Table of Contents

First

Quarter:

Topic I. Earth’s Subsystem

 Biosphere
 Geosphere
 Atmosphere
 Hydrosphere

Topic II. Universe and the Solar System

 Big Bang Theory

Topic III. Energy Sources

 Solar Energy
 Wind Energy
 Biomass
 Water and Geothermal

Topic IV. History of the Earth

 Major Events in Earth’s Past

Topic V. Earth Processes

 Exogenic Processes
 Endogenic Processes
Topic 2. Universe and the Solar System

Universe defined as large unimaginable expanse of gas, star, dust

clouds and consists of planets and galaxies. The universe also
includes all radiation and all other forms of energy. No matter where
or when you exist, you are a part of the universe, as is everything you
experience. There is nothing outside the universe, because anything
that exists is automatically included in the definition of the universe.
The Big Bang Theory is the leading explanation for how the
universe began. Simply put, it says the universe as we know it started
with an infinitely hot and dense single point that inflated and
stretched — first at unimaginable speeds, and then at a more
measurable rate — over the next 13.7 billion years to the still-
expanding cosmos that we know today. Existing technology doesn't
yet allow astronomers to literally peer back at the universe's birth,
much of what we understand about the Big Bang comes from
mathematical formulas and models. Astronomers can, however, see
the "echo" of the expansion through a phenomenon known as
the cosmic microwave background.
ARTICLE:
For centuries, philosophers and scientists believed that the universe
was static. Planets and even stars may move around and occasionally
blow up, but at the very largest scales, the universe is and always will
be.
This view was so entrenched that it even fooled Einstein. In the early
1900s, he applied his new formulation of gravity called general
relativity, to the evolution of the universe as a whole. He found that
his theory naturally predicted a dynamic, evolving cosmos, one that
was either expanding or contracting—but definitely not static. To fix
this, he added a fudge factor to his equations, known as the
“cosmological constant.”
Several years later, the astronomer Edwin Hubble would announce a
stunning one-two punch of cosmological proportions. First, he
discovered that galaxies exist and are very far away from us (our
nearest neighbor, the Andromeda galaxy, sits over 2.5 million years
away). Then, he found that, on average, all galaxies are moving away
from us.

REFLECTION:
I have learned about Big Bang theory is that the universe originated
billions of years ago in a rapid expansion from a single point of
nearly infinite energy density-compare steady state theory and Big
Bang theory essentially states that there was some kind of expansion
of space at some distant point in time, approximately 13 and a half,
14 billion years ago. An expansion of space itself. Also, I realized
that Big Bang produced all the hydrogen and most of the helium that
we have in the universe.
Topic I. Earth’s Subsystem
There is something special about the Earth that makes it unique. In addition to being
almost 4.6 billion years old, Earth has special subsystems that makeup up all the living
and non-living components on the planet. These subsystems are broken up into four
categories: living organisms, the land, the water, and the air. Each subsystem has a
different function, but all work together to support the only planet in our solar system that
harbors life. These subsystems are often referred to as "spheres," and they are formally
known as the biosphere, geosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere.
The biosphere is composed of all the living organisms on Earth and includes all animals,
microscopic life, and even rooted plants. The geosphere composes Earth's crust, which
ranges from the oceanic crust found at the seafloor to the tops of mountain ranges. The
geosphere is also referred to as the lithosphere, which includes the inner layers of the
Earth.
The hydrosphere contains all the water that is found on Earth, regardless of whether it is
in the solid, liquid, or gaseous state of matter. In addition to freshwater, hydrosphere
locations include rivers, streams, and the ocean, which make up 97% of the water found
on Earth. The last sphere is known as the atmosphere and it is composed of all the gases,
water vapor, and clouds that are in the sky. The atmosphere extends from just below
Earth's surface to over 6,200 miles high into the sky. Clouds are technically a part of
both, the hydrosphere, and atmosphere,
Each sphere plays a vital role as it functions individually and overlaps with others. The
atmosphere interacts with the other spheres as weather occurs in this subsystem. Weather
interacts with the hydrosphere as storms bring rain and larger ocean tides. The water in
the hydrosphere influences the geosphere by shaping the terrain. Oceans, rivers, and
streams can even cause terrains to flood from the interaction of storms in the atmosphere.
Interestingly, the geosphere interacts with the atmosphere every time there is a volcanic
eruption. Many gases that are trapped under the surface of the crust are released into the
atmosphere with explosive lava. In addition, the biosphere also influences the
composition of the atmosphere as humans continue to fuel the fire of climate change by
building up greenhouse gases.
The combination of interactions like these helps to drive Earth as one large sphere or
system. All 4 spheres influence the climate, geological processes, and life on Earth. In
fact, it is difficult for scientists to find scenarios where the spheres do not influence each
other. It is also difficult to find where one sphere begins and ends, due to the level of
overlap. Therefore, there are no hard rules that define where a sphere can be located.
Another example of all four spheres' interaction occurs with many animals. Most
organisms (which are part of the biosphere) require water from the hydrosphere to live,
air from the atmosphere to breathe, and the land of the geosphere to create a home in. The
success of organisms in the biosphere is heavily shaped by the components and events
that occur in the other spheres. This means that all living and nonliving things on Earth
can be reused and recycled in some way. All material on Earth changes over time as
matter changes through phases.
ARTICLE:
Based on the study, climate change clearly poses a threat to human
survival. It foretells of the submergence of coastal communities due
to sea-level rise. It also projects the occurrence of frequent and
stronger typhoons, and of prolonged, intense heat in the summers
and heavy rains and flooding during rainy season. It also tells of the
dire consequences of these natural catastrophes to human
habitation, food supply, the degradation of ecosystem services and
eventual extinction of some species. This clearly shows that climate
change is a development issue that threatens the gains and
economic development attained in past decades. Agriculture, for
instance, which relies on a stable, regular weather pattern will be
adversely affected, if such pattern is disrupted by climate change.
While the Philippines is not a major Green House Gas (GHG) emitter,
the report projects that our country’s GHG emission will continue to
increase in the years to come. This growth will be due to a growing
economy, heightened urbanization, increased demand and use of
energy and the expected increase in the number of vehicles, all of
which are highly dependent on crude oil for energy.

REFLECTION:
I realized that the Philippines is highly vulnerable to the impacts of
climate change, including sea level rise, increased frequency of
extreme weather events, rising temperatures, and extreme rainfall.
This is due to its high exposure to natural hazards (cyclones,
landslides, floods, droughts), dependence on climate-sensitive natural
resources, and vast coastlines where all of its major cities and the
majority of the population reside. A rich yet increasingly depleted
natural and marine resources base supports livelihoods through
fisheries, agriculture, forestry, energy, mining, and tourism and
provides critical ecosystem services such as shoreline protection,
flood control, soil stability, and habitats for biodiversity. Also, in the
Philippines more than half of greenhouse gas emissions come from
the energy sector, followed by agriculture, industrial processes,
waste, and land-use change and forestry.
Topic III. Energy sources
Energy is the capacity of a physical system to perform work. Energy
exists in several forms such as heat, kinetic or mechanical energy,
light, potential energy, electrical, or other forms. Energy is the ability
to do work. Energy sources could be classified as Renewable and
Non-renewable.
Renewable energy is derived from natural processes that are
replenished constantly such as solar, wind, ocean, hydropower,
biomass, geothermal resources, and biofuels and hydrogen.
Sun is the primary source of energy. Sunlight is a clean, renewable
source of energy. It is a sustainable resource, meaning it doesn't run
out, but can be maintained because the sun shines almost every day.
Coal or gas are not sustainable or renewable: once they are gone,
there is none left. More and more people are wanting to use clean,
renewable energy such as solar, wind, geothermal steam and others.
It is called 'Green Power'. It lights our houses by day, dries our
clothes and agricultural produce, keeps us warm and lots more. Its
potential is however much larger.
Wind is the natural movement of air across the land or sea. The wind
when used to turn the blades of a wind mill turns the shaft to which
they are attached. This movement of shaft through a pump or
generator produces electricity.

The plants fix solar energy through the process of photosynthesis to

produce biomass. This biomass passes through various cycles
producing different forms of energy sources.
The flowing water and the tides in the sea are sources of energy.

Geothermal Energy is heat stored in earth crust and being used for
electric generation and also for direct heat application. Geothermal
literally means heat generated by earth.

Coal, Oil and Natural gas are the non-renewable sources of energy.
They are also called fossil fuels as they are products of plants that
lived thousands of years ago. Fossil fuels are the predominantly used
energy sources today.
ARTICLE:
As of 2017, the Philippines has a total installed capacity of 21,621 MW
(compared to 14,348 MW in 2016), thanks to coal and solar power plants
( Source: Department of Energy, Electric Power Industry Management
Bureau) .

Traditionally, the country’s energy mix has been 35-35-30 per cent, for coal,
oil and gas, and renewables, respectively. Under the Duterte administration,
the Department of Energy (DOE) is taking a “technology agnostic” approach.
The energy mix will be based on demand and not on fuel supply. The load
curve of the country must be 70 per cent baseload, 20 per cent mid-merit and
10 per cent peaking regardless of fuel type.

Coal (35 per cent of the installed capacity) is largely imported from Indonesia,
followed by Australia. While the Philippine government is willing to increase
the contribution of renewables, coal-fired power plant developments are still
being pursued as the cheaper power generation option.

Natural gas currently (16 per cent of the installed capacity) is solely generated
by the Malampaya Gas field. However, this field is set to be depleted by 2024.
Natural gas pipelines and terminal facilities are therefore being considered to
allow for importation.

Renewables (33 per cent of installed capacity) are largely hydro and
geothermal. The Philippines is the second largest producer of geothermal
energy in the world, next to the US. According to DOE, 344 hydropower
projects have been approved and awarded, with a potential capacity of 7.4
GW. A further 191 hydropower projects are pending. However, reliability
remains a challenge due to the Philippines being the third country most prone
to natural disasters in the world. The National Renewable Energy Program
(NREP) seeks to increase the RE-based capacity of the country to an
estimated 15,304MW by 2030, almost triple its 2010 level.

Nuclear energy does not form part of the current energy mix and this will
remain the case unless the Bataan nuclear power plant is rehabilitated.

REFLECTION:
For me, like many developing countries, especially those in Asia, the
Philippines needs to respond and recover fast to the economic impacts and
human devastation of the COVID-19 pandemic. Investing in climate-proof,
economically smart renewable energy will put the country on the right path.
Rather than continuing to rely on unstable, polluting fossil fuels, the
Philippines has an opportunity to embrace the support of the private sector and
the public, lead among its peers in the region, and chart a bold path toward a
renewable energy future.
Topic V. Earth Processes
Exogenic forces, often known as external forces, are those that originate in or
draw power from the earth’s atmosphere or outer atmosphere. Those process
that happens on the surface of the earth under the influence of Exogenic
forces is known as the Exogenic process. The effects of exogenic forces can
include weathering, erosion, and deposition.

 The breaking of rocks on the surface of the earth by various forces,

such as rivers, wind, sea waves, and glaciers, is known as
weathering. The movement of shattered rocks from one location to
another by natural forces like wind, water, and glaciers is known as
erosion.

Endogenic forces are those internal forces that draw strength from the
interior of the earth and are essential in forming the earth’s crust. The
primary driving force behind endogenic geomorphic processes is energy
coming from within the ground. The primary sources of this energy are
radioactivity, friction caused by tidal and rotational motion, and primordial
heat from the earth’s formation.

ARTICLE:
Endogenic (or endogenetic) factors are agents supplying energy for actions
that are located within the earth. Endogenic factors have origins located well
below the earth’s surface. The term is applied, for example, to volcanic
origins of landforms, but it is also applied to the original chemical
precipitates. Exogenic (or exogenetic) factors are agents supplying energy for
actions that are located at or near the earth’s surface. Exogenic factors are
usually driven by gravity or atmospheric forces. The term is commonly
applied to various processes such as weathering, denudation, mass wasting,
etc. In coastal science, these factors may be illustrated in two significant
applications. One is the classification of coastlines and the other is the
discussion of sea-level variations.

REFLECTION:
In this lesson, I have learned that the endogenic process happens internally,
which means it happens and is primarily affected by the Earth's forces. This
process involves the creation and transformation inside the earth or below the
Earth's surface (like earthquakes and volcanic eruptions) of landmasses while
the exogenic process happens externally, which means it happens outside the
earth or above the Earth's surface (like weathering and erosion) and is
primarily affected by outside forces or what we call "geomorphic agents" (just
like the wind and sun's radiation). We can say that these events involve the
modification/change of the landmasses.
TOPIC IV. History of the Earth
The mechanism for the breakup of Pangea is now explained in terms
of plate tectonics rather than Wegener’s outmoded concept of
continental drift, which simply stated that Earth’s continents were
once joined together into the supercontinent Pangea that lasted for
most of geologic time. Plate tectonics states that Earth’s outer shell,
or lithosphere, consists of large rigid plates that move apart at oceanic
ridges, come together at subduction zones, or slip past one another
along fault lines. The pattern of seafloor spreading indicates that
Pangea did not break apart all at once but rather fragmented in
distinct stages. Plate tectonics also postulates that the continents
joined with one another and broke apart several times in Earth’s
geologic history.

ARTICLE:
ARTICLE:
Pangea, also spelled Pangaea , in early geologic time, a
supercontinent that incorporated almost all the landmasses on Earth.
Pangea was surrounded by a global ocean called Panthalassa, and it
was fully assembled by the Early Permian Epoch (some 299 million
to about 273 million years ago). The supercontinent began to break
apart about 200 million years ago, during the Early Jurassic
Epoch (201 million to 174 million years ago), eventually forming the
modern continents and the Atlantic and Indian oceans. Pangea’s
existence was first proposed in 1912 by German meteorologist Alfred
Wegener as a part of his theory of continental drift. Its name
is derived from the Greek pangaia, meaning “all the Earth.”

REFLECTION:
Earth will always be the most accessible habitable planet for study.
As a Filipino student, studying the origin and earliest evolution of
life, along with the long-term evolution of the Earth's environments,
helps me understand why the Earth became habitable and why
terrestrial life has persisted for billions of years.