CO1: Basic Concepts of Algorithms

1. How to measure the algorithm running time?

○ Count basic operations like comparisons or additions.
○ Express as a function of input size (nnn).
○ Use Big-O, Big-Θ\ThetaΘ, and Big-Ω\OmegaΩ notations.
○ Analyze for best, worst, and average cases.
2. Define best, worst, and average time complexity.
○ Best Case: Minimum time required for input.
○ Worst Case: Maximum time taken for input.
○ Average Case: Expected time for typical inputs.
○ All expressed using Big-O notation.
3. List the steps to write an algorithm.
○ Understand the problem requirements.
○ Define input and output clearly.
○ Outline step-by-step procedures.
○ Test for correctness and refine.
4. What are the types of problems solved using algorithms?
○ Searching and sorting problems.
○ Optimization and decision-making problems.
○ Graph and numerical computations.
○ Machine learning and data analysis tasks.
5. What are the common techniques for proving algorithm correctness?
○ Use mathematical induction.
○ Apply proof by contradiction.
○ Verify loop invariants.
○ Test cases and simulations.
6. What is order of growth? Compare n!n!n! and 2n2^n2n.
○ Measures runtime growth with input size.
○ n!n!n! grows faster than 2n2^n2n.
○ Factorial increases super-exponentially.
○ Important for analyzing scalability.
7. Differentiate between best, average, and worst-case efficiency.
○ Best Case: Ideal and fastest scenario.
○ Average Case: Expected runtime in practice.
○ Worst Case: Guarantees for all conditions.
○ Used for comprehensive performance analysis.
8. Define recursion tree algorithm.
○ Visual representation of recursive calls.
○ Breaks problems into subproblems.
○ Helps analyze divide-and-conquer complexity.
○ Nodes represent function calls and costs.
9. Define recurrence relation.
 ○ Represents a problem in terms of smaller subproblems.
○ Found in divide-and-conquer approaches.
○ Solved using substitution or Master’s theorem.
○ Example: T(n)=2T(n/2)+nT(n) = 2T(n/2) + nT(n)=2T(n/2)+n.
10. What is a combinatorial problem?
○ Finding arrangements or combinations of objects.
○ Examples include permutations and combinations.
○ Often involve constraints to satisfy.
○ Examples: Traveling Salesman, graph coloring.
11. What is the substitution method?
○ Solves recurrence by guessing the solution.
○ Proves the solution using induction.
○ Simplifies expressions recursively.
○ Common in divide-and-conquer algorithms.
12. State Master’s Theorem.
○ Used for solving divide-and-conquer recurrences.
○ Form: T(n)=aT(n/b)+f(n)T(n) = aT(n/b) + f(n)T(n)=aT(n/b)+f(n).
○ Compares f(n)f(n)f(n) with nlog⁡ban^{\log_b{a}}nlogb​a.
○ Determines the dominant term for complexity.
13. What is the method of backward substitution?
○ Substitute recurrence terms repeatedly.
○ Reduce to base case for pattern recognition.
○ Reveals general formula for the solution.
○ Works well for simple recurrence relations.
14. Differentiate feasible and optimal solutions.
○ Feasible: Satisfies all problem constraints.
○ Optimal: Best solution among feasible ones.
○ Depends on objective function.
○ Example: Shortest path, minimum cost.
15. What is meant by Algorithmics?
○ Study of algorithm design and analysis.
○ Focuses on correctness and efficiency.
○ Applications in real-world problem-solving.
○ Includes optimization and complexity studies.

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CO2: Problem-Solving and Algorithm Design

1. Define the Assignment Problem.

○ Assign tasks to agents to minimize cost or maximize efficiency.
○ Represented as a cost matrix.
○ Solved using algorithms like Hungarian method.
○ Applications in resource allocation.
2. Define the term exhaustive search.
○ Also called brute force.
○ Explores all possible solutions.
○ Guarantees finding the optimal solution.
○ Computationally expensive for large inputs.
3. What is the Knapsack Problem?
○ Select items with given weights and values to maximize value.
○ Subject to a weight capacity limit.
○ Solved using dynamic programming or greedy methods.
○ Variants include 0/1 and fractional knapsack.
4. State the Principle of Optimality.
○ An optimal solution contains optimal subsolutions.
○ Basis for dynamic programming algorithms.
○ Used in problems like shortest paths and knapsack.
○ Ensures consistent decision-making at each stage.
5. What is the Greedy Method?
○ Makes locally optimal choices at each step.
○ Aims to find global optimum.
○ Suitable for problems like Kruskal’s and Prim’s algorithms.
○ Does not guarantee optimality in all cases.
6. Show the general procedure of dynamic programming.
○ Divide the problem into overlapping subproblems.
○ Solve and store subproblem results in a table.
○ Use stored values to compute the solution.
○ Avoid redundant computations.
7. State the brute force approach.
○ Tries all possible solutions.
○ Ensures finding the correct solution.
○ Inefficient for large problems.
○ Example: Substring search or traveling salesman.
8. Define backtracking.
○ Explores all solutions by building candidates incrementally.
○ Abandons candidates that fail constraints.
○ Suitable for combinatorial problems like N-Queens.
○ Avoids exhaustive exploration of invalid solutions.
9. Show the application for Knapsack Problem.
○ Used in resource allocation.
 ○ Applications in finance, logistics, and cryptography.
○ Optimize weight/value constraints in real-world problems.
○ Example: Packing items in a shipping container.
10. What is Divide and Conquer method?
○ Divides the problem into smaller subproblems.
○ Solves subproblems recursively.
○ Combines solutions for the final result.
○ Example: Merge Sort, Quick Sort.
11. Define Branch and Bound Algorithm.
○ Solves optimization problems by partitioning solution space.
○ Prunes non-promising branches using bounds.
○ Used for problems like Knapsack and TSP.
○ Ensures finding the optimal solution.
12. What is a state space graph?
○ Represents all possible states of a problem.
○ Nodes are states, edges are transitions.
○ Used in search algorithms like BFS/DFS.
○ Helps visualize problem-solving paths.
13. What is the advantage of a recursive approach over an iterative approach?
○ Simplifies complex problems like divide-and-conquer.
○ Provides cleaner and easier-to-understand code.
○ Suitable for problems with overlapping subproblems.
○ Can lead to higher memory usage due to call stacks.
14. Example of brute force algorithm and steps:
○ Problem: Substring search.
○ Compare the substring at each position in the string.
○ If matched, return the position.
○ Continue until the substring is found or the string ends.
15. How brute force finds a substring within a string?
○ Starts at each position of the main string.
○ Compares the substring character by character.
○ Stops when a match is found or the search ends.
○ Time complexity: O(nm)O(nm)O(nm), where nnn and mmm are string lengths.

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CO3: Graphs and Search Algorithms

1. Define the single-source shortest path problem.
○ Find shortest paths from a single source vertex to all others.
○ Common algorithms: Dijkstra’s and Bellman-Ford.
○ Used in network routing and transportation.
○ Handles weighted and unweighted graphs.
2. Define Depth First Search (DFS).
○ Explores as far as possible along each branch before backtracking.
○ Uses a stack (explicit or recursive).
○ Suitable for pathfinding and cycle detection.
○ Operates in O(V+E)O(V+E)O(V+E), where VVV is vertices and EEE is edges.
3. Write down the steps involved in DFS.
○ Start from the source vertex.
○ Visit an unvisited adjacent vertex and mark it visited.
○ Repeat recursively for all connected vertices.
○ Backtrack when no unvisited vertex is found.
4. Define Graph.
○ A set of vertices (nodes) connected by edges (links).
○ Can be directed or undirected.
○ Represented using adjacency matrix or list.
○ Examples: Social networks, roadmaps.
5. What is a Weighted graph and undirected graph?
○ Weighted graph: Edges have weights or costs.
○ Undirected graph: Edges have no direction.
○ Weighted graphs used for shortest paths.
○ Undirected graphs common in undirected relationships.
6. What does Floyd’s algorithm do?
○ Finds all pairs shortest paths in a weighted graph.
○ Handles negative weights (no negative cycles).
○ Uses dynamic programming with O(V3)O(V^3)O(V3) complexity.
○ Suitable for dense graphs.
7. What is the use of Dijkstra’s Algorithm?
○ Finds shortest paths from a source to all vertices.
○ Works with non-negative edge weights.
○ Efficient with a priority queue (O((V+E)log⁡V)O((V+E) \log V)O((V+E)logV)).
○ Applications: GPS navigation, network routing.
8. Differentiate BFS and DFS.
○ BFS: Explores level by level; uses a queue.
○ DFS: Explores deeply along branches; uses a stack.
○ BFS finds shortest paths in unweighted graphs.
○ DFS is better for cycle and connectivity detection.
9. Define Adjacency List.
○ Graph representation where each vertex stores its neighbors.
○ Space-efficient for sparse graphs.
○ Easier to traverse connected nodes.
 ○ Preferred over adjacency matrix for large graphs.
10. List the two important key points of DFS.
○ Recursively explores as far as possible along branches.
○ Uses backtracking to ensure all vertices are visited.
11. Write down the steps involved in BFS.
○ Start at the source vertex and mark it visited.
○ Add it to a queue.
○ Dequeue a vertex, visit all unvisited neighbors, and enqueue them.
○ Repeat until the queue is empty.
12. What do you mean by graph traversals?
○ Systematic visiting of all vertices in a graph.
○ Common types: BFS and DFS.
○ Used for search, connectivity, and cycle detection.
○ Helps in solving shortest paths and spanning trees.
13. Define Topological Sorting.
○ Linear ordering of vertices in a directed acyclic graph (DAG).
○ Each vertex appears before its dependent vertices.
○ Used in scheduling tasks with dependencies.
○ Implemented using DFS or Kahn’s algorithm.
14. What is Minimum Cost Spanning Tree?
○ A tree that connects all vertices with the minimum edge cost.
○ Does not form cycles.
○ Algorithms: Kruskal’s and Prim’s.
○ Applications: Network design, road construction.
15. What is meant by Network Flow Algorithm?
○ Solves flow problems like maximum flow in a network.
○ Uses residual graphs and augmenting paths.
○ Algorithms: Ford-Fulkerson and Edmonds-Karp.
○ Applications: Traffic, data flow in networks.

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CO5: Complexity Classes and NP Problems

1. List some examples of P and NP problems.

○ P Problems: Sorting (e.g., Merge Sort), Shortest Path (Dijkstra's Algorithm).
○ NP Problems: Traveling Salesman Problem, Knapsack Problem.
 ○ P problems are solvable in polynomial time.
○ NP problems have solutions verifiable in polynomial time.
2. Define NP Completeness and NP Hard.
○ NP-Complete: Problems that are in NP and as hard as any NP problem.
○ NP-Hard: Problems that are at least as hard as NP problems but may not belong
to NP.
○ Examples: NP-Complete – SAT, NP-Hard – Halting Problem.
○ All NP-Complete problems can be reduced to each other.
3. Difference between polynomial-time and exponential time.
○ Polynomial-Time: Solvable in O(nk)O(n^k)O(nk), efficient for large inputs.
○ Exponential-Time: Solvable in O(2n)O(2^n)O(2n), impractical for large inputs.
○ Polynomial-time algorithms are feasible; exponential ones are not.
○ Examples: Sorting (polynomial), TSP (exponential).
4. What are tractable and non-tractable problems?
○ Tractable: Solvable in polynomial time (e.g., Sorting).
○ Non-Tractable: Require super-polynomial time (e.g., TSP).
○ Tractable problems are practical for computation.
○ Non-tractable problems often need approximations.
5. Compare class P and class NP.
○ P: Problems solvable in polynomial time.
○ NP: Solutions verifiable in polynomial time.
○ P is a subset of NP.
○ Uncertainty exists whether P=NPP = NPP=NP.
6. What does NP-hard mean?
○ Refers to problems at least as hard as the hardest NP problems.
○ May or may not be in NP.
○ Includes optimization problems like TSP.
○ No polynomial-time solution is known.
7. Define complexity theory.
○ Studies the efficiency of algorithms in terms of resources.
○ Analyzes time and space complexity.
○ Classifies problems into complexity classes (P, NP, etc.).
○ Explores solvability and computational limits.
8. When is a problem said to be NP-hard?
○ When solving it can solve all NP problems.
○ Harder than or as hard as NP problems.
○ Example: TSP, Subset Sum.
○ Reduction from NP problems is possible.
9. Give the purpose of Lower Bound.
○ Represents the minimum computational effort required.
○ Helps determine algorithm efficiency.
○ Guides algorithm improvement.
○ Used in sorting and searching problems.
10. What is reduction?
 ○ Transforms one problem into another.
○ Used to prove problem hardness.
○ Basis for showing NP-completeness.
○ Examples: SAT to 3-SAT.
11. What are standard NP Completeness problems?
○ SAT (Satisfiability Problem).
○ 3-SAT (3-variable SAT).
○ Traveling Salesman Problem.
○ Clique Problem.
12. Define Cook’s Theorem.
○ Establishes SAT as NP-complete.
○ SAT is reducible to any NP problem.
○ Basis for identifying other NP-complete problems.
○ Introduced the concept of NP-completeness.
13. What is computability of algorithms?
○ Defines whether a problem is solvable by an algorithm.
○ Solvable problems are computable.
○ Linked to Turing machines.
○ Examples: Sorting (computable), Halting Problem (non-computable).
14. Difference between tractable and intractable problems.
○ Tractable: Solvable in polynomial time (feasible).
○ Intractable: Require exponential time (impractical).
○ Tractable: Searching, Intractable: TSP.
○ Tractability depends on the input size.
15. Difference between P and NP classes.
○ P: Problems solved in polynomial time.
○ NP: Problems verified in polynomial time.
○ P problems are a subset of NP.
○ Open question: P=NP?P = NP?P=NP?.
16. What are computable classes?
○ Problems classified based on solvability.
○ Includes P, NP, NP-hard, and NP-complete.
○ Helps understand problem complexity.
○ Guides algorithm development.
17. What are the types of complexity classes?
○ P: Solvable in polynomial time.
○ NP: Verifiable in polynomial time.
○ NP-hard: At least as hard as NP problems.
○ NP-complete: NP and NP-hard.
18. Define NP-hard.
○ Problems at least as hard as NP problems.
○ Solving them solves all NP problems.
○ May not be verifiable in polynomial time.
○ Examples: TSP, Halting Problem.
 19. Define NP-complete.
○ Problems in NP that are as hard as any NP problem.
○ Both verifiable and reducible in polynomial time.
○ Examples: SAT, Clique Problem.
○ Formed by reduction from other NP-complete problems.
20. Difference between NP-hard and NP-complete.
○ NP-Hard: May not be in NP.
○ NP-Complete: Must be in NP.
○ NP-hard is a broader category.
○ All NP-complete problems are NP-hard.
21. What is the significance of Cook’s Theorem?
○ Established SAT as the first NP-complete problem.
○ Introduced the concept of NP-completeness.
○ Basis for proving other NP-complete problems.
○ Links P, NP, and computational complexity.

CO6: Approximation and Randomized Algorithms

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CO6: Approximation and Randomized Algorithms

1. How is the accuracy of the approximation algorithm measured?

○ Measured using approximation ratio R=CapproxCoptimalR =
\frac{C_{approx}}{C_{optimal}}R=Coptimal​Capprox​​.
○ CapproxC_{approx}Capprox​: Cost of approximate solution.
○ CoptimalC_{optimal}Coptimal​: Cost of the optimal solution.
○ Helps evaluate the algorithm's efficiency.
2. Define heuristics.
○ Problem-solving approach using practical methods.
○ Focuses on quick, satisfactory solutions.
○ Does not guarantee the optimal solution.
○ Example: Greedy algorithms for scheduling.
3. What is Absolute Approximation?
○ Approximation algorithm guarantees a fixed error margin.
○ The difference between the approximate and optimal solution is bounded.
○ Example: Approximation for vertex cover problems.
 ○ Ensures reliable suboptimal solutions.
4. Define Quantum Computing.
○ Computational approach using quantum mechanics principles.
○ Processes information using qubits.
○ Enables superposition and entanglement for parallelism.
○ Promises speedup for specific problems (e.g., factoring).
5. Define chromatic number of a graph.
○ Minimum number of colors needed to color a graph.
○ Adjacent vertices must have different colors.
○ Used in scheduling and resource allocation.
○ Example: Chromatic number of a complete graph KnK_nKn​is nnn.
6. What is E-approximation?
○ Ensures a solution is within (1+ϵ)×Coptimal(1+\epsilon) \times
C_{optimal}(1+ϵ)×Coptimal​.
○ ϵ\epsilonϵ: Small positive error value.
○ Often used in optimization problems.
○ Balances speed and solution accuracy.
7. What is Relative Approximation?
○ Measures how close the approximate solution is to the optimal.
○ Ratio-based metric, R=CapproxCoptimalR =
\frac{C_{approx}}{C_{optimal}}R=Coptimal​Capprox​​.
○ Lower values indicate better approximations.
○ Examples: Traveling Salesman Problem approximations.
8. What is the concept behind randomized algorithms?
○ Use random numbers to influence decisions.
○ Can achieve better average-case performance.
○ Examples: QuickSort, Monte Carlo simulations.
○ Often simpler and faster than deterministic algorithms.
9. What are randomized algorithms?
○ Algorithms using random input to solve problems.
○ Provide probabilistic guarantees on correctness or performance.
○ Types: Monte Carlo, Las Vegas algorithms.
○ Example: Randomized QuickSort.
10. Why should we use randomized algorithms?
○ Simplicity and speed in implementation.
○ Effective for large or complex datasets.
○ Avoids worst-case scenarios in deterministic approaches.
○ Examples: Primality testing, hashing.
11. What are the two main types of randomized algorithms?
○ Monte Carlo: Guarantees speed but not correctness.
○ Las Vegas: Guarantees correctness but not speed.
○ Monte Carlo is used in approximations, while Las Vegas focuses on exact
solutions.
○ Examples: Randomized QuickSort (Las Vegas).
12. Define local search heuristics.
○ Iteratively improves solutions by exploring neighbors.
○ Stops when no better neighboring solution exists.
○ Used in optimization problems like TSP.
○ Example: Hill Climbing, Simulated Annealing.
13. What is the significance of Shor’s Algorithm in quantum computing?
○ Efficiently factors large numbers.
○ Threatens classical cryptographic systems (RSA).
○ Demonstrates quantum advantage for integer factorization.
○ Key example of quantum computational speedup.
14. How does quantum parallelism work in quantum computing?
○ Uses superposition to process multiple states simultaneously.
○ Increases computational speed for certain problems.
○ Enables algorithms like Grover’s and Shor’s.
○ Works on problems requiring large-scale data exploration.
15. How does the Deutsch-Jozsa Algorithm provide an exponential speedup over
classical algorithms?
○ Determines if a function is constant or balanced in a single query.
○ Uses quantum superposition and interference.
○ Exponentially faster than classical approaches.
○ Demonstrates early quantum computational advantages.