Journal of Sustainable Development; Vol. 11, No.

5; 2018
ISSN 1913-9063 E-ISSN 1913-9071
Published by Canadian Center of Science and Education

Analysing the Outcomes of the Forestry Sector on the Sustainable

Development Goals for Rural Communities: A Case Study of Cabrero,
Chile
Veronica Gonzalez-Navarro1,3, Julia Tomei1,2 & Gabriela Flores-Oyarzo3
1
UCL Institute for Sustainable Resources, University College London, London, United Kingdom
2
UCL Energy Institute, University College London, London, United Kingdom
3
Programme for Social Responsibility Studies (PERS), University of Concepcion, Concepcion, Chile
Correspondence: Veronica Gonzalez-Navarro, Programme for Social Responsibility Studies (PERS), University
of Concepcion. Victor Lamas 1290, Concepcion, Chile. Tel: 56-4-1220-3037. E-mail: mariavgonzalez@udec.cl

Received: July 17, 2018 Accepted: August 21, 2018 Online Published: September 28, 2018
doi:10.5539/jsd.v11n5p194 URL: https://doi.org/10.5539/jsd.v11n5p194

This research was supported by the Comisión Nacional de Investigación Científica y Tecnológica (Chilean
National Commission for Scientific and Technological Research) ‘Becas Chile’ Master Fellowship Programme;
Grant No.73170195. Special thanks to the Programme for Social Responsibility Studies (PERS) of the
Universidad de Concepcion, Chile; this study was possible thanks to its academics, professionals and students.

Abstract
The forestry sector will play a key role in the achievement of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development.
The forestry sector is a pillar of many countries’ economies, including Chile. Despite the many economic
benefits of the sector for the country, its contribution to the achievement of the Sustainable Development Goals
(SDGs) is not clear, especially for rural communities that co-exist with the sector. This study therefore aimed to
identify the impacts of the sector on the sustainable development of rural communities in a Chilean commune,
Cabrero, and link these impacts to the SDGs. Based on a mixed-method approach that considers key
stakeholders perspectives, the paper finds that the forestry sector has multiple and complex impacts on
sustainable development, with both positive and negatives outcomes for rural communities, generating synergies
and trade-offs with all of the 17 SDGs. It concludes that while companies play a key role in delivering the 2030
Agenda, the achievement of the SDGs will require collaboration amongst people, government and the private
sector to understand and support the delivery of a forestry sector that contributes to the sustainable development
of communities in Cabrero and, more generally, in Chile.
Keywords: forests, the 2030 Agenda, sustainable development, rural development, Chile, community
1. Introduction
Forest are essential to the achievement of sustainable development. As described in the 1987 Brundtland Report,
forests contribute to sustainable development through multiple channels – by protecting and enhancing
ecosystems, creating habitats, contributing to climate systems, and protecting soils and watersheds. In addition,
forests are a source of economic and social development through the provision of timber and non-timber forest
products (World Commission on Environment and Development, 1987). Given the multi-functionality of forests
and their capacity to provide a range of ecosystem services, they are expected to play a crucial role in the
achievement of the United Nations’ 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. The 2030 Agenda is comprised
of 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and 169 Targets (see e.g. Interagency and Experts Group on
Sustainable Development Goals Indicators, 2015). Of the 17 SDGs (Figure 1), two explicitly mention forests –
SDG6 (Clean Water and Sanitation) and SDG15 (Life on Land) – although many more involve the conservation
and sustainable use of forests. Seymour and Busch (2016) explore the many ways in which tropical forests
contribute to the 2030 Agenda and describe the ways in which tropical forests, through the delivery of ecosystem
services, impact directly on the achievement of not only SDGs 6&15, but also SDG2 (Zero Hunger), SDG3
(Good Health and Well-being), SDG7 (Affordable and clean energy), SDG11 (Sustainable Cities), and SDG13

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(Climate Action). Furthermore, Milledge (2015), argues that forests have the ability to contribute to all of the
SDGs, through the provision of different ecosystem services and the creation of enabling conditions, such as
enhanced institutional capacity to manage the multi-functionality of forests.
While forests will contribute to the 2030 Agenda at the global level, they will be equally important at the local,
community level (De Jong, Pokorny, Katila, Galloway & Pacheco, 2018; Milledge, 2015). Rural communities
benefit directly from the many ecosystem services provided by forests such as the provision of income and
employment, access to energy, water purification, shelter, medicines and regulation services for agriculture
(Food and Agriculture Organisation [FAO], 2017). However, not all forests will contribute to the achievement of
the SDGs equally. The role of forests for the sustainable development of rural communities is less clear cut when
a forest’s main purpose is to provide the raw materials for forest-based industries. Understanding how the
forestry sector contributes to the sustainable development of rural communities will be important for
achievement of the SDGs. According to Lebedys (2004), the forestry sector includes all the economic activities
that are dependent on the production of goods and services from forests. This may include forestry and logging,
the production of wood fibre for industrial round wood, wood fuel, charcoal, sawn wood, wood-based panels,
pulp and paper. The forestry sector is an important pillar of many national and local economies, especially in
developing countries, where the impacts of the sector on the sustainable development of rural communities, is
likely to be conditioned by a company’s economic, social and environmental practices.

Figure 1. Sustainable Development Goals. Source: United Nations, 2018

Chile is an example of a country where the forestry sector has become a fundamental pillar of its economy.
Forestry contributes 2.6% to GDP, accounts for almost 11% of the national exports, and directly and indirectly
employs around 300,000 people (Chilean Corporation of Timber [CORMA], 2018a). Most of the activity is
located in rural areas between Valparaiso and Los Lagos regions and, in particular, the Biobio region. The Biobio
region accounts for 40% of national productive forests and 24% of forest-based industries, in addition to almost
half of the jobs created by the sector (CORMA, 2018a). However, little research has been conducted on the ways
in which the forestry sector impacts on the sustainable development of rural communities, and how companies,
local government and communities can change their practices to contribute to the 2030 Agenda. Tricallotis and
Kanowski (2016), however, provide possible links and questions that might arise when analysing the
contribution of sector to SDGs in the Chilean context. Building on this analysis, this paper identifies the impacts
of the forestry sector on the sustainable development of rural communities in a commune of the Biobio Region,
Cabrero, and link these impacts to the SDGs.
1.1 The Role of the Private Forestry Sector in Achieving the 2030 Agenda
The private sector has a key role to play in the achievement of the SDGs. It is fundamental not only due to the
impacts their operations could have on society and environment, but also for a company’s own business and
operations. This may include, for example, new market opportunities, efficiency increases, innovation, and

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reputational risk (Business and Sustainable Development Commission, 2017). The International Organisation for
Standardisation (2016) argues that the private sector can contribute to the SDGs through Corporate Social
Responsibility (CSR) practices. CSR is defined by the European Commission (2011, p.6) as the 'responsibility of
enterprises for their impacts on society'. According to this definition, it is the responsibility of the company not
only to adhere to the legislative framework of the country in which it is located, but also to voluntarily engage in
the economic, social and environmental conditions of the context in which it operates. This voluntary
engagement is especially important for the forestry sector in developing countries where CSR practices may
address legislative gaps that regulate the operation of the sector (FAO, 2012; Galloway, Kenges, Louman, Stoian
& Mery, 2006). In this context, a key challenge in the contribution of the sector to the 2030 Agenda relates to the
management of forest plantations and forest-based industries.
Plantations or productive planted forests are defined as trees established by planting and/ or seeding of native or
exotic species, as result of afforestation or reforestation, that aim to produce wood and non-woods products
(FAO, 2010). Plantations are widely used in the forestry sector because they reduce pressure on natural forests
while satisfying increasing global demand for forest products (Warman, 2014). Among plantations, intensively
managed monocultures are used as a raw material for wood fibre processing industries. Monocultures are
productive plantations of one type of species, generally exotic, such as eucalyptus and pine, which through
intensive silvicultural practices (Note 2) provide higher average yields of usable wood in short rotation than
natural forests or polycultures plantations (O’hehir & Nambiar, 2010). While monocultures are more efficient in
the production of wood fibre, they provide fewer ecosystem services when compared to natural forests or
polyculture plantations. Examples of its lower capacity to provide ecosystem services include a reduced capacity
to support biodiversity, nutrient cycling and soil formation (Baral, Guariguata & Keenan, 2016; Brockerhoff,
Jactel, Parrotta & Ferraz, 2012; Felton et al., 2016; Stephens & Wagner, 2007); water purification, biological
control and pest management, adaptation to climate change and the risk of forest fires (Baral et al., 2016;
Brockerhoff et al., 2012; Felton et al., 2016; Peña-Fernandez & Valenzuela-Palma, 2004); the provision of
habitat, food and natural medicines (Baral et al., 2016; Brockerhoff et al., 2012); and reduced cultural and
recreational services (Felton et al., 2016, Muñoz-Pedreros, 2017). Therefore, the sustainable management of
monoculture plantations is a priority for the development and wellbeing of rural communities (Bleyer, Kniivilä,
Horne, Sitoe & Falcão, 2016; D’Amato, Rekola, Wan, Cai & Toppinen, 2017; Landry & Chirwa, 2011; Miller &
Buys, 2014).
Sustainable Forest Management (SFM) is understood as the management and use of forest resources at a rate that
allows the forests to maintain their ecological, economic and social functions for present and future generations
(Ministerial Conference on the Protection of Forests in Europe, 1993). According to Kelty (2006), sustainably
managed plantations are recognised for their ability to sequester carbon and restore degraded lands. In addition,
plantations could contribute to the mitigation and adaptation of climate change and the impacts on food
production by stabilising soils, climate and water flows and enabling pollination (FAO, 2016). Also, as
highlighted by May, England, Raison and Paul (2012), forest products from plantations have low embodied
energy and, when used as a source of bioenergy have a strong potential for greenhouse gas (GHG) reduction.
Regarding the specific contribution of monoculture plantations to the 2030 Agenda, the literature is scarce;
however, a report by the Forestry Stewardship Council (FSC), argues that certified forests, including
monocultures, have a positive role to play in 11 of the SDGs (FSC, 2016). The FSC promotes best practice in the
sector, encouraging companies and forest managers to adopt best practices to prevent deforestation and forest
degradation, as well as maintain biodiversity and ecosystem function. The provision of ecosystem services from
the sustainable management of certified forests has knock-on impacts on multiple SDGs, specifically:
contribution to sustainable food production systems and resilient agricultural practices (SDG2); protection and
restoration of water-related ecosystems (SDG6); carbon storage and removal (SDG13); and, promotion of
sustainable consumption and production practices (SDG12). In addition, certification by the FSC requires forest
owners and managers to develop CSR practices that contribute to community development. This could include:
development of health (SDG3) and education (SDG4) facilities; working practices that promote gender equality
(SDG5); water quality (SDG6); increased resource efficiency through the wood processing and re-use of waste
(SDG12); and the provision of employment, decent work and equal pay (SDG8). Finally, forest governance
mechanisms can promote peace, justice and strong institutions (SDG16 - through efforts to promote legal rights
to forest exploitation, involve local communities, and mechanisms for conflict resolution), and promote
partnerships for sustainable forestry management (SDG17).
The Finish Forest Industries Federation (2017) identified further contributions of the sector through forest-based
industries. For example, these sectors could contribute to SDG6 and SDG7 through the efficient use of water and

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energy resources in wood fibre processing plants. In addition, the use of the waste generated in the plants for
further productive processes contribute to the industrial symbiosis and, therefore, to SDG9 (industry, innovation
and infrastructure). Finally, according to the Federation, the application of a business model based on a circular
economy and the commercialisation of products based on a renewable and biodegradable resource, have the
potential to contribute to SDG2, SDGs11-15, and SDG17.
Having described how the forestry sector may contribute to the achievement of the 2030 Agenda, the following
section turns to the case study country that is the focus of this paper – Chile. In particular, it focuses on the
impacts of the sector on rural communities in Cabrero, a commune in the Biobío region (Note 1).
1.2 The Chilean Forestry Sector and the Impacts on Rural Communities
According to Payn et al. (2015), Chile is the country with the highest increased rate of planted forest area
between 2010 and 2015, reaching 3 million hectares (Mha) of planted forest in 2015. Of these, 98% correspond
to productive plantations which were used as an input to produce industrial round wood (Jürgensen, Kollert &
Lebedys, 2014). Chile is fifth globally in round wood production, and second in South America - preceded only
by Brazil (Payn et al., 2015). The sector started to gain dominance in the 1970s following a series of structural
economic policies, including the liberalisation of the economy and the declaration of legislative Decree 701
(DL701) (Andersson, Lawrence, Zavaleta & Guariguata, 2016). DL701 aimed to encourage reforestation of
eroded soils or degraded land by providing subsides for companies, which covered up to 75% of the costs
incurred by plantations (Cid, 2015). This led to a rapid expansion of plantations and, eventually, to the
development of globally recognised forestry enterprises. Today, the forestry sector is completely privatised and is
characterised by the concentration of the activity in three large business conglomerates – CMPC, Arauco and
MASISA – which provide global markets with round wood, pulp, chips, sandwood, paper, paperboards, panels
and veneers (Tricallotis, 2016). Chilean plantations are mostly monocultures of Pinus radiata, Eucalyptus
globulus and Eucalyptus nitents (National Forestry Institute [INFOR], 2017a), which are owned by large
conglomerates (63%) and small and medium forest owners (34%) (Tricallotis & Kanowski, 2016).
The forestry sector is located in the central-southern zone of Chile, but most of the activity is concentrated in the
Biobío Region, where 70% of national exports are produced. In this region, there are several communes, or rural
territories, surrounded by plantations and forestry industries. The impacts of the value chain of the Chilean
forestry sector (Figure 2) on these communities has been studied previously, providing evidence of the multiple
impacts on rural communities. For example, the Programme for Management and Environmental Economy
(PROGEA, 2014) analysed the multiple economic contributions of the sector to the region in terms of GDP,
employment and added value. This report found the sector reduced poverty in rural communities through the
generation of alternative sources of income, and stated that the sector could be considered ‘a stimulus for the
economic dynamism of rural areas’ (p.10). Conversely, Benedikter and Siepman (2015) concluded that
communities rarely benefit from commercial plantations and remain in poverty and a state of underdevelopment.
Andersson et al. (2016) reached similar conclusions and found a positive correlation between land area planted
with forestry monocultures and poverty. When analysing the difference in perception between stakeholders in the
region, Fawaz (2015) concluded that the macroeconomic benefits of forestry was recognised by all stakeholders,
but that at the local level the sector was negatively perceived due to a lack of employment opportunities, loss of
land for other economic activities, such as agriculture, and limited interest from companies in engaging in
initiatives that contribute to community development. Other studies have highlighted the contribution of
plantations to the environment; for example, the National Forestry Corporation describes the Chilean forestry
sector as ‘one of the best examples of sustainable development in the world’ due to the renewable capacity of
plantations (CONAF, 2013, p.30). In addition, CORMA (2018b) highlights the contribution of plantations to
climate change mitigation, soil recovery and watershed management. PROGEA (2014) discusses the
contribution of the sector to renewable energy through the use of its own residues as a source of energy
production. By contrast, Cid (2015), Peña-Fernandez and Valenzuela-Palma (2004) and Torres-Salinas et al.
(2016) argue that plantations in the Biobío region are often managed under unsustainable silvicultural practices
that affect water resources, increase chemical pollution, as well as increase the risk of forest fires and its
consequences to communities. In terms of the opportunity costs of land use for plantation forestry, CONAF
(2013) argues there is no opportunity cost due the quality of the soils where plantations are located. Other
authors, however, find that the replacement of native forest and agricultural lands with monocultures has had
negative outcomes for the provision of ecosystem services (Miranda, Altamirano, Cayuela, Lara & González,
2017; Torres, Azócar, Rojas, Montecinos, & Paredes, 2015). These authors also find that the change in livelihood
strategies generates a climate of injustice and has led to resistance from peasants and indigenous groups, such as
the Mapuches. These conflicts have also been exacerbated by the impacts of wood fibre processing industries on

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communities (Cid, 2015).

In recognition of the negative effects of the forestry sector on rural communities and environments, forestry
companies in Chile have worked to improve their practices. Many companies have adopted CSR practices and
signed up to voluntary certification schemes, such as the FSC and the Chilean system of forest certification
(CERTFOR), which has improved the sustainable management of monocultures and governance practices
(Tricallotis & Kanowski, 2016). The adoption of such schemes is vital due to a lack of a national policies to
safeguard rural communities against negative environmental and socioeconomic externalities from plantations
(Tricallotis & Kanowski, 2016). Plantation management is regulated by decree DL701 (amended in 1998 by Law
19 561), which, in addition to encouraging afforestation with plantations and recovery of degraded land, seeks to
ensure that plantations are managed sustainably through a forest management plan (CONAF, 2016a). However,
such plans rarely incorporate the socioeconomic effects of plantations on local communities, nor do they analyse
impacts on ecosystem services (see CONAF, 2018b). The voluntary actions that companies undertake to
contribute to the sustainable development of communities is of key importance, especially for those communes
which are dominated by the forestry sector, such as Cabrero.

Plantations (mainly exotic Production of industrial round

Plant nurseries
monocultures) wood

Primary industry of semi-

finished good products of Primary industry of semi-
Secondary industry (e.g paper,
different processing levels (e.g finished good products of lower
paperboards, furnitures)
sawnwood, wood pulp and processing (e.g. cellulose)
veneers)
Figure 2. Forestry sector value chain
Source: Departamento de Economía Universidad de Concepción, 2009

2. Method
2.1 Study Area
Cabrero is a commune located in the Biobío region in Central South Chile (Figure 3). In 2017, the commune had
an estimated population of 29,563 inhabitants; of which 29% lived in rural areas - distributed in 48 rural
communities (National Institute of Statistics [INE], 2017a; Municipality of Cabrero, 2013). According to the
National Survey of Socio-Economic Characterisation, 31% of households in Cabrero were in income poverty,
which is higher than regional (22%) and national (14%) levels (Library of National Congress of Chile [BCN],
2015). In addition to high levels of poverty, there are also significant differences in social progress between
urban and rural areas. The greatest differences relate to access to basic human needs such as, drinking water and
sanitation, levels of education, and access to information and communication (Programme for Social
Responsibility Studies, 2016).

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Figure 3. Geographical location of Cabrero

Source: Authors' elaboration based on (INE, 2016, 2017b)

In Cabrero, the main economic activities are the service industry, manufacturing and primary activities, such as
agriculture and forestry. Rural economies are dependent on the extraction and management of natural resources,
including forestry, organic agriculture, dehydrated products (e.g. mushrooms), beekeeping, vineyards, vegetables,
livestock, flower cultivation, and rural tourism (Municipality of Cabrero, 2018). Forestry, however, is the most
important sector for the commune in terms of both employment and economic activity, and plays a crucial role in
regional exports (Barrera & Gormaz, 2009; Falabella & Gatica, 2014; Municipality of Cabrero, 2013). The
sector is predominantly located in rural areas (Figure 4), although there are forestry-based industries located in
the urban limits of Cabrero city. There are 17 forest-based industries, which cover all aspects of the value chain
from nurseries to sawmills, and from chipper to board factories (INFOR, 2017b). There are 233 registered
productive forest land, which cover 26 673 ha or 42% of the commune’s area (INE, 2007). Around 82% of this
area is planted with forestry monocultures, specifically Pinus radiata and Eucalyptus globulus. As at the national
level, the local forestry sector is dominated by the three largest companies in the country. CMPC – through its
subsidiary Forestal Mininco - owns plantations and a sawmill. Arauco – through its subsidiary Forestal Celco -
owns plantations and a plant nursery. MASISA has the largest operations in the commune. The company owns a
large sawmill and chipper and also manufacture different types boards, playing a key role not only in the
dynamism of the communal economy but also contributing to regional and national exports (Fallabella & Gatica,
2014).

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Figure 4. Cabrero's forestry sector (Note 3)

Source: Authors' elaboration based on Arauco (2017), BCN (2009), Forestal Mininco (2017), INE (2016),
Ministry of Public Works (2017), INFOR (2017b), Municipality of Cabrero (2013), SITRURAL (2017).

2.2. Data and Methods

2.2.1 Identification of Impacts on Rural Communities
Document analysis and interviews with key informants were used to identify the impacts of the forestry sector on
rural communities in Cabrero. Four documents were analysed to identify social, environmental and economic
impacts from perspective of local government and companies: the Municipal Development Plan (PLADECO),
which lists the actions that local governments will lead to satisfy the needs of communities and promote their
social, economic and cultural progress (Municipality of Cabrero, 2013); the Communal Regulatory Plan (PRC),
a territorial planning tool (Municipality of Cabrero, 2009); the Arauco Social Management Plan, which details
local development strategies and actions that the company pursued in the communes where it operates (Arauco,
2016); and, the CMPC Integrated Report on sustainable management (CMPC, 2017).
Building on the document analysis, seven semi-structured interviews were undertaken with key informants to
identify additional social, environmental and economic impacts of forestry, and to understand how such impacts
are perceived by stakeholders. Five interviews were carried out with representatives of Cabrero’s rural
communities, and two with individuals working for two forestry companies in the area of CSR and community
engagement. All interviews were recorded, with the consent of the participant, transcribed and analysed using the
Codification Model (Auerbach & Silverstein, 2003).
2.2.2 Understanding the Effect of the Sustainability Impacts on the SDGs of Rural Communities
The identification and analysis of the impacts of the forestry sector on the SDGs was carried out using expert

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judgement through eight semi-structured interviews. Experts were selected on the basis of their participation in
the Social Progress Index that was carried out in Cabrero (Programme for Social Responsibility Studies, 2016).
During each interview, the expert was provided with a verbal description of each impact identified in the earlier
analysis. The experts were then asked to discuss which of the SDGs would be affected by each impact, whether
it would benefit or harm the achievement of the SDGs for rural communities and, finally, how they would
categorise the impact to affect the SDGs (positive, variable or negative). Wherever possible, interviews were
recorded, otherwise detailed notes were taken. Interviews were transcribed and analysed using the Codification
Model (Auerbach & Silverstein, 2003).
3. Results
3.1 Impacts of the Forestry Sectors in the Sustainable Development of Rural Communities
Six main categories of impacts of the forestry sector on rural communities were identified. These include:
employment, rural-urban migration, local environment, social investment, plantation management, and land use
changes. Each of these impacts and the implications for community sustainable development are discussed in
turn below.
Employment: The research supports earlier studies that found that the forestry sector is a fundamental pillar of
Cabrero's economy, and one of the key sources of employment – particularly in urban areas. For rural
communities, however, the forestry sector was not perceived to generate permanent and decent employment
opportunities, and community representatives spoke of the lack of employment opportunities. This appears to be
a result of company preferences for experienced labour, which is not found in rural areas, and policies that
prioritise employment for communities located immediately adjacent to the plantations and/ or forest-based
industries. Furthermore, where employment opportunities arise, they usually correspond to low skilled, poorly
remunerated, and temporary positions, such as harvesting, pruning and weeding. One community representative
explained: "... employment in companies, no, because companies bring their machinery, bring their people, have
basic jobs where we have the option to work with them…but something better like operating machines and
equipment, no .. because the companies bring everything from outside”. Finally, participants also described the
lack of employment opportunities for women. This was not only observed at the local, community level, but was
also reported by local government at the commune level.
According to experts, the failure of the forestry sector to provide plentiful, well remunerated and permanent
employment opportunities has a negative effect on community sustainable development. The lack of
employment opportunities (SDG8) means that households were likely to remain impoverished (SDG1),
especially given the extensive coverage of plantations and the lack of alternative economic activities. This also
worsens inequalities (SDG10), particularly for women (SDG5), and limits access to basic goods and services
(SDGs2, 3, 4, 6, 11)
Rural-urban migration: Stakeholders described rural-urban migration as a complex phenomenon, which could
not be attributed to one economic sector alone. Rather, they discussed how migration is facilitated by the better
provision of services and infrastructure in urban areas, as well as the desire of people to achieve better livelihood
conditions. Community representatives felt that a key influencer of migration was the lack of job opportunities in
rural areas, with many jobs in the forestry sector – especially the processing stages – located within urban limits.
They also spoke of the economic incentives for communities to sell their agricultural land to plantation
companies, which increased migration to urban areas.
Experts also highlighted the complex effects of migration on communities, which depend upon the conditions
under which migration occurs (Figure 5). Economic migrants may have enhanced employment opportunities
within the sector (SDG8), which could increase household income, thus contributing to ending poverty (SDG1),
reducing inequalities (SDG10), access to good nutrition (SDG2), basic services (SDG11) and health and
education (SDGs3, 4). Jobs opportunities in the sector, could strengthen communities-company relationship,
possibly creating partnerships to increase forestry sector contribution to SDGs (SDGs16, 17). However, experts
also mentioned that, available positions for communities in the sector are poorly remunerated, which could
perpetuate and even increase poverty (SDG1), encourage segregation in cities and exacerbate existing
inequalities (SDGs2, 3, 4, 10, 11). When analysing the effects of the sale of agricultural land, experts discussed
the negative effects on community sustainable development, particularly vulnerable groups. Migration, and the
sale of land, reduced self-sufficiency, and increased dependency on bought food (SDG2). In addition, when
migrating to urban areas, many individuals have problems finding decent and permanent employment (SDG8).
The lack of adequate employment contributes to poverty (SDG1), obliging them to live in poor segregated
neighbourhoods, that lack access to public services and usually have high levels of crime (SDG11). The latter,

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also increases inequalities (SDG10) and generates resentment towards the forestry sector, which triggers
conflicts and prevents the generation of partnerships for sustainability (SDGs16, 17).
Impact on local environments: Local government and community representatives described how forestry
operations affected local environments primarily through pollution and the deterioration of rural roads.
Contamination of water bodies was argued to have affected in drinking water quality and biodiversity, as well as
recreational activities as swimming and fishing. Company representatives acknowledged that the sector had
negative impacts on water, but argued that practices had changed and technical improvements in their plants had
mitigated many of these impacts. Community representatives also spoke of emissions of ash and smoke from
local forest-based industries. While these tend to be located near urban areas, wind disperses the emissions
throughout the commune, which affects a much wider area.
The deterioration of rural roads due to heavy vehicles was also mentioned by interviewees and in documents.
Although company documents describe efforts to mitigate the impacts of heavy good vehicles (e.g. the CMPC
mitigation of impacts from timber transport programme), such programmes were perceived to have made little
difference to communities. Indeed, community representatives argued that companies had done little to address
the impacts on roads, which had contributed to tensions between communities and companies. As one
representative explained: ‘When the lorries come to take out the wood they deteriorate the roads and say "we are
going to fix the road "and they do not ... they leave the roads in disrepair and say that they will fix them when
they finish, but they leave and they leave them deteriorated ... then, we get angry, because they tell us they are
going to do it but then they do not”
Experts described the negative impacts of pollution and road deterioration on community sustainable
development. Rather than promoting responsible production and consumption (SDG12), experts felt the
companies were adopting irresponsible production processes which prevented communities from becoming
sustainable and resilient (SDG11). While they acknowledged the lack of a comprehensive legislative framework,
they argued greater efforts were required by companies to mitigate and eliminate the impacts on local
environments, especially because when a company directly or indirectly harms people or communities, this can
generate social resentment and conflict affecting peace (SDG16) and partnerships for sustainable development
(SDG17). Pollution also affects the health and well-being of communities (SDG3), as well as ecosystem
resilience (SDGs14, 15). In the case of water pollution, experts spoke of the effects on rural drinking water
systems (SDG6). Here, even when discharges of industrial waste comply with the regulatory framework,
contaminants can infiltrate water sources, affecting water quality which is critical given the low level of
technology for the purification of rural drinking water systems (known as APR) in the commune. With regard to
the deterioration of rural roads, this affects the quality and reliability of transport infrastructure (SDG9),
restricting the free movement of people and their well-being to generate a sense of isolation (SDG3) and inhibit
the development of other economic activities (SDG8).
Social investment: All stakeholders mentioned social investment practices by the forestry sector as a positive
contribution to sustainable development. Such practices included: the provision of goods from the plantations;
education and training programmes, including programmes to enable adults to finish secondary education;
economic support for local entrepreneurship; donation of eucalyptus and pine seedlings; recreational and
sporting activities; and, community infrastructure. However, of these practices, only goods from the plantations
and educational training programmes were mentioned by all stakeholders.
With regard to plantation goods, companies donate woody residues to communities, which are used by
households as fuelwood thus reducing energy expenditure. Companies also allow communities to use plantations
for animal forage (which also decreases fuel vegetation and therefore the risk of forest fire) and for non-wood
forest products (NWFPs), such as edible fungi. Women dehydrate the fungi, which are then sold in local and
national markets, providing a valuable source of income for households. Nevertheless, community
representatives highlighted the temporary and subsistence character of the income generated from this activity. In
the case of education and training programmes, two types were recognised: training courses for further
employment opportunities within and beyond the forestry sector; and, training courses that aimed to improve
natural resource management (e.g. water management for agriculture use), and to develop and improve
leadership and entrepreneurship skills of people living in rural areas. With regards the latter, community
representatives mentioned that, in some cases, the courses were not designed with the characteristics of the rural
population in mind. They highlighted that much of the population are older people (i.e. 65 and older), who do not
show interest in participating in these activities but rather prefer workshops that develop more age appropriate
skills, such as handicrafts and cooking.

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According to experts, social investment practices have a positive effect on community sustainable development.
Social investment strengthens the relationship between communities and companies (SDG16) contributing to the
development of partnerships for sustainable development (SDG17). In the case of goods from plantations, the
use of wood residues and by-products from plantations increase resource-use efficiency (SDG9) and decrease the
generation of waste (SDG12). The availability of fuelwood provides access to energy and reduces expenditure on
energy for communities (SDG7). Access to animal forage reduces agricultural costs (SDG2), and reduces the risk
of forest fires contributing to safer human settlements (SDG11), while access to NWFPs creates employment and
income generation for women (SDG5). However, one expert expressed concern that temporary sources of
income did not equate to gender equality, but rather that keeping women in temporary jobs with no permanent
income might in fact increase gender inequalities. In terms of the educational programmes, experts highlighted a
direct contribution to SDG4, and argued that courses providing skills could lead to improved employment
opportunities (SDG8), poverty alleviation (SDG1) and reduced inequalities (SDG10). In the case of natural
resource management courses this could increase and improve agricultural production (SDGs2, 6), ecosystem
management (SDGs6, 15) and create sustainable communities (SDG11).
Plantation management: Interviews revealed negative impacts related to the management of plantations, due
both to poor planning in the location of plantations and unsustainable silvicultural practices. For instance, high
demand for water limits its availability for rural populations, biodiversity, and other economic activities, such as
agriculture. Although the companies discussed their watershed management programmes, there are no studies
available on the results of their implementation in Cabrero. Another example of poor practices relates to pest
control. Companies use chemicals to control pests, including insects and fungi, which according to the local
government present a risk to the health of the workers and communities. In addition, community representatives
mentioned that pest control presented a threat to biodiversity and ecosystems, affects rabbit populations, which
was a source of food, and beekeeping production, which presented an important source of income for some rural
households. As one community representative explained, ‘they [the companies] apply a lot of chemicals… when
there is wind, it affects us ... there are no more foxes, there is no ecosystem anymore ... there is no longer a
balance in the ecosystem. In fact, I am thinking of moving my bees from there, because 10 years ago I harvested
about 80-90 kilos per hive, today we do not reach 30 kilos… They throw liquids and that affects us as beekeepers,
we put signs with bees as a sign for them, but still’. Finally, the location and distribution of plantations,
combined with poor silvicultural practices, was argued to increase the risk of forest fire propagation. As
described by the local government: ‘The risk of forest fire constitutes one of the most latent risks in the commune,
due to the increase of the area with silvicultural use and the proximity to populated areas’ (Municipality of
Cabrero, 2013, p.89). Community representatives argued that the lack of weeding, pruning and removal of
vegetation increased the risk of fire, which had a negative impact on their quality of life by keeping residents in a
permanent state of alert and concern, especially during summer months. Forestry companies and community
representatives recognised the negative consequences for all, and thought forest fire prevention should be a
collaborative effort, but particularly between government and business. According to community representatives,
the laws related to plantation management and prevention of forest fires were deficient, which was exacerbated
by the lack of enforcement in the commune. They argued that, while companies have programmes and
infrastructure to prevent and mitigate fires, these usually consider only their property. Since the effects of fires
are widespread, they thought companies should extend the coverage of such programmes.
According to experts, poor silvicultural practices have a negative effect on community sustainable development.
The stress in the hydrographic basins not only affects the availability of water for communities (SDGs6, 11) and
the development of agriculture (SDGs2) and its economic consequences in communities (SDGs1, 8), but also
generates conflicts between communities and companies (SDGs16, 17), and, many times, irreversible effect in
water-related ecosystems in the area (SDGs6, 15). The use of chemicals for pest control affects human health
(SDG3), including water sources used to supply human water consumption (SDG6), and can have consequences
for biodiversity and aquatic ecosystems (SDGs14, 15). The negative impacts on ecosystems can have
consequences for households due to the decrease in food sources (SDG2) and loss of economic activities, such as
beekeeping (SDGs1, 8). Finally, experts mentioned that the risk of fire due to poor plantation management
affects the resilience and well-being of rural communities (SDGs 3, 11), especially more vulnerable groups
(SDGs1), presents a threat to infrastructure (SDG9) used for economic activities and services (SDGs3, 4, 8) and
is a threat to biodiversity (SDG15). In addition, such practices go against national efforts to address climate
change since it affects community adaptation and ecosystem resilience (SDG13).
Land use change: The impacts of land use change were mentioned in local government documents and during
interviews with community representatives. The impact on communities depends on the previous land use: the

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loss of native forests and prairies had negative impacts on local communities. As described by local government,
plantations are a ‘homogenous mass of high economic value that lack of ecological interest’ (Municipality of
Cabrero, 2013, p.66). The conversion of native forest to monoculture reduces biodiversity and aesthetic value –
thus reducing the opportunities for tourism – and increases a sense of enclosure, affecting social interactions. By
contrast, changes from ‘unused land’ (or peladero in Spanish) to plantations were described as positive by
community representatives. Unused land was defined as abandoned land with no apparent use and little
vegetation. According to representatives, this change increased employment opportunities and social investment.
Finally, a change in land use from agriculture to plantation was perceived to have negative impacts. Local
Government discussed competition between the use of land for forestry and for agriculture, which has led to land
use conflicts (Municipality of Cabrero, 2009). Communities representatives highlighted the negative impacts on
small farmers and rural households due to reduced availability of land, lower soil productivity and fewer
employment opportunities, since plantations are less labour intensive than agriculture. This had led to land use
conflicts between companies and communities in Cabrero.
The impacts of land use change on sustainable development were deemed to be largely negative by experts. For
example, the shift from natural cover to plantation had a negative impact on biodiversity (SDG15), water
availability and quality (SDG6), GHG emissions (SDG13), and increased vulnerability to natural hazards and
climate-related events, especially for rural poor communities (SDGs1, 11, 13). It also resulted in reduced cultural
services, affecting community well-being (SDG3). However, plantations provide employment opportunities for
some households (SDGs1, 8). In the case of the change from ‘unused land’ to plantations, experts acknowledge
the contribution to employment (SDGs1, 8) and the effects of social investment practices in communities
(SDGs1-2, 4-12, 15-17), as well as an increase on biodiversity (SDG15). Finally, experts mentioned that the
change from agricultural land to plantations had a negative effect on communities’ SDGs. They explain that the
loss of agricultural land (SDG2) impoverishes communities and increases inequalities (SDGs1, 8, 10),
furthermore it contributes to migration, affecting the provision of public services in rural areas (SDGs3, 4, 6, 11)
and, can generate conflicts over land that affect peace and partnerships for sustainable development (SDGs16,
17).
3.2 Working towards Sustainable Development
Interviewees were also asked about the future contribution of the forestry sector to the sustainable development
of rural communities. While community representatives recognised that the sector was a source of economic
development for Cabrero, they also emphasised that forestry companies must do more to address the negative
impacts on rural communities. They suggested more participatory CSR programmes, which would enable
companies to respond more effectively to the needs and interests of local communities and allow a greater
contribution to sustainable development. Along the same lines, a forestry company representative added: 'we
need to think in a broader way [about] the contribution to this development... identify other opportunities where
sustainability comes from being part of a partnership ... successful companies are not possible in failed
societies… we must understand what it is important and that is what the SDGs bring us...that sustainable
development is everyone's responsibility and is not the sole responsibility of the Government...everyone must
contribute'. Finally, stakeholders agreed on the need to develop stronger partnerships between communities,
companies and government. Some suggestions for future efforts included: a focus on agricultural activities
through the establishment of commercial alliances between small farmers and the catering services of forestry
companies; technical support to improve the quality of potable water, as well as the operation of rural water
systems; and, increased employment opportunities for rural populations. With regards the latter, interviewees
suggested the provision of workshops related to rural economic activities (e.g. beekeeping), and, strengthening
the connections between the employment needs of the forestry sector.
4. Discussion and Conclusion
This study has analysed the impacts of the forestry sector on the sustainable development of rural communities,
using Cabrero, a commune in Chile, as a case study. To date, there have been few studies which have examined
the impacts of the sector on rural sustainable development, and none on how the Chilean forestry sector can
contribute to the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development in rural communities. This research therefore
represents an important contribution to the literature, especially considering the commitment of the Chilean
government to the 2030 Agenda (Sustainable Development Knowledge Platform, 2018).
As this paper has demonstrated, the forestry sector in Cabrero has multiple and complex impacts on sustainable
development, which have both positive and negatives outcomes for rural communities. Figure 5 summarises the
impacts of the forestry sector on the SDGs in Cabrero. Echoing findings from other studies in the Biobío region

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(e.g. Fawas, 2015), the paper shows that the sector is valued by all stakeholders who acknowledge the key role
the sector plays in the development of the commune, region and country. However, perceptions differ when
discussing the local level impacts of the sector. The research revealed that while the community representatives
seem to have a largely negative perception of the sector – except for the social investment practices – companies,
unsurprisingly, view widely positive effects as a result of their CSR programmes. In the case of local government,
the positive economic contributions of the sector were highlighted, as were the negative environmental and
social impacts that result from forestry operations, especially in terms of land use conflicts and risk of forest fires.
The differences in perceptions, especially between communities and companies, is likely related to the ability of
the companies to consider communities’ interests and needs, for example in the design and implementation of
their CSR programmes. Other authors have reached similar conclusions, including Gordon, Lockwood, Vanclay,
Hanson and Schirmer (2012) who argue that addressing these differences in perceptions is crucial to reduce
conflicts in community-company relationships, and to reduce the negative reputational impacts that such
tensions can have.
When analysing the impacts on the SDGs, experts concluded that the sector had both synergies and trade-offs
with all of the 17 SDGs. They found negative effects on community sustainable development from plantation
management practices, land use changes and employment opportunities, but also identified positive impacts,
particularly in relation to social investment practices. The impacts on the SDGs were both direct and indirect.
For example, companies’ social investment practices that provide access to educational programmes were
thought to contribute directly to SDG4, however, the employment skills obtained through these courses
contribute to SDG8 and encourage further positive outcomes to SDGs1 and 10. Given the importance of the
forestry sector for the commune, the identification, analysis and understanding of the relationships between the
SDGs is critical to understand how actions may be taken to enhance synergies and minimise trade-offs between
them. This is fundamental for Cabrero, given that the impacts of the forestry sector, both positive and negative,
are less related to a company’s compliance with Chilean legislation than they are to the presence or absence of
CSR programmes. The SDGs provide a useful framework for examining the linkages between different aspects
of sustainable development, and therefore enable the design of more effective CSR programmes that deliver
positive contributions to the sustainable development of communities.
However, while companies play an important role in contributing to sustainable development, it is government
who must develop the legal and regulatory framework within which companies operate. Current regulations fail
to address many of the negative impacts described in this study. Perhaps in acknowledgement of the limitations
of existing legislation, in 2016 the Chilean government launched ‘Forest Policy 2015-2035’. This policy is not
just aimed at commercial plantations, but also aims to promote the sustainable management of plantations and
increase the current social, economic and environmental contribution of the sector to rural communities (CONAF,
2016c). While it is for the central government to provide the policy framework, local governments have an
important role to play, particularly in satisfying the needs of local communities and ensuring their participation
in the economic, social and cultural progress of the commune. There is an important role for local government as
intermediaries between companies and communities, who could facilitate dialogue and reduce power imbalances
between these stakeholders. However, municipalities could struggle to perform this role because private
companies contribute to municipal budget through not only taxes, patents, rights and permits for business
activities but also through corporate donations that help in the execution of municipal projects (Organization for
Economic Cooperation and Development, 2013); there is therefore financial and political interest in maintaining
good relationships with companies. This may make it difficult for local government to enforce strengthened
social and environmental legislation.

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Cab
brero
Forrestry
Sector

(+) P
Positive effect in SD
DG

(+/-) V
Variable effect in SDG

(-) N
Negative effect in SDG
S

Figure 5.
5 Experts’ percception regardding the effectss of the forestryy sector in SD
DGs
Source: Auuthors’ elaboraation.

The 2030 Agenda provides a comprehhensive agenda for sustainabble developmeent that enablees the generatio on of
shared bennefits. The Chhilean governnment has exppressed its com mmitment to the SDGs, ass well as the Paris
Agreemennt, and – as thiss paper has deemonstrated – tthe forestry seector has a vitaal role to play in addressing both.
The achievvement of the SDGs will reequire collaborration amongstt people, goveernment and thhe private secttor to
understandd and supportt the delivery of a forestryy sector that ccontributes to the sustainable developmen nt of
communitiies in Cabrero and, more gennerally, in Chille.
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Notes
Note 1. Chile is political-administrative divided in 15 regions. Each region is divided in provinces, which are
divided in communes. Each commune it is administrate by a Municipality (Library of National Congress of
Chile, 2018).
Note 2. Silvicultural practices correspond to all practices that aim to control the establishment, growth,
composition, health, and quality of plantations to achieve its objectives. These practices could include: spacing,
weeding, pruning and thinning (Forestry Commission, 2017).
Note 3. Based on the available data, the map shows the georeferencing of the 17 forestry industries, 48 rural
communities and 153 forestry plantations. In most cases, it was possible to have the geographical coordinates of
the objects, while for rest, the approximate location was used through map overlay.

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Copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal.
This is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution
license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

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