Engineering Physics 1: Mechanics

Tutorial Examples
Prepared by: Dr K. Govender, Mr R. Pentz and Dr A. Mabuda

and Mr. A. Fish

May 03, 2021

 Introduction

The purpose of this physics course is to teach the student the fundamental physics
required to understand the engineering concepts required for this qualification
and future technologies.

These notes were developed using the following textbooks: Physics for
Scientist and Engineers with Modern Physics, by Serway and Jewettt,
9th and / or 10th editions.
These notes will be divided according to the various parts of the syllabus, namely:
Mechanics, Waves and vibration, Electricity and Magnetism, Thermodynamics,
Light and Optics, and Modern Physics. This first set of notes is for Mechanics. In
some cases these notes contain only the bare essentials of the course and you will
need to read the textbook to obtain understanding of the subject. Also, there are very
few worked examples in these notes. The worked examples are clearly done in the
textbook. You are urged to get a copy of the textbook. All tutorial and homework
problems will be from the textbook.
The physics lectures will provide you with skills in analysing a physical problem and
developing a solution. You will also cultivate new ways of thinking logically and
laterally.
In addition to the lectures there will be laboratory work to develop laboratory skills
in conducting experiments, making measurements and drawing conclusions. The
laboratory work will also complement the lectures. A separate manual for lab work
will be given to you.
Chapter 1

Units and measurements

Physics is called the science of measurement, from which basic laws regarding
observable phenomena are determined. These laws are further refined as new
experiments are made.

As an example, take the physical phenomenon, called Force. This is a physical

quantity that can be measured by a measuring instrument, e.g., a Spring Scale, a
Force Gauge, a Dynamometer, etc. [You can find (Google) some more force
measurement instruments.] The unit of measurement of force for scientific
purposes is the newton (N). For linear motion of an object, the Newton (Force)
is defined in terms of Mass and Acceleration. Acceleration is defined in term of
Velocity and Time. Then Velocity is defined in terms of Distance and Time.
As is shown above, some quantities can be defined in terms of other quantities,
viz., Force, Acceleration and Velocity. The other quantities, viz., Mass, Distance
and Time cannot be defined in terms of other simpler quantities. These three,
Distance (m), Mass (kg) and Time (s) are called Fundamental quantities.
These three fundamental units form the basis of the “mks” (Metric) system of
measurement. These are the fundamental quantities (or units) are used in
Mechanics. One finds fundamental units in other disciplines of Physics as well.
These will be discussed once we deal with those sections.

Different units of measurements are used globally, but the units used for scientific
and engineering purposes are grouped under the SI (Système International)
system of units. For example, distance can be measured in feet, yards, inches,
millimetres, metres, kilometres, miles, lightyears, parsecs, etc., but the SI unit is
metres (m). Some examples are shown below.
 QUANTITY ENGLISH METRIC (mks) SI-UNIT
Length yard (yd) = 3 ft metre (m) metre (m)
1ft = 12 in. (0.9144 m) =39.37 in.
1 mi. = 1760 yd
Mass slug kilogram (kg) kilogram (kg)
(14.6 kg)
Time seconds (s) seconds (s) seconds (s)
Force pound (lb) newton (N) newton (N)
= 4.45 N
Temperature fahrenheit (°F) celsius (°C) kelvin (K)
(= °C + 273.15)
= ( F − 32)
5
9
Energy foot-pound (ft-lb) newton-meter joule (J)
(= 1.356 J) (Nm)
or joule (J)

Some common units besides SI units are still used in in some textbooks.
Therefore, it becomes necessary to know some of these systems as well. Then we
need to know how to convert from one system of units to another.

Example 1: Determine the amount of metres in 1 mile.

Solution: From the above table 1 mi. = 1760 yd. and 1 yd. = 0.9144 m
∴ 1 mi. = 1760 yd. = 1760 × 0.9144 m = 1609.344 m

[For enrichment, read Section 1.2 in the textbook, 10th edition, to get an idea as
to how scientists use measurements to determine laws of nature. This is NOT for
examination purposes.]

Length
Length is the distance between two points in space. We can measure length using a
number of different units: in the metric system, namely, millimetre (mm),
centimetre (cm), metre (m) and kilometre (km), etc; in the British or US
Customary systems, namely, inch (in), foot (ft), yard (yd), mile (ml), etc.
However, for the purpose of Physics the SI unit for the measurement of length is
the metre (m). In the laboratory, dealing with small objects, it is more often
convenient to make measurements in mm or cm and then convert to m at the end
when writing a report or for use in calculation in a formula using SI units.
Mass
The SI unit for mass is kilogram (kg), but gram (g) and milligram (mg) are used initially in
the laboratory.

Time
The SI unit for time is second (s).

Dimensional analysis
Dimension refers to the physical nature of a quantity (how it is measured). In mechanics the basic
physical quantities are length, mass and time. The dimensions of these will be denoted by L,
M and T. Let x represents a measurement of a physical quantity or a variable to describe a
physical quantity. Then another way of denoting the dimension of this measurement of
variable is by using the square brackets, i.e., [x].

For example: “x” could represent the distance between two points, then [x]=L.

“t” could represent the time taken, then [t]=T.

Δ𝑥 𝐿
𝑣= represents speed, then [𝑣] =
Δ𝑡 𝑇

𝐿
Δ𝑣 ( 𝑇) 𝐿
𝑎= represents acceleration, then [𝑎] = =
Δ𝑡 𝑇 𝑇2

One can only add or subtract quantities iff they have the same dimension (unit).
Dimensional Analysis helps to ascertain this. Also, an equation can be confirmed to be
correct if the dimension on the LHS of the equation is equal to the dimension on the RHS.
Dimensional Analysis helps to confirm this.

For example, consider the equation, 𝑥 = ½𝑎𝑡 2 .

Then
[𝑥] = [𝑎][𝑡 2 ]

LHS: [𝑥] = 𝐿
𝐿
RHS: [𝑎][𝑡 2 ] = . 𝑇2 = 𝐿
𝑇2

∴ LHS = RHS
On the other hand, let us say that we did not know the exact relation between the quantities,
x, a and t.

We can determine this relation (up to a proportional constant) using dimensional analysis as
follows.

Let
𝑥 ∝ 𝑎𝑛 𝑡 𝑚
Then
[𝑥] = [𝑎𝑛 𝑡 𝑚 ]
∴ [𝑥] = [𝑎𝑛 ][𝑡 𝑚 ]

LHS: [𝑥] = 𝐿

𝐿𝑛
RHS: [𝑎𝑛 ][𝑡 𝑚 ] = . 𝑇 𝑚 = 𝐿𝑛 𝑇 𝑚−2𝑛
𝑇2𝑛

In order for RHS to be equal to LHS we require that 𝑛 = 1 and 𝑚 − 2𝑛 = 0, ∴ 𝑚 = 2.

Thus, 𝑥 ∝ 𝑎𝑛 𝑡 𝑚 can be confirmed to satisfy the expression 𝑥 ∝ 𝑎𝑡 2

Unit Conversions & Unit Notations

As mentioned before, scientists study the relationship between certain measured
quantities. These relationships are represented mathematically as equations (or
formulae). In order for these formulae to be globally acceptable for scientists and
engineers, they formulated these formulae to conform to SI units, i.e., quantities need to
be used in SI units when substituting into a formula. If a quantity is not in SI format, one
will have to first convert it to SI format before using it in the formula. Consider the
example we did before:

Example 2: Determine the amount of metres in 1 mile.

Solution: From the above table 1 mi. = 1760 yd. and 1 yd. = 0.9144 m
∴ 1 mi. = 1760 yd. = 1760 × 0.9144 m = 1609.344 m

Note: One must always ascertain the unit of measurement used and convert (if
necessary) to the one in SI units.

Sometimes it is a single unit that needs to be converted or it could be a

combination of units, e.g., mi.h-1 to m.s-1, or km.h-1 to m.s-1.

Sometimes one needs to convert according to known notations, viz., the metric
(decimal) system, scientific notation and engineering notation.
Metric System
The Metric System is based on the number system we use. Consider the number
4321.456.

Thousandths
Hundredths
Thousands

Hundreds

Tenths
Units
Tens
4 3 2 1 . 4 5 6
103 102 101 100 10-1 10-2 10-3
According to the multiplication factors below the table we define the decimal prefixes as
follows.

Thousandths
Hundredths
Thousands

Hundreds

Tenths
Units
Tens

4 3 2 1 . 4 5 6
Standard form (No Prefix)
hecto-

centi-
deca-

milli-
deci-
kilo-

k h da . d c m
103 102 101 100 10-1 10-2 10-3

Conversions of Metric values

[As shown above the metric system involves the factors of ten:
k h da std d c m]
Here we use a prefix to indicate by what multiple of ten (10) a number should be multiplied
or divided.

Metric Prefix Metric symbol Multiplication Factor

m milli 10-3
c centi 10-2
d deci 10-1
Standard form 100 = 1
da deca 101
h hecto 102
k kilo 103
 • When converting from the standard form to any other metric notation we divide by
the multiplication factor of that metric notation.
• When converting from another metric notation to the standard form we multiply by
the multiplication factor.
• When converting from one metric notation to another metric notation [e.g. from dΩ to
hΩ] and one does not know the conversion factor then convert to standard form first
and then to the other engineering notation.
• Alternatively we can use the following for conversions.
k h da std d c m

• Shift the decimal point to the target prefix after the number was written below the
above row of metric prefixes

Example 3: Convert 22.5 cm to metres.

Solution: k h da std d c m
2 2. 5
0. 2 2 5

22.5 cm = 0.225 m

Example 4: Convert 16.2 m to deci-metres.

Solution: k h da std d c m
1 6. 2
1 6 2.

16.2 m = 162 dm

Scientific Notation

From the above discussion we see that moving the decimal point to the left once implies
dividing by ten. (÷ 10). Moving it left twice implies (÷ 102 ), etc. Moving the decimal point to
the right once implies (× 10). Moving it right twice implies (× 102 ), etc.
A number is represented in “Scientific Notation” when the decimal point is moved to the right
of the first non-zero digit from the left of the number string. To represent the number in
scientific notation requires moving the decimal point.
Example 5: Represent the numbers 4321.456 and 0.02406 in scientific notation.

Solution:
Case 1: The decimal point needs to be moved to the left three times (divide by 103).
103
So, 4321.456 × 1 = 4321.456 × = 4321.456 ÷ 103 × 103 = 4.321456 × 103
103

Case 2: The decimal point needs to be moved to the right twice, (multiply by 102).
102
So, 0.02406 × 1 = 0.02406 × = 0.02406 × 102 ÷ 𝟏𝟎𝟐 = 2.406 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟐
102

This operation can also be done on the calculator. Enter the number and press = .
Then press SHIFT , SETUP to obtain what you see on the screen below.

Select 7 for “Sci”, then a number from “0” to “9” to indicate how many digits you want
displayed before “x 10n”. Practise this on your calculator for different numbers.

Engineering notation

A kilogram is one thousand grams. (1 kg = 1000 g = 1 x 103 g) In engineering notation we use

a prefix to indicate by what multiple of a thousand (103) a number should be multiplied
or divided.

Examples 6: 2 kg = 2 x 1000 = 2 x 103 g

2 mg = 2  1000 = 2 x 10-3 g
Here are prefixes to remember.
Table 2.1 Engineering Notation Conversions
SI Prefix SI symbol Multiplication Factor
y yocto 10-24
z zepto 10-21
a atto 10-18
f femto 10-15
p pico 10-12
n nano 10-9
 micro 10-6
m milli 10-3
Standard form 100 = 1
(No prefix)
k kilo 103
M mega 106
G giga 109
T tera 1012
P peta 1015
E exa 1018
Z zeta 1021
Y yotta 1024

Note here that the exponents of ten in the multiplication factors are multiples of three.

Note:
• When converting from the standard form to any other engineering notation we divide
by the multiplication factor of that engineering notation.
• When converting from another engineering notation to the standard form we
multiply by the multiplication factor.
• When converting from one engineering notation to another engineering notation [e.g.
from mΩ to kΩ] and one does not know the conversion factor then convert to standard
form first and then to the other engineering notation.

Example 7: Convert 2.5 m to millimetres (mm).

2.5 m = 2.5  10-3 mm

= 2.5 x 103 mm
= 2500 mm

Example 8: Convert 450 g to kilogram “kg”.

450 g = 450  103 kg

= 450 x 10-3 kg
= 0.45 kg
Example 9: Convert 3.5 MΩ to kΩ.

The conversion factor is 103. So 3.5 MΩ = 3.5 x 103 = 3500 kΩ

If one does not know the conversion factor between MΩ and kΩ then do the
following, as mentioned above. First convert from MΩ to Ω (standard form),
then from Ω to kΩ.

3.5 M = 3.5 106 

= 3.5 106  103 k
= 3.5 106  10−3 k
= 3.5 103 k
= 3500k

Example 10: Represent the numbers 4321.456 m and 0.02406 kg in scientific notation.

Solution:
Case 1: The decimal point needs to be moved to the left three times (divide by 103),
or to the right three times (multiply by 103).
So, 4321.456 m = 4.321456 × 103 m = 4.321456 km
or 4321.456 = 4321456.× 10−3 m = 4321456 mm

Case 2: The decimal point needs to be moved to the right thrice, (multiply by 103).
So, 0.02406 = 24.06 × 10−3 kg = 24.06 g

This operation can also be done on the calculator. Enter the number and press = .
Then press ENG .
Case 1: Case 2:
Other common conversion factors to remember

1 hour (h) = 60 minutes (min) = 3600 seconds (s)

1 day = 24 h

1 horsepower (hp) = 746 W

1 mile (mi) = 1.609 km

1 km = 0.6215 mi

1 ton = 1000 kg

Significant figures
𝒎
When calculations are performed, involving an equation or formula, e.g., 𝜌 = , the
𝑽
density formula [V represents Volume], 𝒙 = ½𝑔𝒕𝟐 , the free-fall formula and 𝑭 = 𝒎𝑔, the
weight formula. The symbols in boldface represent quantities that can be measured
values, while those not in bold are constants or numbers. The issue with measured
values is that they are made to various levels of sensitivity (accuracy). If, for example,
length is measured with an instrument calibrated in cm and it has a sensitivity of 0.1 cm
(1 mm) then we can write, for a measurement of 6.5 cm, 6.5 ± 0.1 cm. In this
measurement we say that both the “6” and the “5” have value, or they are both
significant. So, this measurement has two (2) significant figures.

Following are rules for identifying the number of significant figures in a number to be
used in a calculation. Note that the numbers could be measurements, constants or
counting numbers (Integers). You must know clearly what type of number you are
dealing with.

[This section on Significant Figures is also covered in your Practical Manual, but you
also need to know this for general calculations outside your practicals.]
From the Practical Manual

A value could have been measured as 13.046 units. We have a tendency to fall into the
“mathematics trap” by rounding this number off to an exact number (Integer) [=13 units]
and then use the rounded value in calculations. By doing this we lose the accuracy with which
the quantity was measured.

The number of significant figures in a result is simply the number of figures that are known with
some degree of reliability. The number 13.2 is said to have 3 significant figures. The number
13.20 is said to have 4 significant figures.

Rules for deciding the number of significant figures in a measured

quantity:
1. Start counting your significant figures from the first non-zero digit in the string from
the left, counting to the right. 005.2 has 2 S.F’s. 0.0052 has 2 S.F’s. [Any zeroes before
the first S.F are NOT significant.
2. All nonzero digits are significant: 1.234 g has 4 significant figures, 1.2 g has 2
significant figures.

3. Zeroes between non-zero digits are significant: 1002 kg has 4 significant figures, 3.07 ml
has 3 significant figures.

4. Leading zeros to the left of the first non-zero digits are not significant; such zeroes are
merely place-holders or they merely indicate the position of the decimal point: 0.001
o
C has only 1 significant figure, 0.012 g has 2 significant figures. [Mentioned in Rule
1 above.]

5. Trailing zeroes that are also to the right of a decimal point in a number (they trail the last
non-zero digit) are significant: 0.0230 ml has three (3) significant figures, 0.20 g has
2 significant figures.

6. When a number ends in zeroes that are not to the right of a decimal point (There is
no decimal point indicated in this number.), the zeroes are not necessarily
significant: 190 miles may be 2 or 3 significant figures, 50 600 calories may be 3, 4,
or 5 significant figures.

The potential ambiguity in the last rule can be avoided by the use of standard ex-
ponential, or “scientific,” notation. For example, depending on whether the number of
significant figures is 3, 4, or 5, we would write 50 600 calories as: 5.06 ×104 calories (3
significant figures) 5.060×104 calories (4 significant figures), or 5.0600×104 calories (5
significant figures).
By writing a number in scientific notation, the number of significant figures is clearly
indicated by the number of numerical figures in the ‘digit’ term as shown by these examples.
This approach is a reasonable convention to follow.

In the calculator example of Example 5, you were told to type SHIFT , SETUP , 7 ,
then a number from “0” to “9”. This is to indicate the number of significant figures to
display. The “0” implies 10 S.F’s.
The above mentioned ambigiuity is removed if the number is displayed with a decimal
point at the end. Examples: 190. or 50 600. Then we clearly have 3 S.F’s and 5 S.F’s.

What is an “exact number”?

Some numbers are exact because they are known with complete certainty. Most exact
numbers are integers or (counting numbers): exactly 12 inches are in a foot, there might be
exactly 23 students in a class, there are 15 steps of a particular height each. Exact numbers
are often found as conversion factors or as constants. For example: “½” in 𝑥 = ½𝑔𝑡 2 , “𝑔 =
9.81” in 𝑥 = ½𝑔𝑡 2 or the value of “𝜋”, etc.
Exact numbers can be considered to have an infinite number of significant
figures. Thus, the number of apparent significant figures in any exact number can be
ignored as a limiting factor in determining the number of significant figures in the result
of a calculation.
Rules for mathematical operations involving
significant figures
In carrying out calculations, the general rule is that the
accuracy of a calculated result is limited by the least
accurate measurement involved in the calculation.

1. In addition and subtraction, the result is rounded off to the last

common digit occurring furthest to the right in all components. Another
way to state this rule is as follows: in addition and subtraction, the result
is rounded off so that it has the same number of digits as the measurement
having the fewest decimal places (counting from left to right). For
example, 100 (assume 3 significant figures) + 23.643 (5 significant figures)
= 123.643, which should be rounded to 124 (3 significant figures). Note,
however, that it is possible two numbers have no common digits
(significant figures in the same digit column).

2. In multiplication and division, the result should be rounded off so

as to have the same number of significant figures as the number with the
least significant figures. For example, 3.0 (2 significant figures) × 12.60 (4
significant figures) = 37.8000 which should be rounded to 38. (2
significant figures).
So, after you have made a calculation and arrived at the final answer, then
you need to determine from the measured values used in the equation,
and based on the above two laws, how many significant figures are
required in the final answer. You will now have to round off to the
required number of significant figures. Please note, here, that rounding
off to a given number of decimal places, as is often done after a
“mathematics” exercise, is NOT a good practice in science and
especially engineering. You will have to determine the number of
significant figures required, then do the rounding off. This cannot be
emphasized enough. Please practice this procedure throughout your
engineering studies.
From the Practical Manual

Rules for rounding off numbers

Before any confusion steps in, let us remind ourselves of the accepted method of
rounding off.

When rounding off to the nth decimal place we must look at the (n+1)th decimal place.
That is the digit that must be dropped, “(n+1)th”.

1. If the digit to be dropped is greater than 5, the last retained digit

(nth) is increased by one. For example, 12.6 is rounded to 13.

2. If the digit to be dropped is less than 5, the last remaining digit is

left as it is. For example, 12.4 is rounded to 12.
3. If the digit to be dropped is 5, and if any digit following it is not
zero, the last remaining digit is increased by one. For example, 12.51
is rounded to 13.

4. If the digit to be dropped is 5 and is followed only by zeroes, the last

remaining digit is increased by one if it is odd, but left as it is if
even. For example,
11.5 is rounded to 12,
12.5 is rounded to 12.
This rule means that if the digit to be dropped is 5 followed only by
zeroes, the result is always rounded to the even digit. The rationale
for this rule is to avoid bias in rounding: half of the time we round
up, half the time we round down.

Tutorial problems:
A. Do the following calculations and then write your final answer
considering “significant figures”.
1. 37.86 + 2.406 + 226.7 = ?
2. 320.15 - 24.614 = ?
3. 108.920 + 25.20972 + 0.65 = ?
4. 127 - 0.98 + 4.208 = ? (assuming that 127 has 3
significant figures).
5. 2.08 × 3.5 = ?
6. 786.0 / 5.2406 = ?
7. 0.0025 × 393 = ?
8. (4.5)3 = ?
9. 0.696 × (40.2 - 32.78) = ?
10. 45. × 3.00 = ?
11. 26 × 0.257 (where “26” is an exact number)
12. What is the average of 0.1620, 0.1615, 0.1642, 0.1659,
and 0.1641?
13. 3.00 x 105 - 1.5 x 102 = ? (Give the exact numerical
result, and then express that result to the correct
number of significant figures).
B. Do the following:
1. How many significant figures are there in each of the
following:
a. 7.86 ± 20
b. 16.20 × 106
c. 2.406 × 10-4
d. 0.00604
e. 1652.
f. 160 [Be careful with this case!]

2. Do the following conversions:

a. 45668.450 to scientific notation with 4 significant
figures.
b. 0.0952 to scientific notation with 10 significant
figures.
c. 0.05689 to engineering notation with 2 significant
figures.
d. 2456.1620 to engineering notation with 2 significant
figures.
e. 120 µC to SI units.
f. 0.264 µF to pF
g. 22000 to 3 significant figures

3. Round off the following:

a. 25.50 to an exact number
b. 78.652 to 1 decimal place
c. 123456.78 W to MW with 2 significant figures
d. 9856.8 to scientific notation with 2 significant figures