COMPUTER NETWORK

Data communication

Data communications are the exchange of data between two devices via some transmission
medium.

The effectiveness of a data communications system depends on four fundamental characteristics:

delivery, accuracy, timeliness, and jitter. I. Delivery. The system must deliver data to the correct
destination. Data must be received by the intended device or user and only by that device or user. 2
Accuracy. The system must deliver the data accurately. Data that have been altered in transmission and
left uncorrected are unusable. 3. Timeliness. The system must deliver data in a timely manner. Data
delivered late are useless. In the case of video and audio, timely delivery means delivering data as they
are produced, in the same order that they are produced, and without significant delay. This kind of
delivery is called real-time transmission. 4. Jitter. Jitter refers to the variation in the packet arrival time.
It is the uneven delay in the delivery of audio or video packets. For example, let us assume that video
packets are sent every 30 ms. If some of the packets arrive with 30-ms delay and others with 40-ms
delay, an uneven quality in the video is the result.

A data communications system has five components

1.Message. The message is the information (data) to be communicated. Popular forms of

information include text, numbers, pictures, audio, and video. 2 Sender. The sender is the
device that sends the data message. It can be a computer, workstation, telephone handset,
video camera, and so on. 3. Receiver. The receiver is the device that receives the message. It
can be a computer, workstation, telephone handset, television, and so on. 4. Transmission
medium. The transmission medium is the physical path by which a message travels from sender
to receiver. Some examples of transmission media include twisted-pair wire, coaxial cable,
fiber-optic cable, and radio waves. 5. Protocol. A protocol is a set of rules that govern data
communications. It represents an agreement between the communicating devices. Without a
protocol, two devices may be connected but not communicating, just as a person speaking
French cannot be understood by a person who speaks only Japanese.
 Transmission Mode
Data flow between two systems can be categorised into three types –

Simplex

The communication is unidirectional as a one-way street, one device always, other can always
receive. E.g. radio, mouse. The simplex mode can use the entire capacity of the channel to send data in
one direction.
Half duplex

Each station can both transmit and receive, but not at the same time. E.g. like a one lane road,
walkie-talkie etc.When one device is sending, the other can only receive, and vice versa.

In a half-duplex transmission, the entire capacity of a channel is taken over by whichever of the
two devices is transmitting at the time.

Walkie-talkies are both half-duplex systems.

Walkie-talkies
Full duplex

Both stations can transmit and receive at the same time. Actually, it is two half duplex
connections.

Telephone network is an example of full-duplex mode, when two people are communicating by
a telephone line, both can talk and listen at the same time.

The capacity of the channel, must be divided between the two directions.
NETWORKS

A network is a set of devices (often referred to as nodes) connected by communication links. A node can
be a computer, printer, or any other device capable of sending and/or receiving data generated by other
nodes on the network. “Computer network’’ to mean a collection of autonomous computers
interconnected by a single technology. Two computers are said to be interconnected if they are able to
exchange information. The connection need not be via a copper wire; fiber optics, microwaves, infrared,
and communication satellites can also be used. Networks come in many sizes, shapes and forms, as we
will see later. They are usually connected together to make larger networks, with the Internet being the
most well-known example of a network of networks. There is considerable confusion in the literature
between a computer network and a distributed system. The key distinction is that in a distributed
system, a collection of independent computers appears to its users as a single coherent system. Usually,
it has a single model or paradigm that it presents to the users. Often a layer of software on top of the
operating system, called middleware, is responsible for implementing this model. A well-known example
of a distributed system is the World Wide Web. It runs on top of the Internet and presents a model in
which everything looks like a document (Web page).

LAN (Local Area Network) Group of interconnected computers within a small area. (room, building,
campus) Two or more pc's can from a LAN to share files, folders, printers, applications and other
devices. Coaxial or CAT 5 cables are normally used for connections. Due to short distances, errors and
noise are minimum. Data transfer rate is 10 to 100 mbps. Example: A computer lab in a school.

MAN (Metropolitan Area Network) Design to extend over a large area. Connecting number of LAN's to
form larger network, so that resources can be shared. Networks can be up to 5 to 50 km. Owned by
organization or individual. Data transfer rate is low compare to LAN. Example: Organization with
different branches located in the city.

WAN (Wide Area Network) Are country and worldwide network. Contains multiple LAN's and MAN's.
Distinguished in terms of geographical range. Uses satellites and microwave relays. Data transfer rate
depends upon the ISP provider and varies over the location. Best example is the internet.
 Physical topology

Refers to the way in which a network is laid out physically. Topology of a network is the
geometric representation of the relationship of all the links and linking devices to one another.

The term physical topology refers to the way in which a network is laid out physically. Two or more
devices connect to a link; two or more links form a topology. The topology of a network is the geometric
representation of the relationship of all the links and linking devices (usually called nodes) to one
another. There are four basic topologies possible: mesh, star, bus, and ring
MESH:

A mesh topology is the one where every node is connected to every other node in the network. A mesh
topology can be a full mesh topology or a partially connected mesh topology. In a full mesh topology,
every computer in the network has a connection to each of the other computers in that network.

The number of connections in this network can be calculated using the following formula (n is the
number of computers in the network): n(n-1)/2 In a partially connected mesh topology, at least two of
the computers in the network have connections to multiple other computers in that network. It is an
inexpensive way to implement redundancy in a network.

In the event that one of the primary computers or connections in the network fails, the rest of the
network continues to operate normally.

MESH TOPOLOGY DIAGRAM-

Advantages of a mesh topology

 Can handle high amounts of traffic, because multiple devices can transmit data simultaneously.

 A failure of one device does not cause a break in the network or transmission of data.

 Adding additional devices does not disrupt data transmission between other devices.

Disadvantages of a mesh topology

 The cost to implement is higher than other network topologies, making it a less desirable option.
 Building and maintaining the topology is difficult and time consuming.

 The chance of redundant connections is high, which adds to the high costs and potential for reduced
efficiency.

STAR:
A star network, star topology is one of the most common network setups. In this configuration, every
node connects to a central network device, like a hub, switch, or computer. The central network device
acts as a server and the peripheral devices act as clients. Depending on the type of network card used in
each computer of the star topology, a coaxial cable or a RJ-45 network cable is used to connect
computers together.

Advantages of Star topology

1. A star topology is less expensive than a mesh topology.

2. It is easy to install and reconfigure and less costly.
3. It is robust , if one link fails ,only that link is affected.
4. Easy to fault identification and fault isolation.
Disadvantages of star topology
 Can have a higher cost to implement, especially when using a switch or router as the central
network device.
 The central network device determines the performance and number of nodes the network
can handle.
 If the central computer, hub, or switch fails, the entire network goes down and all
computers are disconnected from the network
A ring topology is a network configuration in which device connections create a circular data
path. In a ring network, packets of data travel from one device to the next until they reach their
destination. Most ring topologies allow packets to travel only in one direction, called a
unidirectional ring network. Others permit data to move in either direction, called bidirectional.
The major disadvantage of a ring topology is that if any individual connection in the ring is
broken, the entire network is affected. Ring topologies may be used in either local area
networks (LANs) or wide area networks (WANs).

Advantages of ring topology

 All data flows in one direction, reducing the chance of packet collisions.
 A network server is not needed to control network connectivity between each workstation.
 Data can transfer between workstations at high speeds.
 Additional workstations can be added without impacting performance of the network.
Disadvantages of ring topology
 All data being transferred over the network must pass through each workstation on the
network, which can make it slower than a star topology.
 The entire network will be impacted if one workstation shuts down.
 The hardware needed to connect each workstation to the network is more expensive than
Ethernet cards and hubs/switches.
A bus topology, is multipoint. One long cable acts as a backbone to link all the devices in a
network.

•Nodes are connected to the bus cable by drop lines and taps.

•A drop line is a connection running between the device and the main cable.

•A tap is a connector that either splices into the main cable or punctures the sheathing of a
cable to create a contact with the metallic core.

a line topology, a bus topology is a network setup in which each computer and network device
are connected to a single cable or backbone.

Advantages of bus topology

 It works well when you have a small network.
 It's the easiest network topology for connecting computers or peripherals in a linear fashion.
 It requires less cable length than a star topology.
Disadvantages of bus topology
 It can be difficult to identify the problems if the whole network goes down.
 It can be hard to troubleshoot individual device issues.
 Bus topology is not great for large networks.
 Terminators are required for both ends of the main cable.
 Additional devices slow the network down.
 If a main cable is damaged, the network fails or splits into two.
 Differences between OSI Model and TCP/IP Model

Parameters OSI Model TCP/IP Model

OSI stands for Open Systems TCP/IP stands for Transmission Control
Full Form
Interconnection. Protocol/Internet Protocol.

Layers It has 7 layers. It has 4 layers.

Usage It is low in usage. It is mostly used.

Approach It is vertically approached. It is horizontally approached.

Delivery of the package is guaranteed Delivery of the package is not

Delivery
in OSI Model. guaranteed in TCP/IP Model.

Replacement of tools and changes can Replacing the tools is not easy as it is in
Replacement
easily be done in this model. OSI Model.

Reliability It is less reliable than TCP/IP Model. It is more reliable than OSI Model.
 Repeater

Repeaters boost the strength of a signal as it travels through a

communication channel, like a telephone line or a radio frequency, to help it
cover longer distances.

In situations where signals lose power due to resistance or distance, a

repeater amplifies the signal before sending it further.

In computer networking, repeaters operate on the physical layer of the

OSI model, as they only work with the actual signal and don't interpret data.

Repeaters are used to extend transmissions so that the signal can cover longer
distances or be received on the other side of an obstruction.

In computer networking, because repeaters work with the actual physical

signal, and do not attempt to interpret the data being transmitted, they operate
on the physical layer, the first layer of theOSI model.

Hubs
A hub is a physical layer networking device which is used to connect multiple
devices in a network. They are generally used to connect computers in a LAN.

A hub has many ports in it. A computer which intends to be connected to the
network is plugged in to one of these ports. When a data frame arrives at a port,
it is broadcast to every other port, without considering whether it is destined for
a particular destination or not.
Switches
A switch is a data link layer networking device which connects devices in a network
and uses packet switching to send and receive data over the network.

Like a hub, a switch also has many ports, to which computers are plugged in.
However, when a data frame arrives at any port of a network switch, it examines
the destination address and sends the frame to the corresponding device(s).
Thus, it supports both unicast and multicast communications.
 Differences between Hub and Switch

Hub Switch

They operate in the physical layer of They operate in the data

the OSI model. link layer of the OSI model.

It is an intelligent network
It is a non-intelligent network device device that sends message
that sends message to all ports. to selected destination
ports.

It is supports unicast,
It primarily broadcasts messages.
multicast and broadcast.

Transmission mode is full

Transmission mode is half duplex.
duplex.

Collisions may occurs during setup of

Collisions do not occur since
transmission when more than one
the communication is full
computers place data simultaneously
duplex.
in the corresponding ports.
 Hub Switch

They are active devices,

They are passive devices, they don’t
equipped with network
have any software associated with it.
software.

They generally have fewer ports of The number of ports is

4/12. higher – 24/48.

A bridge is a hardware or software device used in computer networking

that joins two or more network segments and routes data between them
according to MAC addresses. In short, a bridge improves network
performance and connection by functioning at the data link layer (Layer 2)
of the OSI model.
A wireless LAN (WLAN) is a wireless computer network that links two or more
devices using wireless communication to form a local area network (LAN) within
a limited area such as a home, school, computer laboratory, campus, or office
building. This gives users the ability to move around within the area and remain
connected to the network.

Wireless LANs based on the IEEE 802.11 standards are the most widely used
computer networks in the world. These are commonly called Wi-Fi, which is a
trademark belonging to the Wi-Fi Alliance.

They are used for home and small office networks that link together laptop
computers, printers, smartphones, Web TVs and gaming devices with a wireless
network router, which links them to the internet. Hotspots provided by routers
at restaurants, coffee shops, hotels, libraries, and airports allow consumers to
access the internet with portable wireless devices.

What is Gateway?
A gateway is a connecting point of any network that helps it to connect with
different networks. The gateway monitors and controls all the incoming and
outgoing traffic of the network. Suppose there are two different networks and
they want to communicate with each other, so they need to set up a path
between them. Now that path will be made between gateways of those
different networks. Gateways are also known as protocol converters because
they help to convert protocol supported by traffic of the different networks into
that are supported by this network. Because of that, it makes smooth
communication between two different networks.

Functionality of Gateways
There are various functionalities that are supported by any gateway:
 LAN to WAN connections- It can connect a group of personal computers
i.e. LAN(Local Area Network) to the Internet i.e. WAN(Wide Area
Network).
 Controls incoming and outgoing data– It is located on the boundary of
any network, so it controls incoming and outgoing data packets from/to
any network.
 Works as a Protocol Converter- It makes sure that the data packet from
another network is compatible with this network. So it converts their
protocols into supported protocols and other stuff of the data packets
before it enters into the network.
 Information Collector- It collects data from different sections of the
network to make a better diagnosis of any data packets. In this process, it
collects information.
 Routing of data packets- It is responsible for routing data packets to
different networks because it knows about the routing path of different
networks that are in communication with its network.

Different Types of Gateways

Gateways can be classified into multiple categories on different bases like on
the basis of the direction of flow of data, functionality, etc…
On the Basis of the Direction of the Flow of Data
 Unidirectional Gateways: Unidirectional Gateway allows the flow of data
in only one direction. It means the changes that occurred in the source
can be copied to the destination but the changes that occurred in the
destination can’t be copied to the source.
 Bidirectional Gateways: Bidirectional Gateways allow the flow of data in
both directions. It means changes that occurred in the source can be
copied to the destination and changes that occurred in the destination can
be copied to the source.

Advantages of Gateways
 It helps in connecting two different networks.
 It filters and does not allow anything that can harm the network.
 It helps by doing protocol conversion.
 It provides security from external attacks.
Guided Media:
Guided media, which are those that provide a medium from one device to
another, include twisted-pair cable, coaxial cable, and fiber-optic cable.
Twisted-Pair Cable: A twisted pair consists of two conductors (normally copper),
each with its own plastic insulation, twisted together. One of the wires is used to
carry signals to the receiver, and the other is used only as a ground reference.
Unshielded Versus Shielded Twisted-Pair Cable
The most common twisted-pair cable used in communications is referred to as
unshielded twisted-pair (UTP). STP cable has a metal foil or braided mesh covering
that encases each pair of insulated conductors. Although metal casing improves
the quality of cable by preventing the penetration of noise or crosstalk, it is
bulkier and more expensive.
Applications Twisted-pair cables are used in telephone lines to provide voice and
data channels. Local-area networks, such as l0Base-T and l00Base-T, also use
twisted-pair cables.
Coaxial Cable Coaxial cable (or coax) carries signals of higher frequency ranges
than those in twisted pair cable. coax has a central core conductor of solid or
stranded wire (usuallycopper) enclosed in an insulating sheath, which is, in turn,
encased in an outer conductor of metal foil, braid, or a combination of the two.
The outer metallic wrapping serves both as a shield against noise and as the
second conductor, which completes the circuit.This outer conductor is also
enclosed in an insulating sheath, and the whole cable is protected by a plastic
cover.

Applications Coaxial cable was widely used in analog telephone networks,digital telephone networks
Cable TV networks also use coaxial cables. Another common application of coaxial cable is in traditional
Ethernet LANs
Fiber-Optic Cable A fiber-optic cable is made of glass or plastic and transmits
signals in the form of light. Light travels in a straight line as long as it is moving
through a single uniform substance. If a ray of light traveling through one
substance suddenly enters another substance(of a different density), the ray
changes direction. Bending of light ray.
UNGUIDED MEDIA: WIRELESS
Unguided media transport electromagnetic waves without using a physical
conductor. This type of communication is often referred to as wireless
communication. Radio Waves Microwaves Infrared
Radio Waves Electromagnetic waves ranging in frequencies between 3 kHz and 1
GHz are normally called radio waves. Radio waves are omni directional. When an
antenna transmits radio waves, they are propagated in all directions. This means
that the sending and receiving antennas do not have to be aligned. A sending
antenna sends waves that can be received by any receiving antenna. The omni
directional property has a disadvantage, too. The radio waves transmitted by one
antenna are susceptible to interference by another antenna that may send signals
using the same frequency or band. Omni directional Antenna Radio waves use
omnidirectional antennas that send out signals in all directions. Based on the
wavelength, strength, and the purpose of transmission, we can have several types
of antennas. Figure shows an omnidirectional antenna.

Applications

The Omni directional characteristics of radio waves make them useful for
multicasting, in which there is one sender but many receivers. AM and FM radio,
television, maritime radio, cordless phones, and paging are examples of
multicasting.

Microwaves Electromagnetic waves having frequencies between 1 and 300 GHz

are called microwaves. Microwaves are unidirectional. The sending and receiving
antennas need to be aligned. The unidirectional property has an obvious
advantage. A pair of antennas can be aligned without interfering with another
pair of aligned antennas Unidirectional Antenna Microwaves need unidirectional
antennas that send out signals in one direction. Two types of antennas are used
for microwave communications: the parabolic dish and the horn
Applications: Microwaves are used for unicast communication such as cellular
telephones, satellite networks, and wireless LANs
Infrared Infrared waves, with frequencies from 300 GHz to 400 THz (wavelengths
from 1 mm to 770 nm), can be used for short-range communication. Infrared
waves, having high frequencies, cannot penetrate walls. This advantageous
characteristic prevents interference between one system and another; a
shortrange communication system in one room cannot be affected by another
system in the next room. When we use our infrared remote control, we do not
interfere with the use of the remote by our neighbors. Infrared signals useless for
long-range communication. In addition, we cannot use infrared waves outside a
building because the sun's rays contain infrared waves that can interfere with the
communication.
Applications:
Infrared signals can be used for short-range communication in a closed area using
line-of-sight propagation.