MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

(Autonomous Institution – UGC, Govt. of India)

Affiliated to JNTUHApproved by AICTE, NBA- Tier 1& NAAC – ‘A’ Grade ISO 9001:2015 Certified)
Maisammaguda, Dhulapally (Post Via. Hakimpet), Secunderabad – 500100, Telangana State, India

Aircraft Structures Lab

MANUAL
B.TECH III YEAR – I SEM

NAME

ROLL NO: BRANCH

YEAR: SEM:
 MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

(Autonomous Institution – UGC, Govt. of India)
Affiliated to JNTUH Approved by AICTE, NBA- Tier 1 & NAAC – ‘A’ Grade ISO 9001:2015 Certified)
Maisammaguda, Dhulapally (Post Via. Hakimpet), Secunderabad – 500100, Telangana State, India

CERTIFICATE
E is the Bonafide Record of the work done
Certified that this
by Mr. /Ms. ______________________________ bearing
Roll No. _____________________ of B.Tech III Year
_____________Semester for the Academic year 2022-2023
in ______________________________

Internal Examiner External Examiner

DEPARTMENT OF AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING

 MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

INDEX
S.No Date Title Page Faculty
No Sign

DEPARTMENT OF AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING

 MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

INDEX
S.No Date Title Page Faculty
No Sign

DEPARTMENT OF AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING

 MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING

VISION
Department of Aeronautical Engineering aims to be indispensable source in Aeronautical
Engineering which has a zeal to provide the value driven platform for the students to acquire
knowledge and empower themselves to shoulder higher responsibility in building a strong
nation.

MISSION
a) The primary mission of the department is to promote engineering education and research.
(b) To strive consistently to provide quality education, keeping in pace with time and
technology.
(c) Department passions to integrate the intellectual, spiritual, ethical and social development

of the students for shaping them into dynamic engineers.

DEPARTMENT OF AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING

 MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

PROGRAMME EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES (PEOs)

PEO1: PROFESSIONALISM & CITIZENSHIP

To create and sustain a community of learning in which students acquire knowledge and learn

to apply it professionally with due consideration for ethical, ecological and economic issues.
PEO2: TECHNICAL ACCOMPLISHMENTS
To provide knowledge based services to satisfy the needs of society and the industry by
providing hands on experience in various technologies in core field.
PEO3: INVENTION, INNOVATION AND CREATIVITY

To make the students to design, experiment, analyze, interpret in the core field with the help ofother
multi disciplinary concepts wherever applicable.

PEO4: PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT

To educate the students to disseminate research findings with good soft skills and become a
successful entrepreneur.
PEO5: HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT
To graduate the students in building national capabilities in technology, education and

research.

DEPARTMENT OF AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING

 MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

PROGRAM OUTCOMES (POs)

Engineering Graduates will be able to:

1. Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, engineeringfundamentals,
and an engineering specialization to the solution of complexengineering problems.
2. Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, review research literature, and analyzecomplex engineering
problems reaching substantiated conclusions using firstprinciples of mathematics, natural sciences,
and engineering sciences.
3. Design / development of solutions: Design solutions for complex engineering problemsand design
system components or processes that meet the specified needs withappropriate consideration for
the public health and safety, and the cultural, societal,and environmental considerations.

4. Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research‐based knowledge andresearch

methods including design of experiments, analysis and interpretation ofdata, and synthesis of the
information to provide valid conclusions.

5. Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources, andmodern
engineering and IT tools including prediction and modeling to complexengineering activities with an
understanding of the limitations.

6. The engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual knowledge toassess
societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues and the consequentresponsibilities relevant to the
professional engineering practice.

7. Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the professionalengineering solutions

in societal and environmental contexts, and demonstrate theknowledge of, and need for sustainable
development.
8. Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and responsibilitiesand norms of
the engineering practice.

9. Individual and team work: Function effectively as an individual, and as a member orleader in
diverse teams, and in multidisciplinary settings.

10. Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with theengineering

community and with society at large, such as, being able to comprehendand write effective reports
and design documentation, make effective presentations,and give and receive clear instructions.

11. Project management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of theengineering
and management principles and apply these to one’s own work, as amember and leader in a team, to
manage projects and in multi disciplinary environments.
12. Life‐ long learning: Recognize the need for, and have the preparation and ability toengage in
independent and life‐long learning in the broadest context of technologicalchange.

DEPARTMENT OF AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING

 MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING
PROGRAM SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
1. To mould students to become a professional with all necessary skills, personality and
sound knowledge in basic and advance technological areas.

2. To promote understanding of concepts and develop ability in design manufacture and

maintenance of aircraft, aerospace vehicles and associated equipment and develop
application capability of the concepts sciences to engineering design and processes.

3. Understanding the current scenario in the field of aeronautics and acquire ability to apply
knowledge of engineering, science and mathematics to design and conduct experiments in
the field of Aeronautical Engineering.

4. To develop leadership skills in our students necessary to shape the social, intellectual,
business and technical worlds.

DEPARTMENT OF AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING

 AS LAB MANUAL
DEPT OF ANE

CODE OF CONDUCT FOR THE LABORATORIES

 All students must observe the Dress Code while in the laboratory.

 Sandals or open-toed shoes are NOT allowed.

 Foods, drinks and smoking are NOT allowed.

 All bags must be left at the indicated place.

 The lab timetable must be strictly followed.

 Be PUNCTUAL for your laboratory session.

 Program must be executed within the given time.

 Noise must be kept to a minimum.

 Workspace must be kept clean and tidy at all time.

 Handle the systems and interfacing kits with care.

 All students are liable for any damage to the accessories due to their own negligence.

 All interfacing kits connecting cables must be RETURNED if you taken from the lab supervisor.

 Students are strictly PROHIBITED from taking out any items from the laboratory.

 Students are NOT allowed to work alone in the laboratory without the Lab Supervisor

 USB Ports have been disabled if you want to use USB drive consult lab supervisor.

 Report immediately to the Lab Supervisor if any malfunction of the accessories, is there.

Before leaving the lab

 Place the chairs properly.

 Turn off the system properly

 Turn off the monitor.

 Please check the laboratory notice board regularly for updates.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. TENSILE TEST .................................................................................................... 3

2. DEFLECTION OF CANTILEVER BEAM ......................................................... 7
3. LONG & SHORT COLUMNS ............................................................................. 13
4. SHEAR CENTRE OF OPEN SECTIONS ........................................................... 22
5. SHEAR CENTER OF CLOSED SECTIONS ..................................................... 28
6. NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING METHODS .................................................. 34
7. BEAM BENDING (MAXWELL’S RECIPROCAL THEOREM) ...................... 43
8. RIVETED JOINTS ............................................................................................... 46
9. STRESS ANALYSIS OF A WAGNER BEAM ................................................... 55
10. DETERMINATION OF FLEXURAL STRESS AND STRAIN OF A SIMPLY
SUPPORTED BEAM…………………………….. 62

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1. TENSILE TEST
AIM:
To conduct tensile test on a mild steel specimen and determine the following:
Ultimate strength, Young’s Modulus, Percentage reduction in area, Malleability,
Percentage elongation, True stress & true strain.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Tensile testing machine (UNIVERSAL TESTING MACHINE), specimen, steel
rule, Vernier caliper.

THEORY:
In order to study the behavior of ductile material in tension, tensile test is conducted
on standard specimen who is made up of ductile material, in a U.T.M up to destruction.
The testing machine is called UTM because in this machine more than one test can be
conducted. For extension, compression, bending, shearing etc.
The end of specimen is gripped in U.T.M and one of the grips moved apart, thus
exerting tensile load on specimen. The load applied is indicated on a dial and extension is
measured by using extensometer. Almost all the U.T.M’s are provided with and
autographic recorder which records load Vs deformation curve.
The figure shows a typical stress-strain curve for mild steel from stress-strain graph
the mechanical behavior of the material is obtained.
The straight line portion from 0 to A represents the stress is proportional to strain.
The stress at A is called “Proportionality limit”. In this range of loading the material is

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elastic in nature. At B, elastic limit is reached. At point C, there is an increase in strain

without appreciable increase in load is called Yielding.
Point C is called “Upper Yield Point”.
Point D is called “Lower Yield Point”.
After Yielding, any further increase in load will cause considerable increase in strain and
the curve rises till the point ‘E’ which is known as point of Ultimate Stress.
The deformation in the range is plastic. At this stress, the bar will development break at
point E.
Graph:

PROCEDURE:
 Measure the original gauge length and diameter of the specimen.
 Insert the specimen into grips of the test machine.
 Begin the load application and record the load vs. elongation load.
 Take the readings more frequently as yield point is approached.
 Measure elongation values.
 Continue the test till fracture occurs.
RESULT: -
Ultimate strength, Young’s Modulus, Percentage reduction in area,
Malleability Percentage elongation True stress & true strain was calculated.

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2. DEFLECTION OF CANTILEVER BEAM

AIM:
To find the deflection of the cantilever beam and calculate the Poisson’s ratio.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Cantilever beam, Dial gauge, Loads, Scale.

THEORY
The problem of bending probably occurs more often than any other loading problem in
design. Shafts, axels, cranks, levers, springs, brackets, and wheels, as well as many other
elements, must often be treated as beams in the design and analysis of mechanical structures
and system. A beam subjected to pure bending is bent into an arc of circle within the elastic
range, and the relation for the curvature is:
1 𝑀(𝑥)
=
𝜌 𝐸𝐼
Where: 𝜌 is the radius of the curvature of the neutral axis X is the distance of the section
from the left end of the beam
The curvature of a plane curve is given by the equation:
𝑑2𝑦
1 𝑑𝑥2
= 3
𝜌
[1 + ( 𝑑𝑦) ]2
2

𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 is the slope of the curve and in the case of elastic curve the slope is very small:𝑑𝑥
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𝑑𝑦
=0
𝑑𝑥
1 𝑑2𝑦
=
𝜌 𝑑𝑥2

DOUBLE INTEGRATION METHOD:

𝑑2𝑦 𝑀(𝑥)
=
𝑑𝑥2 𝐸𝐼
𝑑2𝑦
The bending moment at a point is given by M = 𝐸𝐼
𝑑𝑥2

Multiply both sides by EI which is constant and integrating with respect to x:

𝑑𝑦
𝐸𝐼 ( ) = ∫ 𝑀(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 + 𝐶1
𝑑𝑥
Noting that (𝑑𝑦/𝑑𝑥) = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 𝜃 = 𝜃(𝑥) because the angle 𝜃 is very small. And
integrating the equation again.

𝐸𝐼𝑦 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑀(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 + 𝐶1𝑥 + 𝐶2

The constants C1 and C2 are determined from the boundary conditions (constants) imposed
on the beams by its supports. First equation gives slope, later one gives deflection
For Cantilever Beam
The deflection and the slope is zero at A
𝑃𝑥2
𝑌= (3𝑎 − 𝑥) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 0 < 𝑥 < 𝑎
6𝐸𝐼
𝑃𝑎2
𝑌= (3𝑥 − 𝑎) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎 < 𝑥 < 𝑙
6𝐸𝐼
MOMENT AREA METHOD: -
This method gives the slope and deflection of the beam.
I method:
The change of slope between any two points on an elastic curve is equal to the net area of
B.M diagram between these points divided by EI.
𝐴
𝐼=
𝐸𝐼
II method:
The intercept (between) taken on a given vertical reference line of tangents at any points
on an elastic curve is equal to the moment of B.M diagram between these points about the
reference line divided by EI

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𝐴(𝑥)
𝑌=
𝐸𝐼
PROCEDURE:
 Measure the dimensions of the given cantilever beam.
 Set the Load Indicators and Strain Indicators to Zero.
 Fix the deflection gauge of some specified position and vary the loads of the free
end of beam.
 By applying suitable conditions increasing loads at the free end, note down the
deflections at the specified position.
 Note down the applied load values from Load indicator and strain values from strain
Indicators.
 Calculate theoretical deflection for each load step.
 Calculate the Poisson’s ratio.
PRECAUTIONS:
Clean the equipment regularly and grease all visual rotational parts periodically
say for every 15days.
Do not run the equipment if the voltage is below 180V.
Do not leave the load to the maximum.
Check all the electrical connections before running.
Before starting and after finishing the experiment the main control valve should
be in closed position.
Do not attempt to alter the equipment as this may cause damage to the whole
system.
TABLE:
Length of the Beam l =

Micro strain at different

Load Deflection
Sl.No. directions
Kg N 𝜀𝑥 𝜀𝑦 𝜀𝑧 Experimental Theoretical

Poisson’s Ratio 𝜈 = 𝜀𝑥/𝜀𝑦 =

RESULT:
Deflection of the cantilever beam is
 BEAM DEFLECTION FORMULAE FOR CANTILEVER BEAM

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3. LONG & SHORT COLUMNS

A) LONG COLUMN
AIM:
To find out the young’s modulus of the given long column.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Long column, Universal Testing Machine, scale, Vernier caliper.

THEORY
The need to make use of materials with high strength-to-weight ratio in aircrafts
design has resulted in the use of slender structural components that fail more than often by
instability than by excessive stress. The simplest example of such structural component is
a slender column. Ideal column under the small compressive equilibrium position returns
to it original equilibrium position. Further increase the load does not alter the situation.
Until a stage is reached. This is neutral equilibrium position for the column position also.
The column is said to have failed due its instability. The load beyond which the column is
unstable is called the Euler load or the critical load.
In an ideal column deflection appear suddenly at the critical load whereas in actual
column due to imperfections present the deflection starts appearing as soon as the loads are
applied. South well shown that there exists a relation between a compressive load. Later
deflations which can be utilized profitably to determine the critical load and the eccentricity
of the column by the graphical procedure without actually destroying the test specimen.
The well-known formula for critical load of a uniform slender column is Euler formula for
crippling load.

𝐶(𝜋2𝐸𝐼)
𝑃𝑐𝑟 =
𝐿2
Where Pcr = crippling load
E=Young’s modulus of elasticity
I=moment of inertia
L=Equivalent length
Where C is constant depending on the end conditions of the column.
For applications of Euler’s theory, the column should satisfy the following conditions

o The column should be perfectly straight and axially loaded.

o The section of column should be uniform.

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 Dept. of ANE AS Lab Manual

o The column material & perfectly elastic homogeneous and isotropic &
obeys Hooke’s law.
o The length of the column is very compared to the lateral dimension.
o The direct stresses are very small compared with the bending stress
o The weight will fail by buckling alone.
PROCEDURE:
 Measure the specimen & find its moment of inertia.
 Fix the specimen between the two plates.
 Before starting the experiment, the load gauge of deflection scale is kept at zero
 Start the machine & apply the load over the column.
 After the experiment is done i.e. when the column starts buckling we get the
crippling load.
 And hence the Young’s modulus of the material can be found out by Euler’s
formula.
PRECAUTIONS:
Keep the column perfectly perpendicular to the jaws.
RESULT:
The young’s modulus of the given specimen is MPa

Calculations:
Cross-sectional area of the specimen, A =
Moment of the inertia, M.I. = I =
Radius of gyration, K=
𝜋2𝐸𝐼
Pcr = =
𝑙2
E=

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B) SHORT COLUMN
AIM:
To find the compressive stress of a short column for a given material.

APPARATUS USED:
Universal testing machine, Test specimen (short column), Scale, Vernier callipers.
Dimensions:
Diameter = mm or Cross section of the specimen =
Length = mm

THEORY:
slenderness ratio = length of the column (l) / Least radius of gyration
If slenderness ratio is less than 20 then the column is short column.
A very short column will fail by crushing load, given by

Pc = Fc. A

Where,

FC Ultimate crushing stress

A Uniform cross sectional area of short column,

By adding the crushing load of a suitable factor of safety, safe load for the member can be
computed.
Rankine's Formula:
Short columns fail by crushing the load at the failure point given by Pc = Fc. A
𝜋2𝐸𝐼
Long columns fail by buckling and the buckling load is given by 𝑃𝑏 = 2
𝑙
The struts and columns which we come across are neither too short nor too long but the
failure is due to combined effect of direct and bending stress.
Rankin revised an empirical formula which converts both the cases.
1 1 1
= +
𝑝 𝑝𝑒 𝑝𝑏
p  Actual crippling load.
𝐹𝑐
𝑃 = 𝐹𝑐. 1𝐴2 Where, 𝛼 = Constant for given material.
1+𝛼 2
𝜋 𝐸
()
𝑘

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PROCEDURE:
 Place the given short column specimen in the UTM.
 Ensure that the specimen is vertical with its end or cross section is in contact with
the loading surfaces.
 Now gradually apply the compressive load.
 Note the failure load from the universal testing machine.
PRECAUTIONS:
Place the given short column specimen in the UTM.
Ensure that the specimen is vertical with its end or cross section is in contact with
the loading surfaces.
Column should be firmly gripped without any slip.
Maintain a safe distance from the UTM during the experiment.
RESULT:
The compressive stress of the given material is MPa.

Calculations:
Cross-sectional area of the specimen = A =
Moment of the inertia, M.I. = I =
Radius of gyration, K=
𝐹𝑐. 𝐴2
P =
1+𝛼( 1)
=
𝑘

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4. SHEAR CENTRE OF OPEN SECTIONS

AIM:
To determine the shear center of an open section.

THEORY:
For any unsymmetrical section there exists a point at which any vertical force does not
produce a twist of that section. This point is known as shear center.

The location of this shear center is important in the design of beams of open sections when
they should bend without twisting, as they are weak in resisting torsion. A thin walled
channel section with its web vertical has a horizontal axis of symmetry and the shear center
lies on it. The aim of the experiment is to determine its location on this axis if the applied
shear to the tip section is vertical (i.e., along the direction of one of the principal axes of the
section) and passes through the shear center tip, all other sections of the beam do not twist.
1. Theoretical calculation
3𝑏
𝑒 = [6 + ℎ)]
(𝑏
Where,
h → height of the flange
b → width of the flange
2. Experimental calculation
From the graph ‘e’ versus (d1-d2)

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
 A thin uniform cantilever beam of channel section as shown in the figure. At the
free end extension pieces are attached on either side of the web to facilitate vertical
loading.

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 Two dial gauges are mounted firmly on this section, a known distance apart, over
the top flange. This enables the determination of the twist, if any, experienced by
the section.
 A steel support structure to mount the channel section as cantilever.
 Two loading hooks each weighing about 200 gm
PROCEDURE:
1. Mount two dial gauges on the flange at a known distance apart at the free and of the
beam. Set the dial gauge readings to zero.
2. Place a total of, say two kilograms’ load at A (loading hook and nine load pieces
will make up this value). Note the dial gauge readings (nominally, hooks also weigh
a 200 gm each).
3. Now remove one load piece from the hook at A and place another hook at B. This
means that the total vertical load on this section remains 2 kg. Record the dial gauge
readings.
4. Transfer carefully all the load pieces and finally the hook one by one to the other
hook noting each time the dial gauge readings. This procedure ensures that while
the magnitude of the resultant vertical force remains the same its line of action shifts
by a known amount along AB every time a load piece is shifted. Calculate the
distance ‘e’ of the line of action from the web thus
𝐴𝐵(𝑊𝑎 − 𝑊𝑏)
𝑒𝑒𝑥𝑝 = ( )
2𝑊𝑣
5. For every load case calculate the algebraic difference between the dial gauge
readings as the measure of the angle of twist 𝜃 suffered by the section.
6. Plot 𝜃 against ‘e’ and obtain the meeting point of curve (a straight line in this case)
with the ‘e’-axis (i.e., the twist of the section is zero for this location of the resultant
vertical load). This determines the shear center.
Theoretical location of the shear center
3𝑏2𝑡𝑓
𝑒𝑡ℎ =
6𝑏𝑡 + ℎ𝑡
𝑓 𝑤

If the thickness of the flange and web are equal equation becomes,

3𝑏
𝑒𝑡ℎ = ℎ
[6 + (𝑏)]
* Though a nominal value of 2 kg for the total load is suggested it can be less. In that event
the number of readings taken will reduce proportionately

GRAPH:
Plot ‘e’ versus (d1-d2) curve and determine where this meets the ‘e’ axis and locate
the shear center.
PRECAUTIONS:
For the section supplied there are limits on the maximum value of loads
to obtain acceptable experimental results. Beyond these the section could

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undergo excessive permanent deformation and damage the beam forever.

Do not therefore exceed the suggested values for the loads.
The dial gauges must be mounted firmly. Every time before taking the
readings tap the set up (not the gauges) gently several times until the reading
pointers on the gauges settle down and do not shift any further. This shift
happens due to both backlash and slippages at the points of contact between
the dial gauges and the sheet surfaces and can induce errors if not taken care
of. Repeat the experiments with identical settings several times to ensure
consistency in the readings.
RESULT:
The shear center location from the web for the given channel section of
a. Theoretical Method =
b. Experimental Method =
c. Error Percentage =.

TABULATION:
Length, L = Height, h = Breadth, b = Thickness, t=
WV = (Wa+ Wb) Distance between the two hook sections (AB) =
Dial gauge readings 𝐴𝐵(𝑊𝑎 − 𝑊𝑏)
Sl. No. Wa Wb (d1-d2) 𝑒𝑒𝑥𝑝 = ( )
d1 d2 2𝑊𝑣
01
02
03
04
05
06
07
08
09
10
11

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5. SHEAR CENTER OF CLOSED SECTIONS

AIM:
To determine the shear center of a closed section.

THEORY:
For any unsymmetrical section there exists a point at which any vertical force does
not produce a twist of that section. This point is known as shear center.

The location of this shear center is important in the design of beams of closed sections
when they should bend without twisting. The shear center is important in the case of a
closed section like an aircraft wing, where the lift produces a torque about the shear center.
Similarly, the wing strut of a semi cantilever wing is a closed tube of airfoil section. A thin
walled ‘D’ section with its web vertical has a horizontal axis of symmetry and the shear
center lies on it. The aim of the experiment is to determine its location on this axis if the
applied shear to the tip section is vertical (i.e., along the direction of one of the principal
axes of the section) and passes through the shear center tip, all other sections of the beam
do not twist. Theoretical calculation

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
 A thin uniform cantilever beam of ‘D’ section as shown in the figure. At the free
end
 extension pieces are attached on either side of the web to facilitate vertical loading.
 Two dial gauges are mounted firmly on this section, a known distance apart, over
the top flange. This enables the determination of the twist, if any, experienced by
the section.
 A steel support structure to mount the channel section as cantilever.
 Two loading hooks each weighing about 200 gm.

PROCEDURE:
7. Mount two dial gauges on the flange at a known distance apart at the free and of the
beam. Set the dial gauge readings to zero.

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8. Place a total of, say two kilograms’ load at A (loading hook and nine load pieces
will make up this value). Note the dial gauge readings (nominally, hooks also weigh
a 200 gm each).
9. Now remove one load piece from the hook at A and place another hook at B. This
means that the total vertical load on this section remains 2 kg. Record the dial gauge
readings.
10. Transfer carefully all the load pieces and finally the hook one by one to the other
hook noting each time the dial gauge readings. This procedure ensures that while
the magnitude of the resultant vertical force remains the same its line of action shifts
by a known amount along AB every time a load piece is shifted. Calculate the
distance ‘e’ of the line of action from the web thus
𝐴𝐵(𝑊𝑎 − 𝑊𝑏)
𝑒𝑒𝑥𝑝 = ( )
2𝑊𝑣
11. For every load case calculate the algebraic difference between the dial gauge
readings as the measure of the angle of twist 𝜃 suffered by the section.
12. Plot 𝜃 against ‘e’ and obtain the meeting point of curve (a straight line in this case)
with the ‘e’-axis (i.e., the twist of the section is zero for this location of the resultant
vertical load). This determines the shear center.

* Though a nominal value of 2 kg for the total load is suggested it can be less. In that event
the number of readings taken will reduce proportionately

GRAPH:
Plot ‘e’ versus (d1-d2) curve and determine where this meets the ‘e’ axis and locate
the
shear center.
PRECAUTIONS:
For the section supplied there are limits on the maximum value of loads
to obtain acceptable experimental results. Beyond these the section could
undergo excessive permanent deformation and damage the beam forever.
Do not therefore exceed the suggested values for the loads.
The dial gauges must be mounted firmly. Every time before taking the
readings tap the set up (not the gauges) gently several times until the reading
pointers on the gauges settle down and do not shift any further. This shift
happens due to both backlash and slippages at the points of contact between
the dial gauges and the sheet surfaces and can induce errors if not taken care
of. Repeat the experiments with identical settings several times to ensure
consistency in the readings.
RESULT:
The shear center obtained experimentally is compared with the theoretical value.

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TABLE:
Length, L = Height, h = Breadth, b = Thickness, t=
WV = (Wa+ Wb) Distance between the two hook sections (AB) =
Dial gauge readings 𝐴𝐵(𝑊𝑎 − 𝑊𝑏)
Sl. No. Wa Wb (d1-d2) 𝑒=( )
d1 d2 2𝑊𝑣
01
02
03
04
05
06
07
08
09
10
11

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6. NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING METHODS

A) ULTRASONIC TEST
AIM:
To detect the internal defects in the given specimen.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Specimen, Ultrasonic 4400AV.

THEORY:
Ultrasonic techniques are very widely used for detecting of internal defects in
materials, but they can also be used for the surface cracks. Ultrasonic are used for quality
control, inspection of finished components, parts processed materials such as rolled steel
slabs etc...
Elastic waves with frequency higher than audio range are described as
Ultrasonic. The waves used for NDT inspection of materials are usually within the
frequency range of 0.5 MHz - 20 MHz In fluids sound waves are zero longitudinal
comp. type in which particle displacement in the direction of wave propagation but in
solids, they are shear waves, with particle displacement normal to the direction of wave
travel.
In solids, velocity of compression waves is given by

𝑉𝑐 = [𝐸 (1 − 𝑌)/ (1 + 𝑌) (1 − 2𝑌) 𝑒] Y= gamma -poisons ratio

Where E  Young's modules
Y Poisson's ratio.
In most ultrasonic test (U.S) equipment, the signals are displayed on the screen of
a C.R. oscilloscope. The presence of a defect within a material may be found using U.S.
with either a transmission technique or reflection technique.

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Test probes & U.S equipment can be calibrated by using reference blocks & calibration
standards.
Ideally a smooth surface is required on a material for effective U.S inspection. The
rough surface of casting or forging may present a problem. The use of a thick grease as
coolant may overcome this.

PROCEDURE: -
 Take the given specimen and match with the C.R.T screen.
 Place the transducer where the flaws to be detected and find out the position of flaw.
 Repeat the same procedure for specimen.
PRECAUTIONS: -
See that the battery of U.S flaw detector is properly charged.
Note the reading without any parallax error.

RESULT: -
Position of discontinuity & flaw is detected.

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B) DYE PENETTRATION TEST

AIM:
To detect the flaws on the surface of a given material.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
The required apparatus to perform the experiment are:
Cylindrical specimen
Developer Orion 115PD
Red dye penetration Orion 115P
Penetration remover, Orion 115 PR

THEORY:
Liquid penetration inspection is a technique which can be used to detect defects in
a wide range of components, provided that the defect breaks the surface of the material.
The principle of the technique is that a liquid is drawn by capillary attraction into the defect
and after subsequent development, any surface –breaking defects may be under visible to
the human eye. In order to achieve good defect visibility, the penetrating liquid should be
bright coloured. In general, the dye is red and developed surface can be viewed in natural
or artificial light, but in later case, the component must be viewed under ultra violet light if
defect indications are to be seen.
Liquid penetration inspection is applicable to any type of configuration. It is
employed for inspection of wrought and cast products in both ferrous and some polymer
components.
There are five essential steps in Penetrant inspection method. They are,
a) Surface preparation
b) Application of Penetrant

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c) Removal of excess Penetrant

d) Development
e) Observation and inspection.
A liquid Penetrant must possess certain characteristics for inspection to be efficient.
a) Penetration
b) Body
c) Fluidity
d) Solution ability
e) Stability
f) Wash ability
g) Drying characteristics
h) Visibility

PROCEDURE:
 Take the specimen on which NDT red dye Penetrant test will be performed
 Clean the specimen with remover-ORION 115PR
 Shake well before the use of the remover to clean the foreign materials which are
present on the surface.
 Now apply the red dye Penetrant ORION 115P to specimen, take necessary care
that red dye Penetrant will cover total surface of specimen.
 Allow it to penetrate into the flaws for 2-5 min.
 After penetration, remove the excess red dye Penetrant remover ORION 115PR
gently.
 Now apply developer ORION-115PD on complete specimen, and then the cracks
on the surface will be visible in ‘Red’ colour.
PRECAUTIONS:
Use adequate ventilation.
Don’t use in vicinity of fire.
Use in ambient temperature, don’t store in direct sunlight
Contents are highly inflammable.
Don’t throw empty cans in fire.
Apply the developer and Penetrant from a distance of 8-10 inches from the
specimen.
RESULT:
The flaws on specimen are detected.

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C) MAGNETIC PARTICLE DETECTION

AIM:
To analyse the intensity of cracks or surface and sub layer flaws in a given
specimen.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Electro Magnetic yoke, steel specimen, iron oxide powder etc.,

THEORY:
Magnetic particle inspection is used for Ferro magnetic components. When a Ferro-
magnet is magnetized, magnetic discontinuities that lie in a direction approximately
perpendicular to the field will results in form of a strong ‘Leakage field’. This leakage field
is present at above the surface of magnetized component and its presence can be visibly
detected by utilization of finely divided magnetic particles. The application of dry or wet
particles in a liquid carrier, over surface of component results in a collection of magnetic
particles at a discontinuity. The magnetic bridge, so formed indicates the location, size and
shape of discontinuity.
Magnetization may be introduced in a component by using permanent magnets, (E.
Ms) or by passing high currents through or around component.

PROCEDURE:
 Clean the surface of a given specimen.
 Place the EM yoke on specimen vertically with its foldable legs on it.
 Switch on the power supply.
 Pour the iron oxide powder on the specimen.
 After the observation, demagnetize the specimen.

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Observation:
We observe the lines of accumulation of powder on the surface of crack position
depending upon its intensity of crack.

PRECAUTIONS:
The power should be distributed uniformly on the specimen.
The iron oxide powder should not be distributed during the experiment.

RESULT:
Flaws are detected. lines of accumulation of iron oxide are observed.

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7. BEAM BENDING (MAXWELL’S

RECIPROCAL THEOREM)
AIM:
To verify Maxwell’s Reciprocal Theorem for a given simply supported beam

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Simply supported Beam Set-Up, Weight’s, Hanger, Dial Gauge, Scale, Vernier
caliper, steel rule,

THEORY:
Maxwell theorem in its simplest form states that deflection of any point A of any
elastic structure due to load P at any point B is same as the deflection of beam due to same
load applied at A.
The displacement of a point B on a structure due to a unit load acting at point A is equal to
the displacement of point A when the unit load is acting at point B, that is, fBA = fAB.

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PROCEDURE:
 Consider a simply supported beam.
 Apply load in steps at point 'A', L/4 distance at one end and note the deflection
at B, L/4 distance from the other end for each loading.
 Now repeat the same at the point A and note the readings at B for each load.
 Repeat the above procedure for different locations of loads and deflection point
from each end.
RESULT:
It is observed that Maxwell's Reciprocal Theorem is proved.

TABLE:
SI.No Load (grams) Deflection (A) Deflection (B)

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8. RIVETED JOINTS
FAILURE STRENGTH OF RIVETED JOINT
AIM:
To make a riveted joint (double riveted Zig-Zag lap joint) between two given metal

APPAARATUS REQUIRED:
universal testing machine, riveted joint, specimen

THEORY:
Rivets as permanent joints:
Often small machine components are joined together to form a larger machine part.
Design of joints is as important as that of machine components because a weak joint may
spoil the utility of a carefully designed machine part.
Mechanical joints are broadly classified into two classes viz., non-permanent joints
and permanent joints.
Non-permanent joints can be assembled and dissembled without damaging the
components. Examples of such joints are threaded fasteners (like screw-joints), keys and
couplings etc.
Permanent joints cannot be dissembled without damaging the components. These joints can
be of two kinds depending upon the nature of force that holds the two parts. The force can
be of mechanical origin, for example, riveted joints, joints formed by press or interference
fit etc, where two components are joined by applying mechanical force. The components
can also be joined by molecular force, for example, welded joints, brazed joints, joints with
adhesives etc.
Not until long ago riveted joints were very often used to join structural members
permanently. However, significant improvement in welding and bolted joints has curtained
the use of these joints. Even then, rivets are used in structures, ship body, bridge, tanks and
shells, where high joint strength is required.
Rivets and Riveting:
A Rivet is a short cylindrical rod having a head and a tapered tail. The main body
of the rivet is called shank (see figure 10.1.1). According to Indian standard specifications
rivet heads are of various types. Rivets heads for general purposes are specified by Indian
standards IS: 2155-1982 (below 12 mm diameter) and IS: 1929-1982 (from 12 mm to 48
mm diameter). Rivet heads used for boiler works are specified by IS: 1928-1978. To get
dimensions of the heads see any machine design handbook.

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Riveting is an operation whereby two plates are joined with the help of a rivet. Adequate
mechanical force is applied to make the joint strong and leak proof. Smooth holes are drilled
(or punched and reamed) in two plates to be joined and the rivet is inserted. Holding, then,
the head by means of a backing up bar as shown in figure necessary force is applied at the
tail end with a die until the tail deforms plastically to the required shape. Depending upon
whether the rivet is initially heated or not, the riveting operation can be of two types: (a)
cold riveting → riveting is done at ambient temperature and
(b) hot riveting → rivets are initially heated before applying force. After riveting is done,
the joint is heat-treated by quenching and tempering. In order to ensure leak-proofness of
the joints, when it is required, additional operation like caulking is done.

Types of riveted joints and joint Efficiency:

Riveted joints are mainly of two types

 Lap joints
 Butt joints
Lap Joints:
The plates that are to be joined are brought face to face such that an overlap exists,
as shown in figure 10.1.3. Rivets are inserted on the overlapping portion. Single or multiple
rows of rivets are used to give strength to the joint. Depending upon the number of rows
the riveted joints may be classified as single riveted lap joint, double or triple riveted lap
joint etc. When multiple joints are used, the arrangement of rivets between two neighboring
rows may be of two kinds. In chain riveting the adjacent rows have rivets in the same

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transverse line. In zig-zag riveting, on the other hand, the adjacent rows of rivets are
staggered. Different types of lap joints are sketched in figures

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Butt Joints :
In this type of joint, the plates are brought to each other without forming any overlap.
Riveted joints are formed between each of the plates and one or two cover plates.
Depending upon the number of cover plates the butt joints may be single strap or double
strap butt joints. A single strap butt joint is shown in figure 10.1.5. Like lap joints, the
arrangement of the rivets may be of various kinds, namely, single row, double or triple
chain or zigzag. A few types of joints are shown in figure 10.1.6(a)-6(c).

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EFFECIENCY:
The strength of a rivet joint is measured by its efficiency. The efficiency of a joint
is defined as the ratio between the strength of a riveted joint to the strength of an unrivetted
joints or a solid plate. Obviously, the efficiency of the riveted joint not only depends upon
the size and the strength of the individual rivets but also on the overall arrangement and the
type of joints. Usual range of the efficiencies, expressed in percentiles of the commercial
boiler joints are given in table.

Joints Efficiencies (in %)

Single riveted 50-60
Lap Double riveted 60-72
Triple riveted 72-80
Single riveted 55-60
Butt (double strap) Double riveted 76-84
Triple riveted 80-88

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FAILURE STRENGTH OF RIVETED JOINTS:

Strength of riveted joint:
Strength of a riveted joint is evaluated taking all possible failure paths in the
joint into account. Since rivets are arranged in a periodic manner, the strength of joint is
usually calculated considering one pitch length of the plate. There are four possible ways a
single rivet joint may fail.
a) Tearing of the plate: If the force is too large, the plate may fail in tension
along the row (see figure). The maximum force allowed in this case is

𝑃1 = 𝑠𝑡 ( 𝑝 − 𝑑 )𝑡
where
𝑠𝑡 = allowable tensile stress of the plate material
𝑝 = pitch
𝑑 = diameter of the rivet hole
𝑡 = thickness of the plate

b) Shearing of the rivet: The rivet may shear as shown in figure. The maximum force
withstood by the joint to prevent this failure is
𝜋
𝑃2 = 𝑆𝑠 (4 𝑑 2) for lap joint, single strap butt joint
𝜋
2
𝑃2 = 2 𝑆𝑠 (4 𝑑 ) for double strap butt joint

where 𝑆𝑠=allowable shear stress of the rivet material.

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c) Crushing of rivet: If the bearing stress on the rivet is too large the contact surface
between the rivet and the plate may get damaged. (see figure). With a simple assumption of
uniform contact stress the maximum force allowed is
𝑃3 = 𝑆𝐶𝑑𝑡
Where 𝑆𝑐=allowable bearing stress between the rivet and plate material.

d) Tearing of the plate at edge: If the margin is too small, the plate may fail as shown in
figure. To prevent the failure a minimum margin of 𝑚 = 1.5𝑑 is usually provided.

Efficiency: Efficiency of the single riveted joint can be obtained as ratio between the
maximum of 𝑃1, 𝑃2, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑃3and the load carried by a solid plate which is 𝑆𝑡𝑝𝑡. Thus
min{𝑃1,𝑃2,𝑃3}
Efficiency (𝜂) =
𝑆𝑡𝑝𝑡

WORK MATERIAL REQUIRED: -

• Two aluminum plates (60 x 90 x6) mm.
• Aluminum rivets.

APPARATUS REQUIRED: -
 Sheet metal cutter
 Steel rule

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 Mallet
 Files
 Bench vice
 Centre punch
 Dolly and snap
 Drilling machine
 Scriber

PROCEDURE:
Making of Riveted Joint plate:
• Take the given Aluminum sheet and cut it in to the required dimension with the
help of sheet metal cutter,
• Place the cut end aluminum sheet in the bench vice and files for the right angles,
• Mark the dimensions of the rivet hole with the help of the scriber, dot punch and
center punch,
• Drill the holes on the two aluminum plates with the help of the drilling machine,
• Now take the rivets and punch them with the ball peen hammer in the required
holes,
• Before driving the rivets, clamp them properly and make the riveting and be sure
that the plates are properly joined,
Failure Strength of Riveted joints:
• Place the riveted joint in the universal testing machine.
• Make sure that plates are held at equal distance from both ends
• Gradually apply tensile load
• Note the readings from universal testing machine at which rivet joint fails
• Observe the type of failure

PRECAUTIONS:
Check that the plates are firmly gripped without any slip.
RESULT:
Failure of riveted joint is due to the .

CALCULATIONS:
 Diameter of the rivet d =
 Pitch p =
 Thickness of the plate t =
 Tearing strength P, =
 Shearing strength P, =
 Crushing or Bearing strength Pb =
 Solid plate strength P =
min{𝑃1,𝑃2,𝑃3}
 Efficiency (𝜂) = =
𝑆𝑡𝑝𝑡

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9. STRESS ANALYSIS OF A WAGNER BEAM

AIM:
To investigate and study the behaviour of a semi-tension beam (Wagner beam).

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Wagner beam setup, stiffened thin-webbed cantilever beam held on a suitable
frame, strain gauges, strain indicators, load cell and load indicator.

THEORY:
The development of a structure in which buckling of the web is permitted with the
shear loads being carried by diagonal tension stresses in the web is a striking the design of
aerospace structures from the standard structural designs. Such as beam design for bridges
and buildings.
As thin sheets are week in compression, the webs of the Wagner beam will buckle at a low
value of the applied vertical load. The phenomena of buckling may be observed by noting
the wrinkles that appears on the thin sheet. As applied load further increased, the stress in
the compression direction does not increase, however the stress increases in the tension
direction. This method of carrying the shear load permits the design of relatively thin webs
because high allowable stress in tension.
The beam shown in below Figure has concentrated flange areas having a depth d between
their centroids and vertical stiffeners which are spaced uniformly along the length of the
beam. It is assumed that the flanges resist the internal bending moment at any section of
the beam, while the web, of thickness t, resists the vertical shear force. Theeffect of this
assumption is to produce a uniform shear stress distribution through the depth of the web

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at any section. Therefore, at a section of the beam where the shear force is 𝑆, the shear
stress 𝑟 is given by
𝑆
𝑟=
𝑡𝑑

Consider now an element ABCD of the web in a panel of the beam, as shown in Figure.
The element is subjected to tensile stresses, 𝜎𝑡, produced by the diagonal tension on the
planes AB and CD; the angle of the diagonal tension is α. On a vertical plane FD in the
element, the shear stress is τ and the direct stress is 𝜎𝑧. Now, considering the equilibrium
of the element FCD and resolving forces vertically, we have

𝜎𝑡𝐶𝐷𝑡𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼 = 𝑟𝐹𝐷𝑡
Which gives
𝑟 2𝑟
𝜎𝑡 = =
sin 𝛼 cos 𝛼 sin 2𝛼
Where in the shear stress S=W, so that the tensile stress as
2𝑊
𝜎𝑡 =
𝑡𝑑 sin 2𝛼
Further, resolving forces horizontally for the element FCD,

𝜎𝑧𝐹𝐷𝑡 = 𝜎𝑡𝐶𝐷𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼
Which gives
𝜎𝑧 = 𝜎𝑡 cos2 𝛼
substituting for 𝜎𝑡, gives direct stress as
𝑊
𝜎𝑧 =
𝑡𝑑 tan 𝛼
Since 𝑟 and 𝜎𝑡 are constant through the depth of the beam, it follows that 𝜎𝑧 is constant
through the depth of the beam.
The direct loads in the flanges are found by considering a length z of the beam, as shown
in Figure. On the plane 𝑚𝑚, there are direct and shear stresses 𝜎𝑧 and 𝑟 acting in the web,

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together with direct loads 𝐹𝑇 and 𝐹𝐵 in the top and bottom flanges, respectively. 𝐹𝑇 and
𝐹𝐵 are produced by a combination of the bending moment 𝑊𝑧 at the section plus the
compressive action (𝜎𝑧) of the diagonal tension. Taking moments about the bottom
flange,
𝜎𝑧𝑡𝑑2
𝑊𝑧 = 𝐹𝑇𝑑 −
2
Hence, substituting for 𝜎𝑧
𝑊𝑧 𝑊
𝐹𝑇 = +
𝑑 2 tan 𝛼

Now, resolving forces horizontally,

𝐹𝐵 − 𝐹𝑇 + 𝜎𝑧𝑡𝑑 = 0
which gives, on substituting for 𝜎𝑧 and 𝐹𝑇
𝑊𝑧 𝑊
𝐹𝐵 = −
𝑑 2 tan 𝛼
The diagonal tension stress 𝜎𝑡 induces a direct stress 𝜎𝑦 on horizontal planes at any point
in the web. Then, on a horizontal plane HC in the element ABCD of Figure, there is a
direct stress 𝜎𝑦 and a complementary shear stress 𝑟, as shown in Figure.
From a consideration of the vertical equilibrium of the element HDC, we have
𝜎𝑡𝐶𝐷𝑡𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼 = 𝜎𝑦𝐻𝐶𝑡
which gives

𝜎𝑦 = 𝜎𝑡 sin2 𝛼

Substituting for 𝜎𝑡
𝜎𝑦 = 𝑟 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼
𝑊
𝜎𝑦 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼
𝑡𝑑

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.
The tensile stresses 𝜎𝑦 on horizontal planes in the web of the beam cause compression in
the vertical stiffeners. Each stiffener may be assumed to support half of each adjacent panel
in the beam so that the compressive load 𝑃 in a stiffener is given by

𝑃 = 𝜎𝑦𝑡𝑏
which becomes,
𝑊
𝑃 = 𝑏 tan 𝛼
𝑑
If the load 𝑃 is sufficiently high, the stiffeners will buckle. Tests indicate that they buckle
as columns of equivalent length
𝑑
𝑙𝑒 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑏 < 1.5𝑑
√4 − 2𝑏/𝑑 }
𝑙𝑒 = 𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑏 > 1.5𝑑
Stress in the flange
𝑊 𝑊𝑍
𝜎𝐹 = +
2𝐴𝐹 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝛼 𝐴𝐹𝑑
in which 𝐴𝐹 is the cross-sectional area of each flange.
Stress in the stiffener
𝑊𝑏
𝜎𝑆 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝛼
𝐴𝑆 𝑑
where 𝐴𝑆 is the cross-sectional area of a stiffener.
1 + 𝑡𝑑/2𝐴𝐹
𝑡𝑎𝑛4𝛼 =
1 + 𝑡𝑏/𝐴𝑆
PROCEDURE:
The wrinkling angle is calculated using the equation (1) and the strain gauge is fixed
at the angle in the web. Strain gauges also fixed on the flanges and a stiffener to measure
their respective stresses. The load is applied gradually in steps of 100kg. For each loads the

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load indicator reading, strain indicator reading corresponding to each strain gauge noted.
Precaution is taken so that the beam does not undergo any permanent deformation. Hence
the beam is loaded about the wrinkling load.
RESULT:
𝜎𝑡, 𝜎𝐹 and 𝜎𝑆 values are calculated theoretically using Equations and compared with
the experimental values given in the table.

TABLE:
S.NO Load εt εF εS 𝜎𝑡 = 𝐸𝜀𝑡 𝜎𝐹 = 𝐸𝜀𝐹 𝜎𝑆 = 𝐸𝜀𝑆

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10. DETERMINATION OF FLEXURAL

STRESS AND STRAIN OF A SIMPLY
SUPPORTED BEAM
AIM:
To determine the flexural stress and strain of a simply supported beam subjected to
four-point loading.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Simply supported beam setup, Work piece, and loads

THEORY:
A simply supported beam is a type of beam that has pinned support at one end and
roller support at other end. Depending on the type of the load applied, it undergoes shearing
and bending. The following is the beam which illustrates simply support conditions.

the above beam is subjected to a four-point loading as shown in the figure to find out the
flexural stress and flexural strain in the beam element when subjected to loading.

PROCEDURE
 The beam has to be placed on the two supports provided (roller and pinned)
 Measure the geometric properties length, breadth and width of the beam
 Apply the loads at the both ends with different loading conditions.
 Measure the reading in dial gauge
 Find the flexural modulus and flexural stress and flexural strain of the beam
Formulae:
𝐿3𝐹
𝐸𝑏𝑒𝑛𝑑 =
4𝑤ℎ3𝑑

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3𝐹𝐿
𝜎𝑓 =
4𝑏𝑑2

RESULT:
flexural modulus 𝐸𝑏𝑒𝑛𝑑 =
flexural stress 𝜎𝑓 =
flexural strain 𝜀𝑓 =

TABLE:
S.NO Load(F) KN 𝐸𝑏𝑒𝑛𝑑 𝜎𝑓

63
64
65