INVESTIGATION INTO BUILDING COLLAPSEAND THE EFFECTIVE

STRATEGIES IN THE EVACUATION OF VICTIMS IN NIGERIA: STUDY OF

BENUE STATE

BY

OFULUE VICTOR SUCCESS

NACEST/BLD/HND22/528

SEPTEMBER 2024

1
 INVESTIGATION INTO BUILDING COLLAPSEAND THE EFFECTIVE
STRATEGIES IN THE EVACUATION OF VICTIMS IN NIGERIA: STUDY OF
BENUE STATE

BY

OFULUE VICTOR SUCCESS

NACEST/BLD/HND22/528

A RESEARCH PROJECT REPORT SUBMITTED TO SCHOOL OF

ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE NIGERIAN AMRY COLLEGE OF
ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF TECHNOLOGY
(NACEST) MAKURDI IN PARTIAL FULLFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT
FOR THE AWARD OF HIGHER NATOINAL DIPLOMAL (HND) BUILDING
TECHNOLOGY.

2
 SEPTEMBER, 2024.

DECLARATION

I hereby declare that this project was written by me and it is record of my own research

work. It has not been presented before in any previous application for any award.

References made to publish literatures have duly acknowledged.

………………………………….
………………………………

OFULUE VICTOR SUCCESS Date

(Student)

The above declaration is confirmed by

………………………………….
………………………………

3
 Bldr. Ishaku Habu Date

(Project supervisor)

CERTIFICATION

This project entitled ‘Investigation into Building Collapse and the Effective Strategies in

the Evacuation of Victims in Nigeria: Study of Benue State’ by OFULUE VICTOR

SUCCESS meet the regulation governing the award of Higher National Diploma

(HND)Building technology Nigeria Army College of Environmental Science and

Technology (NACEST) Makurdi and is approved for its contribution to knowledge and

literary presentation.

--------------------------------------- -----------------------------------
Bldr. Ishaku Habu. Date
(Project Supervisor)

--------------------------------------- -----------------------------------
Bldr. Ofuche Kalu Date
(HOD Building)

4
--------------------------------------- ----------------------------------
(External Examiner) Date

DEDICATION

This project work is dedicated to God almighty for his Wisdom, inspiration, favor,
protection and sustenance throughout my study. Also, to the memory of my father Mr.
Benjamin Ofulue and my mother Mrs. Mary Ofulue for their prayers that has projected
this work to a success.

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I wish to earnestly acknowledge and praise the Almighty God who daily bears my

burdens and for his protection, provision, favor, and grace that sustain my life

throughout my stay in the institution. My second greatest indebtedness goes to my able

supervisor and mentor, Bldr. Ishaku Habu who has been an instructor, motivator, and

whose advice, correction, criticism, generous help, constant interest and immense

contribution made the research study a reality. May God in his infinity mercy continue

to endless bless and grant his family more grace on earth. I sincerely want to also want

to extend my gratefulness to my HOD Bldr. Ofuche Kalu, and the entire staff of

Building Technology Department for their guidance may God bless you all. My sincere

thanks go to my parent thank my beautiful wife for her contribution, encouragement

and support, God bless your dear I wish to acknowledge also the tremendous support

and encouragement I receive from my brothers, sister and friends who in one way or

the other contribute to the success of my education. Finally, I want to say another big

thanks to my entire course mate and all others I cannot remember, for your positive

influence.

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 ABSTRACT

Building collapse has become a recurring phenomenon in Nigeria, resulting in loss of lives,
injuries, and economic losses. This study investigates the impact of building collapse on the
construction industry in Benue State, Nigeria, and explores effective strategies for
evacuating victims. A mixed-methods approach was used, combining surveys, interviews, and
case studies. The findings reveal that building collapse has significant economic, social, and
environmental impacts on the construction industry, including loss of investor confidence,
increased costs, and damage to reputation. The study identifies inadequate design and
construction practices, poor materials, and lack of enforcement of building codes as major
causes of building collapse. Effective strategies for evacuating victims include prompt
emergency response, proper training of rescue teams, and public awareness campaigns. The
study recommends strict enforcement of building codes, regular inspections, and adoption of
innovative construction technologies to mitigate building collapse. The findings and
recommendations of this study are expected to contribute to reducing the incidence of
building collapse and improving emergency response in Nigeria's construction industry.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Title
Page

Title Page……………………………………...
…………………………………………………...i

Declaration……………………………………………………………………….......................
....ii

Certification……………………………………………………….............................................
...iii

Dedication……………………………………………………….
……..........................................iv

Acknowledgment……………………………………………………………..............……...
…....v

Abstract………………………………………………………………........................................
...vi

Table of content………………………………………………….............………….........
……...vii

List of
tables...................................................................................................................................xii
8
 CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of Study…………….…………………………………………………..

……1

1.2 Statement of

Problem………………………………………………………………………...3

1.3 Aim and Objective of

Study………………………………………………………………5

1.4 Research

Questions………………………………………………………………………..6

1.5 Significance of

Study……………………………………………………………………...6

1.6 Scope and delimitation of

Study…………………………………………………………..7

1.7 Definition of Terms…………………………………………………………………..

……7

1.8 Definition of

Terms…………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………..….7

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Conceptual

Framework……………………………………………………………………8

9
2.1.1 Building

Collapse………………………………………………………………………...10

2.1.2 Causes of Building

Collapse……………………………………………………………..11

2.1.2.1 Defective

Design…………………………………………………………………………12

2.1.2.2 Defective

Construction…………………………………………………………………..12

2.1.2.3 Use of Substandard

Materials…………………………………………………………....13

2.1.2.4 Absence of Building or Planning

Permit………………………………………………...13

2.1.2.5

Corruption………………………………………………………………………………..13

2.1.2.6 non-adherence to Approved Building

Plans…………………………………………….14

2.1.2.7 Absence of proper site and soil

investigation…………………………………………...14

10
2.1.2.8 Engagement of inexperienced personnel to take charge of construction

works………...14

2.1.2.9 Engagement of ill-equipped, incompetent

contractors………………………………….14

2.1.2.2.2 Lack of proper supervision, inspection and monitoring of construction

works……….15

2.1.2.11 Illegal conversion, alteration, and additions to existing

structures……………………..15

2.1.2.12 Undue Interference of client on building

works………………………………………..15

2.1.2.13 Foundation

failures……………………………………………………………………..15

2.1.2.14 Fire Outbreak……………………………………………………………………...

……15

2.1.2.15 Natural

Occurrences…………………………………………………………………….16

2.1.3 Effect of Building

Collapse………………………………………………………………..16

2.1.4 Remedies of Building

Collapse……………………………………………………………16

11
2.1.5

Casualties………………………………………………………………………………...18

2.1.6

Evacuation………………………………………………………………………………..25

2.1.6.1 Emergency

evacuation…………………………………………………………………...25

2.1.6.2 Medical

evacuation………………………………………………………………………25

2.1.6.3 Military

evacuation………………………………………………………………………26

2.1.6.4 Voluntary

evacuation……………………………………………………………………26

2.1.6.5 Mandatory

evacuation……………………………………………………………………26

2.1.7 Evacuation Planning………………………………………………………….

……………26

12
2.1.8 Organizations Involved in the Evacuation of Trapped

Victims………………………….27

2.1.8.1 NEMA/BENSEMA (Benue State Emergency Management Agency)

…………………..27

2.8.2 FRSC (Federal Road Safety Corps)

……………………………………………………...28

2.1.8.3 FEMA (Federal Emergency Management Agency)

……………………………………28

2.8.4 Red

Cross………………………………………………………………………………...30

2.8.5 National Security and Civil Defence Corps (NSCDC)

…………………………………..30

2.2 Theoretical

Framework…………………………………………………………………..31

2.2.1 Emergency

Preparedness………………………………………………………………...31

2.2.2 Procedure for

Rescue…………………………………………………………………….32

13
2.2.2.1 Phase 1 –

Arrival…………………………………………………………………………32

2.2.2.2 Phase 2- Pre-rescue

Operations………………………………………………………….35

2.2.2.3 Phase 3 - Rescue

Operations……………………………………………………………..36

2.2.2.4 Phase IV –

Termination………………………………………………………………….40

2.2.2.5 Additional

Considerations………………………………………………………………..40

2.3 Summary of the

Literature……………………………………………………………….42

CHAPTER THREE:RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 Research

Design………………………………………………………………………….43

3.2 Study

Population…………………………………………………………………………44

3.3 Sample and Sampling Technique……………………………………………………

44

3.4 Method of Data Collection……………………………………………………..

………44

3.4.1 Primary

Data……………………………………………………………………………45
14
3.4.1.1 Personal

interview……………………………………………………………………….45

3.4.2 Secondary Data

Collection………………………………………………………………45

3.5 Materials/Instruments for Data

Collection…………………………………………………45

3.6 Method of Data Analysis…………………………………………………………………

45

3.7 Expected Outcome…………………………………………………………………………

46

CHAPTER FOUR: RESULT REPRESENTATION AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Research Question

1…………………………………………………………………………47

4.2 Research Question

2………..,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,48

4.3 Research Question

3…………………………………………………………………………49

4.4 Research Question

4…………………………………………………………………………51

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4.5 Major Findings of the

Study…………………………………………………………………52

4.6 Discussion of

Findings……………………………………………………………………….53

CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Conclusions…………………………………………………………………………………

..57

5.2 Recommendations…………………………………………………………………………

…58

5.3 Contribution of the

Study……………………………………………………………………59

REFERENCES…………………………………………………………………………………

..60

APPENDIX……………………………………………………………………………………

…63

16
 LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Location and number of

respondents…………………………......................................20

Table 2: Strategies for waste management and environmental

security.......................................21

Table 3: Impact of waste management and environmental

security.............................................22

Table 4: Measures to control waste and enhance a secured

environment....................................23

17
 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of Study

According to Oluwadare et al., (2014), a building is a structure that provides a safe haven for

its occupants and must be appropriately planned, designed, and constructed to achieve the

desired comfort from the surroundings, while allowing the inhabitants to carry out their daily

activities. Buildings are constructions of civil engineering, built in various ways, using

different materials, and for specific purposes such as providing shelter for human lives and

properties, with considerations of serviceability, cost, and security, as stated by Awoyera et

al., (2021). The quest for adequate housing for everyone has been a crucial and necessary

challenge, as highlighted by Ajufoh et al., (2014).

When a building component can no longer perform its primary functions, it is considered to

have failed (Santos, 2020). Building failure occurs when there is an unsatisfactory difference

between expected and actual performance, and a building component is deemed to have

failed when it can no longer perform its intended functions (Oluwadare et al., 2014). The

issue of building collapse in Nigeria is a widespread problem that affects all parties involved,

including building consultants, property owners, the government, land developers, and users,

regardless of the state, local government, or level of urbanization (Chendo and Obi, 2015).

Finding solutions to this problem has become an endless search for stakeholders (Olayinka et

al., 2017).

According to Ayedun (2012), a study on building collapse showed that occupied buildings

were more prone to collapse than buildings under construction. Out of fifty-six buildings that

collapsed, only 4% were under construction, while the remaining 96% were in use before the

18
failure occurred. The occurrence of structural failures is not an uncommon phenomenon in

the global construction industry, particularly in developing countries. However, it is not

something that is expected to happen. Instances of collapsed buildings, bridges, and other

structures are not unique to Nigeria but the repeated incidents of building collapses in the

Benue region of Nigeria require immediate attention (Oyedele et al., 2018). Numerous

scholars have identified a variety of causes of building collapse. The Dictionary of

Architecture and Construction defines collapse as a result of mechanical failure (Adedeji &

Omokanye, 2019). According to Dutt and Singh (2021), collapse is defined by the National

Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) as a state where a building or any part of it is

unable to sustain the loads that it was designed to carry, leading to an inability to stand as

intended. In such a scenario, multiple structural elements can fail, causing the majority of the

members to crumble, buckle, or cave in, ultimately resulting in a complete failure of the

structure. Oloyede et al., (2014) argued that man's negligence in essential areas of

construction, such as poor monitoring, poor workmanship, inadequate soil investigation,

inadequate design for additional loads, and substandard building materials, contributes to the

causes of building collapse.

In Nigeria, building collapse is commonly linked with structural failure because a building

cannot remain standing unless it meets the requirements of structural stability. For a building

to be secure and remain standing, all of its structural elements must be verified as safe for

both ultimate conditions (collapse) and serviceability conditions (such as deflection,

cracking, and vibration) (Okonkwo et al., 2018). Building collapse results in severe and

lasting consequences that cannot be easily undone by those affected by it. The impact of such

events can be felt across economic, socio-economic, and social aspects, including loss of

19
human life, injuries, economic losses in terms of property, investments, jobs, and income, as

well as damage to trust, dignity, and exacerbation of crises among stakeholders. Moreover, it

can lead to environmental disasters, further compounding the effects of the collapse

(Achilike & Ojukwu, 2021).

1.2 Statement of Problem

Building collapses occur as a result of human error and negligence in critical aspects of

construction, including inadequate soil investigation, failure to design for extreme loads and

environmental stresses such as winds and earthquakes, construction on uneven terrain, use of

substandard building materials, poor monitoring, and overall poor workmanship (Dunn and

Hills, (2019) attributed. (Fadamiro et al., 2019) opined that, the reasons for building failures

have been attributed to natural events such as earthquakes, tornadoes, floods, etc. In addition,

other factors including negligence, carelessness leading to the use of inadequate structural

drawings, absence of proper project supervision, alteration of approved drawings, use of

substandard materials, corruption within the Nigerian system, construction without approved

drawings, and the translocation of building plans to different sites have also been identified

as possible causes. According to Awoyera et al., (2021), Failure of a structure does not only

happen when it completely collapses, but also when any part or component of the structure

becomes unsuitable for its intended purpose or loading. The experts proposed three potential

scenarios for structural failure:

i. Serviceability limit state failure occurs when it becomes unserviceable by undergoing

excessive deflection and cracking;

ii. Ultimate limit state failure happens when it fails by overturning, ultimate collapse, or

wobbling of the columns. The structure is said to have failed in Ultimate limit state.

20
 iii. Durability failure has to do with the weakening of the components beyond reparable

limits.

The traditional materials used in centuries past made it impossible for buckling to be a major

structural problem likewise multi-storey buildings were rare during those ages. There is a

likelihood to make sure important structures do not fail by using materials generously which

made many of the roman structures survive till today (Taiwo and Afolami, 2011). According

to research by Kuligowski and Peacock (2018), understanding the behavior of occupants

during emergencies, such as building evacuations, is crucial in ensuring their safety.

However, the authors also note that there is a lack of knowledge about occupants' behavioral

processes in such situations, making it difficult for safety designers to develop effective

evacuation strategies. Evacuation during building collapse is a complex process that requires

careful planning and execution. In this statement of problem, we explore the challenges

related to evacuation strategies in building collapse scenarios in five different areas:

emergency response planning, building design and construction, human behavior,

communication and decision-making, and training and education.

Emergency response planning: The success of an evacuation during a building collapse

depends on the effectiveness of the emergency response plan. However, many buildings lack

comprehensive and updated emergency plans, which can lead to confusion and delays during

an emergency (Proulx et al., 2018). Building design and construction: The design and

construction of buildings can greatly impact the ability to evacuate during a collapse.

Buildings with inadequate structural support, improper egress design, and insufficient

emergency systems can hinder evacuation efforts and increase the risk of injury or death

(Salzano et al., 2017). Human behavior: This plays a critical role in evacuation during

21
building collapse scenarios. Panic, fear, and confusion can impede evacuation efforts and

increase the risk of injury or death. Additionally, cultural and language barriers can also

impact communication and decision-making during an emergency (Paulikas & Hunt, 2015).

Communication and decision-making: Effective communication and decision-making during

a building collapse scenario are crucial for successful evacuation. However, communication

breakdowns and conflicting information can cause delays and confusion during an

emergency (Li et al., 2020). Training and education: Training and education can improve

evacuation strategies during a building collapse. However, training programs and educational

materials are often inadequate or outdated, leading to ineffective evacuation procedures

(McGill et al., 2016).

1.3 Aim and Objective of Study

This study seeks to investigate building collapse and also assess the effective strategies

employed by the emergency respondents to the scene of a building collapse in order to save

victims that may be trapped under a collapsed building in Nigeria. Specifically, the research

work looked into the following objectives:

1. To identify the causes of building collapse and also proffer possible solutions to

building collapse in Benue and Nigeria at large.

2. To investigate the steps or strategies to be taken once a building collapse incident

occurs to evacuate victims affected by the collapse.

3. To proffer possible solutions that will improve the evacuation strategies already in

place in saving trapped victims in a collapsed building.

22
1.4 Research Questions

Based on the above objectives, this study seeks to answer the following questions

1. What are the causes of building collapse in construction industry in Benue state?

2. What are the effects of building collapse on construction industry in Benue state?

3. What are the solutions to the causes of building collapse in construction industry in

Benue state?

4. What are the effective strategies in evacuating victims of building collapse in Benue

state?

1.5 Significance of Study

The goal of this study is to investigate the concept of building collapse and assess the

effective strategies involved in the evacuation of trapped victims in the event of a building

collapse using Makurdi, Benue as a case study. The findings of this research will enable

different stakeholders - Building consultants, house owners, the government, Land

developers and the users including the educational sector notice how to go about saving more

lives in the occasion of a building collapse. Secondly, it will bring to the notice of

stakeholders in the construction industry, solutions to the increasing numbers of collapsed

buildings by bringing to their notice steps to take to prevent such occurrences. The

evacuation of trapped victims in Benue has always been challenging due to a shortage of

adequately trained personnel and a lack of proper equipment for such scenarios. To minimize

the impact of building collapse on occupants and save lives and property, there is a need to

improve the means of evacuating trapped victims (Abdulmalik & Sani, 2019).

23
1.6 Scope and delimitation of Study

This study will focus on the strategies employed in the rescue mission of trapped victims of

building collapse in and around Makurdi, Benue state. Structured interview was conducted

with staffers of search and rescue operation like BENSEMA in order to obtain first-hand

information which in turn will turn out to be a research document.

1.8 Definition of Terms

Building Collapse: refers to the sudden and often catastrophic failure of a structure,

resulting in its partial or total destruction of a building.

Evacuation: is the temporary but rapid removal of people from a building or disaster (or

threatened) area as a rescue or precautionary measure.

24
 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Conceptual Framework

Building collapses occur because people neglect crucial aspects of construction, including

soil analysis, the inclusion of designs for additional loads, protection from wind and

earthquake stress, and the use of subpar building materials, among other things. Poor

oversight and overall shoddy workmanship are also part of the factors that contribute to

building failures (Okpala, 2018), attributed. (Fadamiro et al., 2019) opined that, the reasons

for building failures have been attributed to natural events such as earthquakes, tornadoes,

floods, etc. In addition, other factors including negligence, carelessness leading to the use of

inadequate structural drawings, absence of proper project supervision, alteration of approved

25
drawings, use of substandard materials, corruption within the Nigerian system, construction

without approved drawings, and the translocation of building plans to different sites have

also been identified as possible causes. Adenuga and Osinubi, (2017) suggests that building

failures are not the fault of any one particular group in the construction industry. Rather, all

parties involved, including clients, architects, engineers, town planners, and contractors, have

played a role in causing building failures in different ways.

According to Adeleke and Adedeji (2018), the frequent occurrence of building collapses in

Nigeria can be attributed to unsafe practices by all parties involved in the building process,

including clients, building consultants, contractors, and users. The authors argue that the lack

of adherence to building regulations and standards by all parties can lead to unsafe building

practices, resulting in building collapses. This is consistent with the findings of other studies,

such as the work of Ogunsote et al., (2014), which identified inadequate supervision, poor

workmanship, and lack of adherence to building codes as the primary causes of building

collapses in Nigeria. To address this issue, Adeleke and Adedeji (2018) recommend stricter

enforcement of building regulations, greater awareness and education about building safety

for all parties involved in the building process, and the use of modern building technologies

to improve building quality and safety. Additionally, a report by the National Institute of

Standards and Technology (NIST) found that one way to reduce or prevent building

collapses is by investing in high-quality materials and hiring skilled professionals, which

may come at a higher cost to the client.

Mawson and Hameed (2021) describe progressive evacuation as a controlled evacuation

method that involves removing occupants from specific parts of a building while limiting the

need for evacuation from other areas. This approach is particularly useful in tall buildings

26
where total evacuation may not be feasible or necessary. The authors explain that progressive

evacuation involves dividing the building into zones and evacuating occupants from affected

zones while allowing others to remain in safe areas to reduce congestion on exit routes and

prevent panic during emergencies.

Mawson and Hameed (2021) emphasized on the importance of incorporating progressive

evacuation strategies into tall building designs and emergency plans. This approach can

improve evacuation times and reduce the risk of injury or death during emergencies.

However, the success of progressive evacuation requires careful planning and coordination

between building management, emergency responders, and occupants.

Regarding total evacuation, Mawson and Hameed (2021) define it as the complete removal

of all occupants from a building during an emergency, which may involve using staircases or

elevators to evacuate occupants to a safe area outside the building. The authors stress the

need for safe and efficient evacuation routes in tall building designs to ensure a quick and

safe evacuation process for occupants. Additionally, occupants should be well-trained in

emergency evacuation procedures, including knowing the location of emergency exits and

evacuation routes, and practicing emergency drills to prepare for actual emergency situations.

Typically, only the evacuation planning department has the authority to order a complete

building evacuation. But in very severe emergencies, building management or the fire safety

director may decide to evacuate everyone. Alternatively, the occupants of the building may

choose to evacuate on their own. The time needed to evacuate a building depends on various

factors such as its size, population, and the cause of the evacuation (Ayinuola et al., 2004).

27
2.1.1 Building Collapse

Building collapse refers to the failure of a structure or a part of a structure, resulting in the

collapse or partial collapse of the building. Building collapses can be caused by a variety of

factors, including design flaws, construction defects, material deficiencies, natural disasters,

and overloading.

There are several types of building collapses, according to an article by

designingbuildings.co.uk in 2023, there are four major types of building collapse and they

include:

I. Progressive collapse: This occurs when the failure of a single component or part of a

building triggers a chain reaction that leads to the collapse of the entire structure.

Progressive collapses can be caused by design flaws, construction defects, or

unexpected loads.

II. Pancake collapse: This occurs when a building's floors collapse on top of one another,

resulting in a pancake-like stack of debris. Pancake collapses are often associated

with buildings that have a large number of stories and insufficient support.

III. V-shaped collapse: This occurs when the center of a building collapses inward,

creating a V-shaped wedge of debris. V-shaped collapses are often associated with

buildings that have a central core or load-bearing columns (Han and Li, 2008).

IV. Lean-to collapse: This occurs when a portion of a building collapses to one side,

creating a lean-to effect. Lean-to collapses are often associated with buildings that

have inadequate lateral support or have been subject to a lateral load, such as an

earthquake.

28
In Nigeria, building collapses have been a major concern due to the high number of incidents

in recent years. According to a report by the Nigerian Building and Road Research Institute

(NBRRI), building collapses in Nigeria are often caused by a combination of factors,

including poor design, substandard materials, inadequate supervision, and non-compliance

with building codes and regulations (NBRRI, 2019).

There have been several high-profile building collapses in Nigeria in recent years, including

the Synagogue Church building collapse in Lagos in 2014, which claimed 116 lives, and the

collapse of a three-story building in Lagos in 2019, which killed 20 people (Vanguard, 2019).

These incidents highlight the need for stronger regulation and enforcement of building

standards in Nigeria to prevent further collapses.

2.1.2 Causes of Building Collapse

Building failure in Nigeria Thirty-seven (37) year records of building collapse in Nigeria

show that most of the structures affected happened to be privately owned (more than 80%)

and commonly more than 50% were residential buildings. This menace happened to be

mostly with private residential buildings built by local contractors. The compiled history of

building failure in Nigeria by (Tanko et al., 1997) found that quackery recorded the highest

frequency against poor supervision as minimum occurrence. Through the eyes of (Chendo

and Obi, 2015)'s personal experience and through investigations and media reports, identified

causes of building collapse in the country are summarized as follows;

2.1.2.1 Defective Design

If architects don't conduct feasibility studies, soil and site investigations, and don't insist on

these being carried out, it can result in defective architectural and engineering drawings.

29
These investigations are necessary to ensure that the project is feasible, and to provide the

necessary information for the design of adequate architectural and structural drawings. Poor

design details, the use of low-quality materials, and inadequate work specifications can also

contribute to defects. Similarly, engineers (structural and civil) may also be at fault if they

fail to insist on essential soil tests and foundation designs. If professionals make errors, omit

important information, or provide inaccurate data, it can lead to problems if not detected in

time. (Chendo and Obi, 2015).

2.1.2.2 Defective Construction

This occurs when contractors do not follow the instructions and requirements provided by

architects and engineers, often in pursuit of higher profits. They may also use lower quality

materials instead of the ones specified. Additional problems may arise from improper mixing

of concrete, early removal of formworks, and overall inadequate workmanship. (Chendo and

Obi, 2015).

2.1.2.3 Use of Substandard Materials

The utilization of inferior building blocks obtained from block factories is a significant issue.

It was discovered that contractors may engage in unethical practices without proper

supervision. A ratio of cement to sand that is precise can be achieved by weighing the

materials rather than measuring them in volume. It is essential to conduct tensile strength

tests on steel reinforcement bars to ascertain their standard strength. Unfortunately, the

country and higher institutions lack sufficient laboratories to conduct these tests, including

concrete cube tests for concrete and water quality. The utilization of substandard materials

and untested building techniques is a major factor in the collapse of building structures.

(Chendo and Obi, 2015).

30
2.1.2.4 Absence of Building or Planning Permit

Undertaking construction works without approved drawings from the relevant approving

authorities is against the law. The responsibilities of granting approval to potential

developers are assigned to the Commission (for Federal Lands), the Board (for State lands),

and the Authority (for Local Governments lands), which are the three tiers of government. In

certain cases, faulty drawings are utilized for construction without the necessary approval

from the responsible authorities. Some individuals are unaware of this requirement, while

others may take advantage of weak enforcement by the authorities. (Chendo and Obi 2015).

2.1.2.5 Corruption

Sometimes drawings are not read by officers of the approving authority to detect defects.

Corruption can occur when officers of the approving authority engage in corrupt practices by

granting illegal approvals without reading the drawings to detect defects (Chendo and Obi

2015).

2.1.2.6 Non-Adherence to Approved Building Plans

Sometimes, a building originally specified to undergo in-situ concreting is changed to pre-

cast methods because the expatriate contractor tends to prefabricate the components overseas

and ship to Nigeria. Non-Adherence to approved building plans happens when there are

illegal alterations to approved drawings. This practice could be dangerous years after the

buildings are in use (Chendo and Obi 2015).

2.1.2.7 Absence of proper site and soil investigation

Absence of proper site and soil investigation to determine the terrain and soil's bearing

capacity, which influences foundation types, spells danger (Chendo and Obi 2015).

31
2.1.2.8 Engagement of inexperienced personnel to take charge of construction works

Sometimes construction companies make use of incompetent staff to act as principals on

construction sites in order to save cost. The consequence is fraudulent practices by smart

contractors (Chendo and Obi 2015).

2.1.2.9 Engagement of ill-equipped, incompetent contractors:

In Nigeria, the engagement of ill-equipped, incompetent contractors can lead to shoddy

performance, which can cause building collapse. Most contracts are first awarded to

businessmen who stand in front for politicians, and they sell the contract to quack contractors

without investigating their competency (Chendo and Obi 2015).

2.1.2.2.2 Lack of proper supervision, inspection and monitoring of construction works

Lack of proper supervision, inspection, and monitoring of construction works is a common

practice by building professionals, either due to negligence or because they are not paid to do

so (Chendo and Obi, 2015).

2.1.2.11 Illegal conversion, alteration, and additions to existing structures

Imposing additional floors beyond original design provision is a common practice in Nigeria.

Illegal conversion, alteration, and additions to existing structures, such as imposing

additional floors beyond the original design provision, changing the use of the building, or

creating vibrations on suspended floors by breaking of slabs, beams, or exposing old

foundation to flood and erosion, may lead to structural failure (Chendo and Obi 2015).

32
2.1.2.12 Undue Interference of client on building works

Undue Interference of the client on building works can lead to serious changes and variations

at advanced stages of construction without seeking building consultants' advice, which may

result in building collapse (Chendo and Obi 2015).

2.1.2.13 Foundation failures

Foundation failures can result from poor sub-soil, non-uniform loading, unsuitable

foundation, soil erosion, or earth movement under the foundation (Chendo & Obi 2015).

2.1.2.14 Fire Outbreak

Fire Outbreaks are a risk factor for structural failures. Many building materials, construction,

and finishes are flammable, and they can encourage fire spread. Fire can weaken structural

members (Chendo and Obi 2015).

2.1.2.15 Natural Occurrences

Building collapses in Nigeria have often been attributed to natural disasters such as heavy

storms, floods, earthquakes, thunder, and lightning (Chendo& Obi, 2015). These events

remain common in Nigeria and have been linked to many cases of building collapses in

recent years (Onifadeet al., 2020).

2.1.3 Effect of Building Collapse

According to Chendo and Obi, 2015, the effects of building collapse are as follows;

I. The loss of life, property, and significant amounts of capital occurred. According to a

newspaper survey conducted by Arayela and Adam in 2001, approximately 217

people lost their lives between 1974 and 2001

33
 II. The loss of reputation and integrity can result in psychological distress. Additionally,

it can lead to the loss of new commissions and contracts, as well as the withdrawal of

practicing licenses.

III. Loss of materials and capital investments is a significant consequence. Components

and materials may be irreparably damaged, making them unusable. As a result,

capital investments are non-recoverable, which can cause bankruptcy and have severe

economic implications for the country.

2.1.4 Remedies of Building Collapse

According to Chendo and Obi (2015), the possible remedies to the incessant building

collapse in Nigeria are;

I. To ensure that all buildings are constructed properly, policy makers should establish

proper planning, supervision, and monitoring of construction activities.

II. Building industry professionals should adhere to their professional ethics and work

according to standard practice procedures, especially when dealing with uninformed

clients.

III. Urban or town development agencies at all levels of government should enforce

building regulations as laid out in the National Building Code 2006 and Urban and

Regional Planning Decree 88 of 1992.

IV. Periodic public awareness campaigns through various media should be organized to

educate the public on the importance of using professionals to construct safe

buildings.

V. The Standard Organization of Nigeria should ensure that all building materials

imported into the country conform to the required standards.

34
 VI. The Standard Organization of Nigeria should monitor the quality of blocks made in

block industries and impose minimum standards regarding sand-cement ratios.

VII. All building professionals play a vital role in ensuring the safety of the building

during the construction process, and it is the duty of the architect to guide the client in

using the right professionals.

VIII. Soil investigation, material tests, and environmental impact assessments should be

compulsory for all institutional, industrial, and commercial buildings.

IX. Building plans must comply with Nigeria's new building code and local regulations

X. The available materials testing laboratories in the country should be empowered and

restructured.

XI. Lastly, the National Assembly should pass the bill on the National Building Code

without delay.

2.1.5 Casualties

In the past years till date, the level of death rate of building collapse keeps increasing with no

effort on how to reduce it due to poor construction material and poor skill which leads to

building collapse details in the Table1.

Table 1: Construction Risk Register

S/No. Purpose of Location of collapse Usage status Date of Cause(s) of collapse Casualties

Building collapse

1. 4-Floor residential/ 53, Cemetery Rd, In use January, Ignorance, greedy 7

commercial Amukoko, Lagos 2006 landlord

building

35
2. 21-Storey Bank of Broad str. Lagos In use March, Aftermath of fire, 2 dead 23

Industry building Island, Lagos State 2006 heavy wind and rain injured

3. 4-Storey Block of Ebute Meta, Lagos In use July, 2006 Faulty construction 28

36 Flats known as

“Titanic” Building

4. 2-Floor school Ikpoba-Okha LG, Edo In use April, Undisclosed 2

building State 2006

5. 3-Floor Building Benue In use June, 2006 Undecided Nil

housing offices and

church

6. Multi-Storey Ebute Meta, Lagos In use 2007 Unauthorized Several people

commercial and conversion, poor

Residential supervision, use of

building poor quality materials

7. Multi-Storey Kano In use 2007 Faulty design, Several people

building structural failure

36
8. Building used as Olomi Area, Ibadan, In use March, March, 2008 13

nursery and Oyo State 2008

primary school

9. 5-Storey shopping Wuse Area, Benue Under August, Structural failure, 2 injured, 100

complex construction 2008 incompetence, bad trapped

workmanship

10. 2-Storey residential Asero, Abeokuta, Under August, Violates planning 2

building Ogun State construction 2008 approval, substandard

materials

11. 6-Storey Ogbomoso, Oyo State Under February, Use of substandard 5

LAUTECH construction 2009 material, poor

Teaching Hospital workmanship/

Complex supervision

12. A Fence walls Aghaji Crescent, GRA In use August, No proper drainage 1

Enugu 2009

13. Uncompleted Oke Padre Str. Ita- Uncompleted October, Substandard materials, 3 dead, 11

building morin Abeokuta 2009 hasty construction injured

14. Building under Isopakodowo str. Under April, Use of substandard 4 death, 12

37
 construction Cairo, Oshodi, Lagos construction 2010 materials injured

15. Uncompleted Adenike Street, Off Uncompleted June 2010 Substandard materials, 1 dead, 2

Storey Building New Market, Oniru noncompliance with injured

Estate, Lagos approved building

plans and weak

structure

16. Uncompleted 3- Ikole street, Area 11, Uncompleted August, Undisclosed 5 dead 40

Storey Building Benue 2010 trapped

17. 4-storey Building 24, Alli Street, In use September Structural Defects/ 3

Victoria Island, Lagos 2010 overloading

18. 2-Storey Zenith Mararaba, Benue In use 2011 N/A N/A

Bank Building

19. 4-Storey Hospital Pape, Benue Not ascertained 2011 N/A N/A

Building

20. 5-Storey Office 11, Aderibigbe Str. In use 2011 Structural failure, gross Nil

Complex with a Maryland, Lagos serviceability limit

pent house violation

21. 5-Storey Hotel Adenubi Close, Ikeja, In use 2011 N/A N/A

38
 building Lagos

22. 3-Storey Block of 16 Nnobi str. Enugu, In use 2012 Structural defects N/A

Flats Enugu State

23. One-Storey Awka, Anambra State, Uncompleted 2012 Defective materials N/A

residential building Nigeria

24. 3-storey Block of Owerri, Imo State, Uncompleted 2012 Flooding N/A

Flats in a water- Nigeria

logged area of

Owerri

25. Four-storey Block Agbama Estate Under 2012 Non-adherence to Undisclosed

of Flats at Agbama Umuahia, Abia State, construction building Regulation number of

Estate, Umuahia Nigeria that permits only 2 squatters

floors in the area perished

26. Four-storey Abanye Str. Onitsha, In use 2013 Heavy Rainfall N/A

commercial Anambra State Nigeria flooding

Building collapsed

during a downpour

27. 2-Storey School Bukuru, Jos South In use September, Structural failure, 10

building Local Government 2013 violation of original

approved plan

28. 3-Storey building Oloto Str. Ebute Meta, In use July, 2013 Dilapidated structure 7 dead

39
 Lagos

House No. 12, Hadeja Old and dilapidated

Road, Kaduna

Old 3-Storey In use July, 2013 3 dead

building

29. 6-Storey Guest Ikotun Egbe, Lagos In use September Structural failure 116 dead, 100

house building 12, 2014 injured

30. 3-Storey building Ebute Meta, Lagos In use July, 2015 Weak Structure Nil

31. Residential Dolphin Estate, Ikoyi, In use July, 2015 Gas Explosion 3 injured

Building of Senior Lagos

Politician

32. 5-Storey building Lekki Gardens, Lekki Under March, Violation of approved 34 dead

Phase 1, Lagos State construction 2016 number of floors

33. 4-Storey shopping Itoku Market, Under May, 2016 Under investigation 1 dead

plaza Abeokuta, Ogun State construction

34. Commercial LafenwaSapon Road, May 13, Structural defects 2

complex Itoku, Abeokuta 2016

35. The Reigners Bible Akwa Ibom State, December Structural failure 100

Church. Nigeria 10, 2016

40
36. 4-storey building 3 Massey St, Lagos July 25, Undisclosed 6

Island 2017

37. A storey building Ulakwo junction, July 8, Undisclosed 3

Owerri North LGA, 2017

Imo State

38. Four storey Zulu Gambari Road, August 18, Undisclosed -

building Ilorin 2017

39. 4-storey building Owelle Aja Layout, July 17, Substandard materials -

Obosi, Anambra 2018 with addition of two

un-designed floors

40. 4-storey building Jabi, FCT Benue August 16, Substandard materials 2

2018

41. 3-storey building Okpuno, otolo in October Substandard materials -

Nnewi, Anambra 18, 2018

42. 3-storey building IfiteAwka, Anambra October Substandard material -

State 2018

43. 7-storey building Woji road, GRA phase November Undisclosed 5

2, Port Harcourt 23, 2018

44. 3-storey building Lagos Island February Not reported 2

3, 2019

45. A three-storey ItaFaaji area of Lagos March 13, The change of use of 20

the building from the

41
 building state, Nigeria 2019 intended purpose

46. 3-storey building Sogoye, bode area of March 15, Concrete was not -

under construction Ibadan Sogoye, Bode 2019 adequately cured

area of Ibadan during construction

SOURCE: Construction Risk Register 2019

2.1.6 Evacuation

This is the temporary but rapid removal of people from a building or disaster (or threatened)

area as a rescue or precautionary measure. If the removal extends to more than a few months

or become permanent, it is called RELOCATION.

According to FEMA (2018), evacuation can be classified into several types depending on the

circumstances and nature of the emergency. Here are some common types of evacuation:

2.1.6.1 Emergency evacuation

This type of evacuation is conducted in response to an immediate threat or danger, such as a

fire, flood, or natural disaster. The goal is to move people quickly and safely away from the

affected area to a designated safe location (FEMA, 2018).

2.1.6.2 Medical evacuation

This type of evacuation is used to transport people who need urgent medical attention to a

hospital or other medical facility. It can be done by air, sea, or ground transport (FEMA,

2018).

42
2.1.6.3 Military evacuation

Also known as "military extraction," this type of evacuation is used to evacuate military

personnel or civilians from a hostile or dangerous environment. It may involve the use of

helicopters, airplanes, or other military vehicles (FEMA, 2018).

2.1.6.4 Voluntary evacuation

This type of evacuation is initiated by the authorities, but it is up to individuals whether or

not to evacuate. It is often used in situations where there is a potential threat, such as a

wildfire or hurricane (FEMA, 2018).

2.1.6.5 Mandatory evacuation

This type of evacuation is ordered by authorities, and individuals are required by law to leave

the affected area. It is usually used in situations where there is an immediate threat to life,

such as a hurricane or chemical spill (FEMA, 2018).

2.1.7 Evacuation Planning

According to Ogundele (2013), evacuation planning involves the development of a plan to

ensure safe and efficient evacuation of all expected residents in a structure, city, or region.

The plan should establish a benchmark "evacuation time" for different hazards and

conditions and should include multiple exits, contra-flow lanes, and special technologies.

Personal situations that may affect an individual's ability to evacuate should be taken into

account, and the plan should also consider the use of alarm signals that use both aural and

visual alerts, as well as evacuation equipment such as sleds, pads, and chairs for non-

ambulatory people. The aim of the plan is to minimize the negative consequences of the

43
threat triggering the evacuation and optimize the need for self-evacuation without causing

alarm.

According to Ogundele (2013), several factors should be considered during evacuation

planning. These include:

i. Benchmark "evacuation time" for different hazards and conditions

ii. Multiple exits, contra-flow lanes, and special technologies to ensure full, fast, and

complete evacuation

iii. Personal situations that may affect an individual's ability to evacuate, including the

use of evacuation equipment such as sleds, pads, and chairs for non-ambulatory

people

iv. Alarm signals that use both aural and visual alerts

v. Building codes that can be used to minimize the negative consequences of the threat

triggering the evacuation and optimize the need for self-evacuation without causing

alarm

vi. Proper planning, training, and rehearsal of the evacuation team.

By considering these factors, an effective evacuation plan can be developed that ensures safe

and efficient evacuation of all expected residents in a structure, city, or region.

2.1.8 Organizations Involved in the Evacuation of Trapped Victims

In the event of a building collapse in Nigeria, the following organizations may be involved in

the evacuation of victims:

44
2.1.8.1 NEMA/BENSEMA (Benue State Emergency Management Agency)

According to BENSEMA (n.d.), The Benue State Emergency Management Agency (NEMA)

was established in 2006 via Act 12 as amended by Act 50 of 1999, it is saddled with the

responsibility to manage disasters in Nigeria. It has been tackling disaster related issues

through the establishment of concrete

1. Mission to coordinate resource toward efficient and effective and effective disaster

prevention, preparation mitigation and response

2. Vision: to build a culture of preparedness, prevention, response and community

resilience to disaster in Nigeria.

The authority core functions are: Coordinating the various environmental management

activities being undertaken by the lead agencies, Promote the integration of environmental

considerations into development policies, plans, programmes and projects, with a view to

ensuring the proper management.

2.8.2 FRSC (Federal Road Safety Corps)

According to FRSC (n.d.), in February 1988, the Federal Government created the Federal

Road Safety Commission through Decree No. 45 of the 1988 as amended by Decree 35 of

1992 referred to in the statute books as the FRSC Act cap 141 Laws of the Federation of

Nigeria (LFN). Passed by the National Assembly as Federal Road Safety Commission

(establishment) Act 2007. The vision it to eradicate road traffic crashes and create safe

motoring environment in Nigeria

The Mission of the Corps is to Regulate, Enforce and Coordinate all Road Traffic and Safety

Management activities through: Sustained public enlightenment, Promotion of stakeholder’s

45
cooperation, robust data management, improved vehicle administration, prompt rescue

services and effective patrol operation.

2.1.8.3 FEMA (Federal Emergency Management Agency)

According to FEMA (n.d.), For 43 years, FEMA's mission remains: to lead America to

prepare for, prevent, respond to and recover from disasters with a vision of "A Nation

Prepared." On April 1, 1979, President Jimmy Carter signed the executive order that created

the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA).

The Federal Emergency Management Agency coordinates the federal government's role in

preparing for, preventing, mitigating the effects of, responding to, and recovering from all

domestic disasters, whether natural or man-made, including acts of terror.

FEMA can trace its beginnings to the Congressional Act of 1803. This act, generally

considered the first piece of disaster legislation, provided assistance to a New Hampshire

town following an extensive fire. Helping people before, during, and after disasters

FEMA (Federal Emergency Management Agency) mission is to support the citizens and first

responders to promote that as a nation we work together to build, sustain, and improve our

capability to prepare for, protect against, respond to, recover from, and mitigate all hazards

(FEMA, n.d.).

What are some improvements FEMA is focusing on between the 2008‐2013 fiscal years?

1. Lead an integrated approach that strengthens the Nation’s ability to address disasters,

emergencies, and terrorist events

2. Deliver easily accessible and coordinated assistance for all programs

46
 3. Provide reliable information at the right time for all users

4. FEMA invests in people and people invest in FEMA to ensure mission success

5. Build public trust and confidence through performance and stewardship

2.8.4 Red Cross

According to NRCS (n.d.), The Nigerian Red Cross Society (NRCS) was established through

an Act of the Parliament in 1960. The Act, referred to as the Nigerian Red Cross Act of 1960,

CAP 324 states in Section 5 (1) that ‘the Society shall be recognized by the Government of

the Federation as a Voluntary Aid Society, auxiliary to the public authorities…’ This shows

that we are a creation of the Federal Government of Nigeria and statutorily meant to

complement public authorities in the area of humanitarian interventions. Our mandate is

derived from the aforementioned Act of Parliament and the Geneva Conventions of which

Nigeria is a state party.

The vision of the Nigeria the Red Cross is

1. 1 to build a strong national society that will continue to respond to both conflict and

other emergency situation with required professionalism

2. 2 to develop focused and strategic system that will enhance efficient service delivery

with the required impact

2.8.5 National Security and Civil Defence Corps (NSCDC)

According to NSCDC, (2019), Nigeria Security and Civil Defense corps (NSCDC) is a Para-

military institution that was established in May 1967 by the Federal Republic of Nigeria,

with the act of National Assembly (Nigeria). The act was amended in 2007, to enhance the

statutory duties of the corp. Nigerian Security and Civil Defense Corps is a para-military

47
agency of the Government of the Federal Republic of Nigeria that is commissioned to

provide measures against threat and any form of attack or disaster against the nation and its

citizenry. The corps is statutorily empowered by lay Act No. 2 of 2003 and amended by Act

6 of 4 June 2007. The Nigeria Security and Civil Defense Corps was first introduced in May

1967 during the Nigerian Civil War within the then Federal Capital Territory of Lagos for the

purpose of sensitization and protection of the civil populace. It was then known as Lagos

Civil Defense Committee. The primary function of the NSCDC is to protect lives and

properties in conjunction with Nigeria police. One of the crucial functions of the corps is to

protect pipelines from vandalism. The agency emergency department also involve in the

evacuation of trapped victim in building collapse.

2.2 Theoretical Framework

2.2.1 Emergency Preparedness

Emergency preparedness in the context of building collapse involves the actions and

measures taken to reduce the risk of building collapses and to respond effectively in the event

of such an occurrence. This includes pre-disaster planning, risk assessment, training, and

drills, as well as response and recovery efforts (FEMA, 2016). One key aspect of emergency

preparedness in building collapse is ensuring that structures are built to appropriate standards

and regularly inspected to identify and address potential weaknesses. Additionally,

emergency preparedness plans should be developed and tested to ensure that occupants can

be quickly and safely evacuated in the event of a building collapse (FEMA, 2016). Another

important consideration is the training and preparation of first responders, who may need to

perform search and rescue operations, stabilize the structure, and provide medical assistance

to survivors. This may involve the use of specialized equipment and techniques, such as

48
urban search and rescue teams and heavy lifting equipment (FEMA, 2016). Overall,

emergency preparedness in building collapse involves a comprehensive approach that

addresses all aspects of building safety and emergency response (FEMA, 2016).

2.2.2 Procedure for Rescue

Below is the procedure for the rescue of entrapped victims of building collapse as indicated

by Phoenix Regional Standard Operating Procedures (PRSOP), n.d. and they are as follows:

2.2.2.1 Phase 1 - Arrival

During the Arrival phase of a structural collapse incident, Command must take strong

control of the incident to prevent the situation from quickly deteriorating into a chaotic event

(Phoenix Regional Standard Operating Procedures (PRSOP), n.d.). A structural collapse

incident is likely to have unorganized, volunteer rescue efforts being conducted by civilian

personnel which creates an unsafe situation for the volunteers as well as trapped victim.

Command must focus attention early on building a strong Command structure that will

ensure the safety of rescue personnel and support this complex campaign operation (PRSOP,

n.d.).

A. ESTABLISH COMMAND

i. First arriving company officer shall assume Command and begin an immediate size up of

the situation.

ii. First arriving TRT unit that is staffed with a TRT Company Officer should be assigned

Rescue Sector. The TRT Company Officer assigned as Rescue Sector should remain with his

crew. Rescue Sector responsibilities include:

49
• Assuming technical rescue operations control.

• Identifying hazards and critical factors.

• Developing a rescue plan and back-up plan.

• Communicating with and directing TRT resources assigned to Rescue Sector.

• Informing Command of conditions, actions, and needs during all phases of the rescue

operation.

iii. Designate a Safety Officer. Considerations for Safety Officer include:

• One of the Regional Special Operations Qualified Safety Officers.

• A Special Operations Qualified Battalion Chief and/or FIT.

• Any experienced TRT Company Officer assigned to the incident.

iv. Following the transfer of Command to a Command Officer, a Technical Advisor should

be assigned to join the Command Team at their location to assist in managing personnel and

resources engaged in the technical aspects of the incident. The Technical Advisor is

responsible for ensuring that the rescue plan developed by Rescue Sector and communicated

to Command is a sound plan in terms of the safety and welfare of both victim(s) and rescuers.

Considerations for the Technical Advisor include:

• A Special Operations Qualified Battalion Chief and/or FIT.

• One of the Regional Special Operations Qualified Safety Officers.

• Any experienced TRT Company Officer assigned to the incident.

50
The Technical Advisor position within the Command Team should be filled prior to the

implementation of any rescue plan proposed by Rescue Sector.

B. Size-Up

i. Spot apparatus outside of any potential secondary collapse zone.

ii. Secure a witness or responsible party to assist in gathering information to determine

exactly what happened. If no witnesses are present, Command may have to look for clues on

the scene to determine what happened.

iii. Assess the immediate and potential hazards to the rescuers. Hazards associated with

structural collapse include:

• Secondary collapse.

• Explosion and fire.

• Broken gas and water lines.

• Energized electrical lines.

• Falling debris.

iv. Isolate immediate hazard area, secure the scene, and deny entry for all non-rescue

personnel.

v. Assess on-scene capabilities and determine the need for additional resources. Consider

establishing Level 2 staging and calling for heavy machinery and equipment such as cranes

and front-end loaders.

51
2.2.2.2 Phase 2- Pre-rescue Operations

This team is highly trained and equipped to respond to incidents involving structural

collapse. Consideration should be given to utilize the personnel and equipment from this task

force for incidents involving structural collapse (PRSOP,2020).

A. MAKE THE GENERAL AREA SAFE

i. Establish a hazard zone perimeter around the collapse area.

ii. Keep all non-essential rescue personnel out of the hazard zone.

i. Remove all non-essential civilian personnel at least 150 feet away from the hazard

zone perimeter.

B. MAKE THE RESCUE AREA SAFE

i. Secure all hazards. If it is not possible to secure all hazards, rescue personnel operating in

the area must be made aware of the hazard(s)(PRSOP, 2020).

ii. Establish a Lobby Sector. Command should establish a Lobby Sector to control the flow

and maintain personnel accountability of rescue personnel in the collapse area (PRSOP,

2020).

iii. Establish a Treatment Sector. Command should establish a Treatment Sector to identify

and set-up a triage and treatment area a safe distance from the collapse area for the treatment

and transportation of victims (PRSOP, 2020).

iv. Establish a Building Triage team. Rescue Sector should establish a Building Triage team

which shall consist of a Technical Rescue Technician trained and knowledgeable in structural

52
collapse shoring techniques, a structural engineer, and a Hazardous Materials Technician.

This team will assess the structural integrity and hazardous conditions of the building(s)

involved and will utilize a building marking system to indicate their findings. Consider

establishing additional Building Triage teams if the area of collapse is widespread and

involves numerous buildings (PRSOP, 2020).

v. Establish a Search team. Rescue Sector should establish a Search team to search the

collapse area and locate victims. A Search team shall consist of TRT personnel trained in the

use of specialized search equipment, and search canines with their handlers (if available).

Consider establishing additional Search teams if the area of collapse is widespread and

involves numerous buildings (PRSOP, 2020).

vi. Establish a Rescue team. A Rescue Team shall consist of TRT personnel trained in the use

of specialized rescue equipment and techniques. Consider establishing additional Rescue

teams if the area of collapse is widespread and involves numerous buildings.

vii. Establish a transportation corridor. Command shall ensure roadways are clear in and out

of the collapse site so that apparatus and other heavy equipment and machinery have access

to the site. Consider establishing a liaison with the Police Department to accomplish this

function.

2.2.2.3 Phase 3 - Rescue Operations

Technical rescue operations shall be conducted under the direction of Rescue Sector by

trained Technical Rescue Technicians.

A. RESCUE SECTOR

53
According to PRSOP (2020), Rescue Sector responsibilities shall include the following:

• Ensure that all personnel operating in Rescue Sector are accounted for and wearing

appropriate PPE.

• Develop a rescue plan and a back-up plan.

• Ensure the plan and a back-up plan, which include emergency procedures, are

communicated to all personnel operating on the incident.

B. THE RESCUE PLAN

Rescue operations should be conducted with as little risk to the rescuers as necessary to

affect the rescue. Low-risk operations may not always be possible but should be considered

first. The rescue plan shall be developed through consultation with Rescue Sector, Safety,

Command, and the Technical Advisor. The plan and a back-up plan, which include

emergency procedures, shall be communicated to all personnel operating on the incident

(PRSOP, 2020.).

C. THE RESCUE

i. Remove surface victims: First responders should be assigned to remove victims and the

“walking wounded” from the surface of the collapse area. Rescuers shall use extreme caution

during the early stages of rescue operations due to significant hazards which have not yet

been identified. Following the removal of surface victims and the “walking wounded”, all

rescue personnel should be removed from the collapse area and a personnel accountability

report (PAR) shall be obtained. This will allow for a re-grouping of rescue personnel and the

implementation of a detailed search and rescue plan to locate and remove any other victims

54
from the collapse area. After surface victims and the “walking wounded” have been removed

from the collapse area, all non-TRT rescue personnel shall be removed from the collapse area

and Technical Rescue operations shall begin under the direction of Rescue Sector by trained

Technical Rescue Technicians (PRSOP, 2020).

ii. Building Triage: Assign the Building Triage team to identify, select, and prioritize the

building(s) with the highest probability of success with respect to finding and rescuing live

victims. Additionally, the Building Triage team shall be responsible for using a building

marking system to indicate structural conditions and hazards present to search and rescue

personnel (PRSOP, 2020).

iii. Locate victims: Following the structural and hazard assessment by the Building Triage

team, the Search team(s) shall be assigned to locate entrapped victims by utilizing search

canines (if available), and specialty search equipment such as search cameras and acoustic

listening devices. Search teams shall not enter buildings which have been determined to be

structurally unsafe until appropriate shoring and stabilization measures have been taken

(PRSOP, 2020).

iv. Extricate entrapped victims: Once the Search team has located an entrapped victim, the

Rescue team(s) shall be responsible for utilizing their specialized rescue equipment and

techniques to extricate victims from the collapse area. The breaking and breaching of walls,

floors and roofs, will typically be associated with shoring and other methods of stabilization

which make these operations manpower and resource intensive. Consider calling for

additional resources and establishing a Resource Sector. Rescue teams shall not enter

55
buildings which have been determined to be structurally unsafe until appropriate shoring and

stabilization measures have been taken (PRSOP, 2020).

v. Selected debris removal: If the Search team(s) has not been able to locate victims through

other methods, or if a victim location is known, either by credible witness or search team

verification, debris may be selectively removed to gain access to the victim and/or otherwise

unsearchable locations within the collapse area. Special care must be exercised while

removing debris to avoid a secondary collapse. Heavy equipment such as a crane may be

necessary to accomplish selected debris removal. The selected debris removal process should

be stopped periodically to conduct search operations for additional victims. Once the debris

has been removed and search operations determine that there are no other victims in the area,

rescue personnel shall be accounted for and removed from the area (PRSOP, 2020).

vi. General debris removal: Once it has been determined that no other live victims can be

located in the collapse area, a general debris removal operation may be started. Removal

crews shall be alert to possible deceased victims and/or victim body parts and the coroner

and/or other investigative personnel shall be notified to handle the removal of the remains.

As debris is removed, each load should be marked as to the general location found and final

location of the debris to aid in the investigative process. Command may elect to turn general

debris removal over to the responsible party (RP) for final disposition of the building. If this

option is exercised, the RP should be informed as to the proper handling of debris for

investigative purposes (PRSOP, 2020).

D. TREATMENT

i. Conduct a primary survey upon reaching the victim.

56
ii. Initiate C-spine precautions as soon as possible.

iii. Conduct a secondary survey and correct any life-threatening conditions.

iv. Consider removing the victim from danger prior to providing definitive care.

v. Provide ALS level treatment and transportation to a hospital as indicated.

2.2.2.4 Phase IV - Termination

i. Ensure personnel accountability.

ii. Consider decontamination of rescuers.

iii. Recover all tools and equipment used in the rescue/recovery. In cases of a fatality,

consider leaving everything in place until the investigative process has been completed.

iv. Consider a Post Incident Critique (may be more appropriate at a later date).

v. Return to service after returning all equipment to apparatus.

2.2.2.5 Additional Considerations

In the view of PRSOP (2020), the following are the additional considerations to be put in

place during the rescue operation.

A. COMMAND STRUCTURE

i. The first arriving unit shall assume Command of the incident. This unit shall remain in

Command until Command is transferred to improve the quality of the Command

organization. A Command Team shall be assembled to include, at a minimum, a Chief

Officer and a Technical Advisor.

57
ii. Considerations for the Technical Advisor include:

• A Special Operations Qualified Battalion Chief and/or FIT.

• One of the Regional Special Operations Qualified Safety Officers.

• Any experienced TRT Company Officer assigned to the incident.

iii. The first arriving TRT unit that is staffed with a TRT Company Officer should be

assigned Rescue Sector. Building Triage team, Search team, Rescue team, and any other such

functional team operating in the collapse area shall be under the direction of Rescue Sector.

Rescue Sector shall communicate directly with TRT units assigned to the various functions

within Rescue Sector and shall keep Command informed during all phases of the rescue

operation.

iv. Considerations for Safety Officer include:

• One of the Regional Special Operations Qualified Safety Officers.

• A Special Operations Qualified Battalion Chief and/or FIT.

• Any experienced TRT Company Officer assigned to the incident.

v. Treatment Sector should be assigned to any ALS company assigned to the incident.

B. OTHER CONSIDERATIONS

i. Structural collapse incidents may present rescuers with a confined space situation. Prior to

entering any space, the atmosphere in that space must be monitored by a qualified Hazardous

Materials Technician with an appropriate air monitoring device to determine if the space is

58
safe to enter. If the atmosphere is determined to be unsafe, it must be changed and made safe

prior to any entry. If the atmosphere cannot be changed, and entry must be made to retrieve a

viable victim, rescue personnel shall follow M.P. 204.08 Confined Space Rescue Operations

to ensure the safety of rescue personnel entering the space. Rescue Sector must be informed

of any confined space rescue operation and will keep Command informed of the operation.

ii. Rescue teams should consider the effects of lifting/moving heavy objects off victims and

have ALS level treatment available at the rescue site.

iii. Consider the effects of inclement weather on the hazard profile, the victim(s), and the

rescuers.

iv. Incidents involving structural collapse will attract the news media; consider assigning a

P.I.O

2.3 Summary of the Literature

In summary, building collapse is an unwanted, disastrous, devastating and unplanned

phenomenon but can be easily avoided. The remedies to building collapse are all embodied

in following the laid down building construction and management standards which include

using standard materials, building right, using a building for its intended purpose, etc.

On the other hand, the steps involved in evacuating victims of building collapse needs the

right training to be carried out perfectly and professionally with the right equipment and

human resources under an established command.

59
 CHAPTER THREE

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

This provides details on the method used for conducting the study. The research design are

the areas considered, the survey, the population, the sample and the technique used for its

selection, the research instrument, data collection procedure and data analysis procedure.

The methodology used in this study is categorized under quantitative research. Quantitative

research methods involve gathering numerical data to understand, predict, or control specific

phenomena, resulting in more precise outcomes (Creswell, 2014).

3.1 Research Design

Research design refers to the overall strategy that researchers choose to integrate different

components of a study in a coherent and logical way. It outlines the procedures for collecting

and analyzing data, and it ensures that the research objectives are met. Research design also

helps to minimize the potential for biases and errors in data collection and analysis

(Liamputtong, 2019). For the purpose of this research, descriptive survey will be used.

Descriptive research can be either quantitative or qualitative. According to Creswell (2013),

descriptive research is particularly useful in situations where little is known about a particular

phenomenon or group, and it can provide a foundation for future research by identifying

variables of interest. Furthermore, it allows researchers to establish the prevalence of a

particular phenomenon or group, and can be used to identify potential relationships or

patterns that may be present (Creswell, 2013).

60
3.2 Study Population

A study population is the group of individuals or objects that a researcher is interested in

studying. It is the sample of people, animals, or things from which data is collected and

analyzed to draw conclusions about a particular phenomenon (Creswell, 2012).

For the purpose of this research, The BNEMA office in Benue state will be visited for

interview in the evacuation strategy applied by the first respondent to evacuate trapped

victim. Also, a visit to the Nigeria police Force (NPF), National Security Civil Defense

Corps (NSCDC), Construction Firms, Development Control, Nigerian Army and Red Cross

will be done for the same purpose of interview.

3.3 Sample and Sampling Technique

This study will be focused on professionals working with the emergency organizations.

These professionals are educated and well trained in the field with lot of experience on how

evacuation is done. Also, they are registered under the law.

The survey will cover all the head of search and rescue in the Benue National Emergency

Management Agency (BNEMA), with two (2) other professionals each in the Nigerian

Army, Nigerian Police Force (NPF) and other security bodies, the Federal Road Safety Corps

(FRSC), The red cross and construction companies all having a part to play in the stoppage

of building collapse and rescuing victims of this collapse.

3.4 Method of Data Collection

There are two basic sources of data collection which include primary and secondary sources

of data. In this research study, the two methods of data collection were used in collating

information that was relevant to this research.

61
3.4.1 Primary Data

This type of data is called first hand data. It involves the researcher going to the field to get

information pertaining to and relevant for the research. For the purpose of this research, the

personal interview method of primary data collection was used.

3.4.1 Personal interview: the research required sensitive questions which could not just

be asked to anyone that in this case, there is need to interview the people by persuading them

to give the true data.

3.4.2 Secondary Data Collection

Secondary data collection involves the use of relevant information from relevant materials

like journals, text books, pamphlets, articles and internet. For the purpose of this research,

various journals and articles were used.

3.5 Materials/Instruments for Data Collection

The major instrument to be used for data collection in this research will be the personal

interview. The structured interview was structured to attain the objective of the research

work. The interview was conducted by me to workers in the rescue operation teams of

BNEMA, Nigerian Army, FRSC, NPF, Red Cross, NSCDC, Development Control, Nigerian

Army and Construction Firms.

3.6 Method of Data Analysis

Data collected will be arranged in understanding manner for meaningful interpretation of the

data, it will be sorted according to related phenomena. The results obtained from the

interview will be written down as they related to the objectives of this study. However, data

analysis was carried out based on the views of the interviewed.

62
3.7 Expected Outcome

At the end of this research, it is expected that a better insight will be created on building

collapse and the effective strategy for saving victims of building collapse in Nigeria will be

outlined in details.

63
 CHAPTER FOUR

RESULT REPRESENTATION AND DISCUSSION

This chapter present the data obtained from the survey research using the questionnaire and

the responses were presented in table below:

4.1 Research Question 1: What are the causes of building collapse in construction industry

in Benue state?

Table 2: Causes of Building Collapse in Construction Industry

S/NO ITEMS SD MEAN DECISIO

1 Faulty design 1.20 3.25 Agreed

2 Involvement of unprofessional in carrying out building 1.25 3.20 Agreed

production

3 Not adhering to standards and specifications of 1.45 3.15 Agreed

construction

4 Poor supervision and workmanship 1.50 3.30 Agreed

5 Use of sub-standard materials 1.35 3.35 Agreed

6 Poor maintenance culture 1.20 3.33 Agreed

7 Defective construction 1.22 3.45 Agreed

8 Faulty construction 1.66 3.20 Agreed

64
9 Foundation failures 1.72 3.82 Agreed

10 Absence of proper site and soil investigation 1.23 3.36 Agreed

11 Incompetent contractor 1.29 3.39 Agreed

12 Natural occurrence 1.28 3.35 Agreed

13 Over use of building 1.20 3.90 Agreed

Average Mean 3.39

Source: Field Survey 2024

Table 2 above shows that all the items were agreed with a mean score of 3.25, 3.20, 3.15,

3.30, 3.35, 3.33, 3.45, 3.20, 3.82, 3.36, 3.39, 3.35 and 3,90 have a mean average of 3.39. This

shows that all the items in table 2 are the causes of building collapse in construction industry

in Benue state of Nigeria.

4.2 Research Question 2: What are the effects of building collapse on construction industry

in Benue state?

65
Table 3: Effects of Building Collapse on Construction Industry

S/NO ITEMS SD MEAN DECISION

14 Loss of investment 1.20 3.83 Agreed

15 Loss of live and properties 1.22 3.45 Agreed

16 Loss of confidence in the profession 1.66 3.50 Agreed

17 Negative impact on the socio-economic status of 1.72 3.82 Agreed

citizens

18 Loss of productive time 1.23 3.46 Agreed

19 Discourage investor in investing in construction 1.29 3.39 Agreed

industry

20 Negative impact on the overall development of the 1.28 3.75 Agreed

country

Average Mean 3.15

Source: Field Survey 2024

Table 3 above indicate the effect of building collapse on construction industry in Benue state

Nigeria which shows that all the items were agreed to be the effect of building collapse with

a mean average score of 3.15. Therefore, all the items in table 3 above is said to be the effects

of building collapse in Benue state Nigeria.

66
4.3 Research Question 3: What are the solutions to the causes of building collapse in

construction industry in Benue state?

Table 4: Solutions to Causes of Building Collapse in Construction Industry

S/NO ITEMS SD MEAN DECISION

21 Proper and detailed design 1.61 3.38 Agreed

22 Adhering to standard and specifications of construction 1.21 3.39 Agreed

23 Engaging professional builders in the building production 1.40 3.33 Agreed

24 Proper planning, supervision and monitoring of construction 1.67 3.60 Agreed

activities.

25 Professionals in the building industry should maintain 1.66 3.39 Agreed

competency and professional ethics to

26 Periodic public awareness campaign through electronic and 1.29 3.30 Agreed

print media to sensitize the public on advantages of using

professionals as the way of realizing safe buildings.

27 Standard organization of Nigeria should be vigilant to ensure 1.38 3.40 Agreed

that all materials building conform to standard requirements.

28 Ensure that all Building documents, structural and services 1.35 3.61 Agreed

drawings are strictly followed.

29 Ensure that all buildings are erected in accordance with the 1.21 3.78 Agreed

national building code.

Average Mean 3.46

67
Source: Field Survey 2024

Table 4 above shows that all the items were agreed with a mean score of 3.38, 3.39, 3.33,

3.60, 3.39, 3.30, 3.40, 3.61 and 3.78 giving the average mean score of 3.46 which means that

all the items were solutions to causes of building collapse in construction industry in Benue

state Nigeria.

4.4 Research Question 4: What are the effective strategies in evacuating victims of building

collapse in Benue state?

Table 5: Effective Strategies in Evacuating Victims of Building Collapse

S/NO ITEMS SD MEAN DECISION

30 Quick response action 1.23 3.36 Agreed

31 Installing early warning system in building 1.29 3.39 Agreed

32 Good direction to muster point 1.28 3.35 Agreed

33 Safety Warning alarm 1.23 3.36 Agreed

34 Marking escape route and direction 1.22 3.45 Agreed

Average Mean 3.38

Source: Field Survey 2024

Table 5 above shows that quick response action, installing early warning system in building,

good direction to muster point, safety warning alarm and marking escape route and direction

with a mean score of 3.36, 3.39, 3.35, 3.36 and 3.45. Therefore, the average mean score show

68
that all the items mention in table 5 above are effective strategies in evacuating victims of

building collapse in Benue state of Nigeria.

4.5 Major Findings of the Study

Based on the data collected and the corresponding responses of the sample, the following are

the major findings of the study:

i. Faulty design, Involvement of unprofessional in carrying out building production,

Involvement of unprofessional in carrying out building production, Not adhering to standards

and specifications of construction, Poor supervision and workmanship, Use of sub-standard

materials, Poor maintenance culture, Defective construction, Faulty construction, Foundation

failures, Absence of proper site and soil investigation, Incompetent contractor, Natural

occurrence, Over use of building and Involvement of unprofessional in carrying out building

production are the causes of building collapse in the construction industry in Benue state of

Nigeria.

ii. Loss of investment, Loss of live and properties, Loss of confidence in the profession,

Negative impact on the socio-economic status of citizens, Loss of productive time,

discourage investor in investing in construction industry and Negative impact on the overall

development of the country are the effects of building collapse in Benue state.

iii. Proper and detailed design, Adhering to standard and specifications of construction,

Engaging professional builders in the building production, Proper planning, supervision and

monitoring of construction activities, Professionals in the building industry should maintain

competency and professional ethics, Periodic public awareness campaign through electronic

and print media to sensitize the public on advantages of using professionals as the way of

realizing safe buildings, Standard organization of Nigeria should be vigilant to ensure that all

69
materials building conform to standard requirements, Ensure that all Building documents,

structural and services drawings are strictly followed and Ensure that all buildings are erected

in accordance with the national building code are the Solutions to Causes of Building

Collapse in Construction Industry.

iv. Quick response action, installing early warning system in building, good direction to

muster point, Safety Warning alarm and Marking escape route and direction are the effective

strategies in evacuating victims of building collapse.

4.6 Discussion of Findings

One of the primary reasons for building collapses is the use of substandard building

materials. These materials may be cheap or low-quality, and they may not be able to

withstand the weight and stresses that a building will encounter over time. In some cases,

substandard materials may even be fake or counterfeit, which can be dangerous and may not

meet safety standards. When building materials are substandard, they can compromise the

structural integrity of the building, making it more prone to collapse. This can happen

gradually over time as the building deteriorates, or it can happen suddenly if there is a

catastrophic event like an earthquake or a severe storm. Another common cause of building

collapses is a lack of skilled project managers overseeing the construction process. Building

projects are complex and require careful planning, management, and oversight to ensure that

everything is done correctly. Project managers are responsible for coordinating the work of

architects, engineers, contractors, and other professionals involved in the project. When

project managers are not skilled or experienced, they may not be able to identify potential

problems or issues that could lead to a collapse. They may also fail to enforce safety

standards or ensure that construction is done according to the approved plans and

70
specifications. The use of inexperienced or unqualified professionals can also lead to

building collapse. In some cases, developers may hire unqualified contractors or workers

who lack the necessary training and expertise to construct a building safely. This can result in

substandard construction that can lead to structural failures and ultimately a building

collapse. Additionally, the use of unqualified or inexperienced architects or engineers can

also result in the use of incorrect design or building techniques, leading to a higher risk of

building collapse. It is essential to ensure that only qualified and experienced professionals

are involved in the construction of any building to reduce the risk of collapse. More so,

building to specification is critical to the structural integrity of any building. If a building is

not constructed to the required specification, it can lead to a lack of structural strength,

causing the building to collapse. For example, if the foundation of a building is not

constructed to the correct depth or strength, the building may not be able to support its

weight or withstand external forces such as strong winds or earthquakes. Additionally, using

the wrong specifications or materials in the construction of a building can also led to a

collapse. For instance, if the wrong type of steel is used in the construction of a high-rise

building, it may not be able to support the weight of the floors above it, causing the building

to collapse.

The failure of government authorities to monitor building projects while they are

under construction can also contribute to building collapses. Governments have a

responsibility to ensure that buildings are constructed safely and according to building codes

and standards. This may involve inspecting construction sites, reviewing building plans and

specifications, and enforcing safety regulations. When governments fail to monitor building

projects adequately, contractors and developers may cut corners or use substandard materials

71
to save money. They may also fail to follow approved plans and specifications, which can

compromise the structural integrity of the building. Ultimately, this can lead to a collapse that

endangers the lives of people who live or work in the building. A well-constructed building

will typically have a robust and reliable structural system that distributes the loads evenly

throughout the building, from the foundation to the roof. The materials used in construction

must also be of high quality and meet safety standards to ensure that they can withstand the

expected loads and stresses. On the other hand, a building that is constructed using

substandard materials, with poor design or construction practices, or without adequate

supervision and quality control measures is more likely to fail soon. For example, a building

with a weak foundation or insufficient steel reinforcement in the walls or columns may

collapse during an earthquake or high winds. One of the leading causes of building collapse

is the use of substandard building materials, which can compromise the structural integrity of

a building. To avoid this, it's important to use high-quality materials that meet the necessary

safety standards. Building materials should be sourced from reputable suppliers, and their

quality should be checked before being used in construction. There should be strict

regulations on the use of building materials. The government should create and enforce laws

that prohibit the use of substandard materials in construction. These regulations should

include regular inspections of construction sites to ensure that only approved materials are

being used.

Skilled project managers can help ensure that construction projects are completed

efficiently, effectively, and safely. These managers should have the necessary training and

experience to oversee the entire construction process, from the design phase to the final

inspection. A skilled project manager can help to identify potential problems before they

72
occur and take appropriate measures to address them. They can also ensure that all workers

are properly trained and that safety protocols are followed. With a skilled project manager in

place, the risk of building collapse due to poor construction practices can be significantly

reduced. Only qualified and experienced professionals should be involved in the construction

process. This includes architects, engineers, and contractors who have the necessary expertise

and training to build a safe and stable structure. The government should try as much as

possible to monitor any construction project while it is still under construction: The

government has a responsibility to ensure the safety of its citizens, and this includes

monitoring construction projects to prevent building collapse. The government should

establish a regulatory body that oversees the construction industry and enforces safety

regulations. This regulatory body should conduct regular inspections of construction sites to

ensure that all safety protocols are being followed. They should also require that all

construction projects undergo a rigorous approval process before being permitted to proceed.

This process should include a thorough review of the building plans, as well as inspections

throughout the construction process to ensure that everything is being built according to the

approved plans. In conclusion, building collapse is a serious issue that can have devastating

consequences. By avoiding the use of substandard building materials, employing skilled

project managers, building to specification, the use of only qualified and experienced

professionals and using the right materials and implementing strict government oversight of

construction projects, we can help prevent building collapse and ensure the safety of our

communities. To improve evacuation strategies, the research participants suggest that

personal protective wear should be mandatory for workers at the site, and rescue equipment

and personnel should be deployed in a timely manner. Timely notification of emergency

73
responders and the provision of emergency ambulances close by are also recommended. The

public can also play a role by calling emergency responders and assisting in rescuing those

who are on the surface.

Overall, the research provides valuable insights into the challenges of effective evacuation of

victims of building collapse and offers practical solutions to improve the evacuation

strategies already in place. These recommendations can be useful for emergency rescue

agencies, construction companies, and the public in general to ensure that lives are saved in

the aftermath of a building collapse.

74
 CHAPTER FIVE

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Conclusions

This study lists the major causes of building collapse and the effects of this menace to the

society and those with affiliations to the loss of lives and properties. The study's findings

suggest that evacuation strategy involves taking steps to move trapped individuals from a

collapsed building to a safe location for medical attention. The study concludes that

emergency organizations' evacuation strategy needs improvement, including providing

additional resources, tools, and storage space for equipment at their facilities to ensure the

efficient evacuation of trapped victims.

The study also highlights the challenges faced by emergency agencies during the evacuation

of trapped victims, as reported by personnel from agencies such as BENSEMA, FRSC, NPF,

and RC. The study shows that the agencies work together to ensure that trapped victims are

rescued promptly, and their activities are crucial to the evacuation process. The research also

identifies some of the challenges faced by the agencies that need to be addressed to improve

the evacuation process.

Finally, this study postulates possible solutions to the above pending challenges faced during

the evacuation of trapped victims of building collapse.

75
5.2 Recommendations

The following recommendations were extracted from a thesis that investigated into building

collapse and assessed the evacuation strategies used to rescue trapped victims during building

collapses. The aim was to study building collapse while identifying and addressing issues

affecting the existing evacuation procedures. The recommendations are as follows:

i. Qualified professional should be involved in the construction industry to carry out

construction project.

ii. The Council of Registered Builders in Nigeria should ensure that contractors handling

construction projects have the requisite knowledge and experience to carry out

construction projects.

iii. Government should ensure all construction works are carried out out in accordance

with the building regulation act.

iv. Government and non-governmental agencies should from time-to-time conduct

seminar and sensitization on accidents evacuation processes.

5.3 Contribution of the Study

In order for a thesis to be considered valuable, it should make a positive impact on both

knowledge and society. The following advantages of this research are listed below:

i. The research provides understanding to the problem of building collapse in

Nigeria

ii. The study also focuses on the problems that hinder effective evacuation of victims

from buildings that have collapsed.

76
iii. It provides insights into the issue and suggests ways to improve the evacuation

process for those trapped in a building collapse and also the study promotes

knowledge about what actions to take in a collapse scenario to save lives.

77
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 APPENDIX

QUESTIONNAIRE

Topic: Investigation into Impact of Building Collapse on Construction Industry and the

Effective Strategies for Evacuation of Victims in Nigeria (Study of Benue State)

SECTION A: DEMOGRAPHIC DATA.

NAME OF ORGANISATION: …………………………………………………………….

STATUS IN THE COMPANY ………………………………………………......................

SEX: MALE [ ] FEMALE [ ]

AGE: 18-25yrs [ ] 25-35yrs [ ] 235-45yrs [ ] 45-50yrs [ ] Above 50yrs [ ]

WORKING EXPERIENCE: 5-10yrs [ ] 11-15yrs [ ] 16-20yrs [ ] 21-25yrs [ ]

Above 25yrs [ ]

SECTION B: KEY TO QUESTIONNAIRE OPTIONS

ITEMS ABBREVIATION SCORE

STRONGLY AGREE S. A 5

AGREE A 4

UNDECIDED UD 3

DISAGREE D 2

STRONGLY DISAGREE S. D 1

INSTRUCTION: Tick one option that best satisfy the items base on the above abbreviation

keys.
81
SECTION C: What are the causes of building collapse in construction industry in Benue

state?

S/NO ITEMS SA A UD D SD

1 Faulty design

2 Involvement of unprofessional in carrying out

building production

3 Not adhering to standards and specifications of

construction

4 Poor supervision and workmanship

5 Use of sub-standard materials

6 Poor maintenance culture

7 Defective construction

8 Faulty construction

9 Foundation failures

10 Absence of proper site and soil investigation

11 Incompetent contractor

12 Natural occurrence

13 Over use of building

82
SECTION D: What are the effects of building collapse on construction industry in Benue

state?

S/NO ITEMS SA A UD D SD

14 Loss of investment

15 Loss of live and properties

16 Loss of confidence in the profession

17 Negative impact on the socio-economic status of

citizens

18 Loss of productive time

19 Discourage investor in investing in construction

industry

20 Negative impact on the overall development of the

country

83
SECTION E: What are the solutions to the causes of building collapse in construction

industry in Benue state?

S/NO ITEMS SA A UD D SD

21 Proper and detailed design

22 Adhering to standard and specifications of construction

23 Engaging professional builders in the building production

24 Proper planning, supervision and monitoring of

construction activities.

25 Professionals in the building industry should maintain

competency and professional ethics to

26 Periodic public awareness campaign through electronic

and print media to sensitize the public on advantages of

using professionals as the way of realizing safe buildings.

27 Standard organization of Nigeria should be vigilant to

ensure that all materials building conform to standard

requirements.

28 Ensure that all Building documents, structural and

services drawings are strictly followed.

29 Ensure that all buildings are erected in accordance with

the national building code.

84
SECTION F: What are the effective strategies in evacuating victims of building collapse in

Benue state?

S/NO ITEMS SA A UD D SD

30 Quick response action

31 Installing early warning

system in building

32 Good direction to muster

point

33 Safety Warning alarm

34 Marking escape route and

direction

85