethics. A study on

ethical challenges in journalism practice in South-South Nigeria: a case study of Rivers,

Bayelsa and Delta by Ednah (2013) found that there are discrepancies in the internal and

external factors affecting journalism practice in Nigeria. One of the findings also highlighted

managerial incompetence as a threat not just to the performance of journalists based on

ethical principles but also to the image of the journalism profession. Hence, the researcher

recommends amongst others that expert services should be engaged in the evaluation of

journalism in Nigeria to professional standards of ethics and to ensure that the profession is

up to date regularly to meet the required standard based on professional best practice.

Bello et al (2012) also discovered in their study that there is a low trust for journalists in the

public sphere. This is a result of some compromising habits by some journalists discharging

their duties. The public has little trust for the journalists most especially in the area of

objectivity and truthfulness. The authors strongly affirmed that there is a need for deep

rethinking by journalists, especially in Nigeria on the imminent implications of unethical

40
practices. The researchers further warned that “if the situation continues this way without

proper attention by all stakeholders to find a lasting remedy to eliminate or reduce these ills

among journalists, the profession will end up as an anathema as in the case of police

institution”.

Odunu and Issa (2018) found that journalists still perceive themselves as responsible. After

conducting interviews with some members of the Nigeria Union of Journalists in Kano state,

the authors concluded that journalists acknowledged their adherence to ethical codes but at

the same time were honest on collection of gratification when offered by events’ organizers.

This finding however is in line with an earlier assertion by Ibbi (2016), which disclosed that

it is common to hear the word, brown envelope (a subtle way of calling a bribe) in the media

parlance. It is now common to see journalists at the end of every media event, waiting on

politicians and other news sources to give them brown envelopes, which serves as a morale

booster as well as a survival mechanism for them. Hence, a study by Apuke (2016) shows

that the brown envelope affects social responsibility as well as objectivity and balance in

journalism practice or reporting. Ganiyu et al. (2016) examined the prevalence of brown

envelope syndrome in the journalism practice in Nigeria using survey research methods and

empirical analysis to examine journalists’ understanding, adherence to the media codes of

ethics, and factors militating against ethical compliance. Findings from the study indicated

that the majority of journalists do not adhere strictly to the ethical codes as well as some

factors hindering the adherence of journalists to the code, such as ‘brown envelope’ collection

and the failure of the regulatory bodies to take bold steps in enforcing the code.

Nasidi (2016) conducted a study titled, Media and ethics: journalism ethics in Nigeria News

Media. The study observed that Ethics in journalism is the symbols of morals that journalists

are supposed to uphold. These consist of a commitment to revealing the truth objectivity

without being subjective by self-interest; maintaining the privacy of sources and attributing

41
what is said to the appropriate source. This paper focuses on examining journalism ethics in

Nigerian news media, how Nigerian journalists report issues concerning different region;

does Nigerian journalist abide by the Code of Ethics. The research examined how Nigerian

journalists carry out their duties. The study used Critical Discourse Analyses (CDA) as

methodology. The research begins with brief introduction, background of Nigeria, Nigerian

media structure at a glance, discussing ethical concept as well as ethical theories. The

research figures out that, Nigerian journalists in one way or the other violated code of ethics

of the profession.

2.3 Theoretical Framework

Social Responsibility Theory was adopted for this study.

This theory, according to Tsegyu and Asemah (2014), has its beginnings from the Hutchins

Commission of 1947 and has as its basic postulation that freedom carries a concomitant

obligation. The press is responsible to the society by carrying out certain essential functions

of mass communication. While the theory emphasizes the need for independent press the

scrutinizes other social institutions and provides objective, accurate news reports, the most

innovative feature of Social Responsibility Theory was the call for media to be responsible

for fostering productive and creative great communities (Baran and Davies as cited in Tsegyu

& Asemah, 2014).

Social Responsibility Theory asserts that media must remain free of government control, but

in exchange media must serve the public (Baran, 2004). According to Owolabi (2007), there

must be development of professionalism as a means of achieving higher standards of

performance while the media maintain self-regulations. This theory is very apt, because if the

media are to be responsible to the society, it must adhere to the ethical codes of the profession

as its first assignment to the public is to disseminate accurate information. Theory, therefore,

42
cautions the media to be careful while carrying out their function. McQuail (as cited in

Anaeto, Onabanjo, & Osifeso, 2008) gives the assumptions of the theory as: the media should

accept and fulfil certain obligations to society and that through professional standards of

informativeness, truth, accuracy, objectivity, and balance, these obligations can be met.

Relevance of Social Responsibility theories to the study

1. Social Responsibility Theory

Relevance: This theory suggests that while the media should enjoy freedom, they also have

an obligation to serve the public interest, maintain fairness, and uphold ethical standards. This

is directly related to ethical adherence among Abuja journalists as it emphasizes

accountability and their role in societal development.

It provides a framework to assess how well journalists balance press freedom with their

ethical duty to provide accurate, unbiased, and socially beneficial information.

Critique of Social Responsibility Theories

1. Social Responsibility Theory

Critique: While idealistic, it places significant responsibility on journalists without addressing

the systemic challenges they face, such as political influence, censorship, or economic

instability. In Abuja, journalists might struggle to fulfill these responsibilities due to limited

resources or external pressures.

43
Critics argue that the theory can inadvertently justify regulatory interference in the name of

public interest, which might be exploited by governments to suppress press freedom rather

than enhance ethical compliance.

In conclusion, the Social Responsibility Theory, though more aligned with ethical adherence,

must be critiqued for its practical implementation challenges in the Nigerian media

landscape, where political and economic factors heavily influence journalistic practices.

Together, these theories serve as complementary frameworks to explore the balance between

freedom and ethical accountability among journalists in Abuja.

CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 Research Design

The study adopts a survey design and in-depth interview to explore adherence issues in

professional ethics among journalists in Abuja. This design is chosen to provide a systematic

and comprehensive analysis of journalists' behaviors, perceptions, and challenges in adhering

to media ethics.

44
3.2 Population, Sample and Sampling of the Study

The population of this study comprises journalists in Abuja, Nigeria. These include

professionals working in print, broadcast, and online media organizations, as well as

freelance journalists operating within the Federal Capital Territory (FCT).

A non-probability sampling technique will be used to ensure a diverse and representative

sample. Therefore, Convenience Sampling technique will be adopted, where Journalists will

be selected based on their availability from (print, broadcast, and online media). As a result,

50 journalists will be sampled.

Hence, the sample size is 50.

3.3 Method of Data Collection

The method of data collection employed for this study are:

Primary Data:

Survey: A structured questionnaire will be administered to journalists in Abuja to assess their

understanding and adherence to media ethics.

Interviews: In-depth interviews will be conducted with about 9 journalists from different

media organisations from radio, TV, newspapers among others to get an in-depth view on the

challenges that they are facing in adhering to journalistic ethics.

Secondary Data:

Review of relevant literature, including codes of ethics, case studies, and existing research on

media ethics in Nigeria.

3.4 Technique for Data Analysis

The technique for data analysis includes

45
Quantitative data from surveys will be analyzed using statistical tools, while qualitative data

from interviews will be analyzed thematically.

3.5 Justification of the Study

Combining quantitative and qualitative methods ensures the validity and reliability of the

findings by providing a comprehensive understanding of the research problem.

This methodology ensures that the study effectively captures the dynamics of ethical

adherence among journalists in Abuja, offering robust insights for academics, policymakers,

and media practitioners.

REFERENCES

Akabogu, C. E. (2015). The ethical journalist and brown envelope syndrome: The way

forward. International Journal of Communication, 3, 201-206.

Akinfeleye, R. (2018). “Contemporary issues in mass media for developmen and national

security” Lagos:

Anaeto, S. G., Osifeso, J. B., & Onabanjo, O. S. (2018). Models and theories of

communication. Maryland: African Renaissance Book Incorporated.

Baran, S. J. (2004). Introduction to mass communication: Media literacy and culture (3rd ed.)

New York: McGraw-Hill.

46
Apuke, O. D (2016). Nigerian Journalists’ Knowledge and Perceptions of Brown Envelope

Syndrome on Journalism Practice: A Study of Journalists’ in Jalingo

Metropolis. International Journal of Humanities & Social Science Studies

(IJHSSS) Vol 3 (2). (Published by Scholar Publications, Karimganj, Assam,

India, 788711).

Asemah E.S, (2011). Principles and practices of mass communication. Jos; Great future press

Taleb B.A., (2004, p.386) The Bewildered Herd: Media coverage of international conflicts &

public Opinion, Universe.

Baran, S. J., & Davies, D. K. (2016). Mass communication theory, foundations, ferment and

future (6th ed.). Canada: Wadsworth.

Barbra L.Fredricksen, (2009), ‘Afghanistanism’ not an academic joke anymore,” St.Petersbur

time

Danesi, M.(2009).Dictionary of media and communications. Newyork: pentagon press

Black, J. And Roberts, C. (2015), “Doing ethics in media: theories and practical applications”

New York: Routledge.

Briggs, A. And Burke, P. (2015), “A Social History of the Media:From Gutenbeerg to the

internet” Cambridge: Polity Press.

Brown, F. (2017) “Journalism Ethics: A casebook of professional conduct for new media 4th

edition” US: Marion Street press.

DeFleur, M. L. (1989). Theories of mass communication (5th ed.). New York: Longman

Publishing Inc.

47
Egbujor, M. I. (2015). Professionalism and ethical standards in mainstreaming gender

perspectives: A challenge to journalism education and practice in Nigeria and

Sub-Saharan Africa. In

F. I. Obiora and S. E. Udeze (Eds.), Emerging trends in gender, health & political

communication in Africa (pp. 18-45). Enugu:

Dominick, J. R. (2018) “The Dynamics of Mass Communication 6th edition” Boston:

McGraw-Hill Companies.

Edward L. Carter (2017) “Mass Communication laws and policy research and values of free

expression”.

Fab-Ukozor, N. (2024). Media ethics and law. Enugu: John Jacob’s Classic Publishers.

Fab-Ukozor, N. (2011). Ethical responsibility and professionalism in journalism practice: The

Nigerian experience. In V. Agbanu and C. Nwabueze (Eds.), Readings in mass

communication: Global perspectives on communication issues (pp. 291-299).

Enugu: Top Shelve Publishers.

Frost, C. (2017). “Journalism ethics and regulation” London: Pearson. Geetal Tolak (2020)

“The study and importance of ethics”

Hungerford,teven E., and Lemert, James B., (1973) “Covering the Environment: A new

Afghanistanism’? Journalism Quarterly.

Hutchings, R.M. (1955).Afghanistanism, Chicago: Encyclopedia Britannica

Ibituru et al (2018) “Media ethics and key to sound professionalism in Nigerian journalism”.

Ike, N. (2015). “Dictionary of mass communication” Benin:

48
El damak. Jorgensen, M. and Phillips, L. (2016). “Discourse analysis as theory and method”

London: Sage publication.

John A. Living, (2007), The fallacy of wildlife conservation and one cosmic instant: Natural

History of Human Arrogance,

McClelland & Stewart. John G. Cross and Edie N. Goldenberg (2009). Off Track profs; no

tenured Teachers in Higher Education. MIT Press.

Maku, L. (2017) “Mandate, vision, achievements and challenges of the federal ministry of

information” retrieved 23 December, 2013 from fmi.gov.ng

Mare, A. (2017) “Business journalism Ethics in Africa: A comparative study of newsrooms in

South Africa, Kenya and Zimbabwe” MA Thesis.

Matthouse Press Limited Akinfeleye, R. (2015), Fourth Estate of the Realm or Fourth Estate

of the Wreck: Imperative of Social

Angese et al (2014) “Assessment of the adherence to journalism code of ethics by journalists

in Bayelsa State”.

McCombs, M.E., & Shaw, D.L. (2018). The agenda-Setting Function of Mass Media. Public

Opinion Quarterly, 36 (Summer), 176-187.

MCQuail, D. (2005). Mass communication theory. London: sage publications Michael

Kingsley, (2008) please Don’t Remain calm: Provocations and commentaries,

W.W.Norton.

McQuail, D. (2015) “McQuail‟s Mass communication theory, 5th edition” London: Sage

publications. Media fact (2016) “Media Penetration in Nigeria By Media facts”

retrieved 21 Dec. 2016 from www.goldmynet.tv

49
Merrill, J. C. (2018) “Journalism Ethics: philosophical foundations for news media” USA:

Pearson.

Merrill, J. C. and Beer, A. S (2014) “Global journalism: Topical issues and media system”

US: Pearson.

Ndolo, I. S. (2005). Mass media systems and society. Enugu: Rhyce Kerex Printers. New

Media and Mass Communication. (03/03/2017). Retrieved from

http/www.iiste.org

Nwachi, O. F. (2015). Environmental and ethical factors affecting the practice of journalism

in Nigeria. UNICORN International Journal of Contemporary Studies, 1(3),

215-223.

Nigerian press (2018) Nigeria retrieved 11 December, 2020 from www.pressreference.com

Nigerian Press Organization (2016) “Code of ethics for Nigerian journalist” Abuja: NPO

Media and Ethics: Journalism Ethics in Nigerian News Media DOI:

10.9790/0837-2112030106 www.iosrjournals.org 6

Odufwa, F. (2017) “Digital Broadcast migration in West Africa: Nigeria research report”

Association for progressive communication and balancing Act.

Okunna, C. S. (1995). Ethics of mass communication. Enugu: New Generation Books.

Omenugha, K., & Oji, M. (2015). News commercialization, ethics and objectivity in

journalism practice in Nigeria: Strange bedfellows? Retrieved from

http://www.ec.ubi.pt/ec/03/html/omenugha-oji-news

Owolabi, S. O. (2007). Professionalism and ethics in a depressed economy: Public relations

experience in Nigeria. International Journal of Communication, 6, 178-192.

50
Oso, L. and Pate, U. (2016) “Mass media and society in Nigeria” Lagos: Matthouse Press

Limited

Pate, U. (2015) “Ethics and nation building in Nigeria” National Conference and Annual

General Meeting of the Nigerian Institute of Public Relations, NIPR, Abuja

Philip, O. P. (2020). Ethical considerations in journalism practice. In I. Pepple (Ed.),

Journalism and public interest (pp. 49-57). Port Harcourt:

Rhyce Kerex Ltd. Ekeli, E., & Enokbahare, J. (2021). Ethics, professionalism and media

offences. In D. Wilson (Ed.), Communication for social change and

development (pp. 339-359). Uyo: ACCE.

Etukudo, W. (1986). Issues and problems in mass communication. Calabar: Development

Digest Ltd.

Risely, F. (2015) “Ethics” in Harpler Christopher and the Indiana group (eds) Journalism

2000 Madison, Course wise.

Sanders, K. (2014). “Ethics and journalism” London: Sage Stovall, J. G. (2015) “Journalism:

who, what, when, where, why, and how” USA: Pearson

Soteria. Tsegyu, S., & Asemah, E. S. (2014). An investigation of media practitioners’

adherence to professional ethics in Minna, Nigeria. Review of Communication

and Media Studies, 1, 10-21.

Udeajah, R. A. (2014). Broadcasting and politics in Nigeria. Enugu: SNAAP Press Ltd.

Udeze, S. E. (2022). Media law and ethics. Enugu: Rhyce Kerex Ltd.

Udoakah et al (2014) Influence of Mass Media Law and Ethics on Journalism Practice in

Nigeria ISSN 2224-3267 (Paper) ISSN 2224-3275 (Online) Vol.31.

51
Van Dijk, T. (2017) “Critical discourse analysis” retrieved 19th Nov, 2016 from

www.discourses.org

Walter, L. (2019), “Public opinion” New York: Macmillan p.29.

Ward, S. J. (2016) “Journalism ethics” Wahl-Jorg_C021.indd 295

Watson, J. C (2018) “Law and society: journalism ethics by court decree” New York: LFB

Scholarly Publishing.

Acholo, B. (2010). Ethical issues and journalism profession in Nigeria (unpublished B.A

project). Nasarawa State University, Keffi.

Adedowole, F. & Okiya S.O. (2011). Global Media Ethics and its Theoretical Application in

Nigerian Journalism. In S.K. Idebi and W.M. Madaki, Journalism ethics: a

philosophical approach to issues in the Nigerian media. Ibadan: Cobweb Book

Publishers, pp.1-15.

Adeyemi, A. (2013). Nigerian Media and Corrupt Practices: The Need for Paradigm Shift.

European Scientific Journal, 9(1), 119-136.

Agbude, G.A., Ogunwede, J.K., Godwyns-Agbude, J., Wogu, I.P.A. & Nchekwube, E.

(2015). Kant’s.

Categorical Imperative and the “Business” of Profit Maximization: The Quest for Service

Paradigm. Technology and Investment, 6, 1-11.

http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/ti.2015.61001.

Alhassan, A. & Abdulai, M. (2019). Managing ethical dilemmas under stressful economic

circumstances among journalists in Ghana. Athens Journal of Mass Media,

5(3), 193-212.

52
Alhassan, A. & Abdulai, M. (2019). Cultural and moral implications of Soli and its effects on

journalism in Northern Ghana. Journal of Media Ethics, Routledge: 1-11.

Akinfeleye, R, (2008). Democracy, the media and national interest in Akinfeleye, R (ed)

Contemporary issues in mass media for development and national security, Pp

1-9, Lagos: Jesuboh & Associates Designer and Printer.

Akinrosoye, A. I. & Isamuko B. J. (2018). Perception of media ethics among newspaper

journalistsandits implication for journalism practice. Research Journal of Mass

Communication and Information Technology, 4 (2): 43-52.

Akpede, K.S. (2011). Implementation of Ethics Practice by the Nigerian Media Practitioners:

The Journey So Far. In S.K. Idebi and W.M. Madaki, Journalism ethics: a

philosophical approach to issues in the Nigerian media. Ibadan: Cobweb Book

Publishers, pp.31-50.

Akpede, K.S. (2015). Press coverage and public perception of Jos 2010 Crisis (unpublished

doctoral thesis). Benue State University, Makurdi, Nigeria.

Apeh, A.C., Godwin, C.A. & Moughalu, M.C. (2019). Empirical analysis on the

environmental issues in the practice of journalism in Nigeria. Language,

literature and communication journal 1(1): 24-34.

Apuke, O.B. (2016). The Nigerian journalists’ knowledge and perceptions of brown envelope

syndrome on journalism practice: a study of journalists’ in Jalingo metropolis.

International Journal of Humanities & Social Science Studies (IJHSSS), l3 (2):

319 -334.

53
Badji, Y & Takieddine, Y (2020). Violations in professional journalism practices in Algeria:

opportunities and obstacles. Scientific Notes of Institute of Journalism, Т. 1

(76) 2020

Dyikuk, J.J. (2015). The Nigerian media space and the cost of a bribe. New Media and Mass

Communication, Vol.40: 13-24.

Ednah, A. (2013) Ethical challenges in journalism practice in south-south Nigeria: a case

study of Rivers, Bayelsa and Delta states. A Research Project Submitted to the

department of mass communication, University of Nigeria, Nsukka.

Ekeanyanwu, N.T. & Obianigwe, N. (2012). The Nigerian Press, Brown Envelope Syndrome

(BES) and Media Professionalism: The Missing Link. Journalism and Mass

Communication Journal, 2(4): 514-529.

Folarin, J., Adesina, K. & Ismail, B.A. (2019). Ethical compliance among journalists in

Nigeria: a theoretical approach. Nigerian Communication & Information

Technology Journal, 1 (1), Pp. 1-16.

Foreman, G. (2010). The ethical journalist: making responsible decisions in the pursuit of

news. UK: Wiley-Blackwell.

Frost, C. (2011). Journalism Ethics and Regulation (3rd ed). Harlow: Longman Ganiyu, M.

A, Awoniyi, E. F., Oyegbade, A. O. & Ganiyu, A. K. (2016). Media ethics and

brown envelope syndrome among journalists in Nigeria. JPSD, 2 (1): 132-151.

Guzman, M. (2015). Edge of Ethics. Society of Professional Journalists: pp.26-31.

Gwandu, J.B. (2010). Nigerian journalism ethics: An Islamic perspective. Birnin Kebbi:

Haske Printing Press.

54
Ibbi, A.A. (2016). The Battle for Professionalism in Journalism in Nigeria Amidst Unethical

Practices. Journal of Mass Communication and Journalism, 6(301): 1-5.

Idebi, S.K & Madaki, W.M. (2011). Journalism ethics: a philosophical approach to issues in

the Nigerian media. Ibadan: cobweb book publishers.

James, C. (2017). Article 7 of NUJ Code of Ethics and Journalism Practice in Akwa Ibom

State, Nigeria. Ebonyi State University Journal of Mass Communication, 4(1):

223- 241.

Lee, L. F., Cui, D. & Zhang, Z. (2015). Ethical Orientation and Judgments of Chinese Press

Journalists in Times of Change Francis. Journal of Media Ethics, 30: 203-221.

Madaki, W.M. & Ikpomma, S. (2011). Effects of Junk Journalism and Unethical Attitudes On

the Nigerian Media. In S.K. Idebi and W.M. Madaki, Journalism ethics: a

philosophical approach to issues in the Nigerian media. Ibadan: Cobweb Book

Publishers, pp.64-81.

Morton, T. & Aroney, E. (2016). Journalism, Moral Panic and the Public Interest: The Case of

Sharleen Spiteri. Journal of Media Ethics, 10(1): 18-34.

Mukhtar, M.U and Gujbawu, M. (2016). Unethical practices in the mass media: a study of

some selected media houses in Kano metropolis, Nigeria. New Media mass

communication, IITE journal, 49: 50-57.

Nasidi, Q.Y. (2016). Media and Ethics: Journalism Ethics in Nigerian News Media. IOSR

Journal Of Humanities And Social Science (IOSR-JHSS), 21(12):1-6.

Nigeria Press Organization (1998). Code of ethics of Nigerian journalists. Lagos: NPC decree

No 60 of 1999

55
Odunu, G. O. & Issa, A.A. (2018, September). Enforcement of the codes: ethical violations,

bribery, blackmail and lies. A Seminar Paper on MAC 8305 (media law and

ethics) Presented at the

56