Compiled By:

Er. Ranjan Raj Aryal

Amrit Campus

Unit 7: Function Templates and Exception Handling [4hrs]

Template

 Template is a new concept which enable us to define generic class es and functions and
thus provides support for generic programming.
 Generic programming is an approach where generic types are used as parameters in
algorithms so that they work for a variety of suitable data types and data structures.
 A template can be used to create a family of classes or functions.
 Since the template is defined with a parameter that would be replaced by a specified data
type at the time of actual use of the class or function, the templates are sometimes called
parameterized classes or function.
Format:
template<class T>
class class_name
{
………………. //class member
………………. // specifications with
………………. // anonymous type T
………………. // where or appropriate
};
Example:
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
template<class T1>
class Test
{
T1 a;
public:
void add (T1 x, T1 y)
{
a=x+y;
}
void mul(T1 x, T1 y)
{
a = x * y;
}
void div(T1 x, T1 y)
{
a = x/y;
}
void sub(T1 x, T1 y)
{
a = x -y;
}
void show()

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 Compiled By:
Er. Ranjan Raj Aryal
Amrit Campus

{
cout<<a<<"\n";
}
};
int main()
{
Test <float> testf;
Test <int> testi;
testf.add(5.23,6.43);testf.show();
testf.div(6.4,2.0);testf.show();
testi.mul(20,32); testi.show();
testi.sub(200,150); testi.show();
return 0;
}
Output

Class Template with multiple parameters:

template <class T1, class T2, ……..>
class class_name
{
……………….
……………….
………………. // Body of the class
……………….
};
Example
#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
template <class T1, class T2>
class Test
{
T1 a;
T2 b;
public:
Test (T1 x, T2 y)
{
a = x;
b = y;
}
void show()
{
cout<<a<<" and "<<b<<"\n";

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 Compiled By:
Er. Ranjan Raj Aryal
Amrit Campus

}
};
int main()
{
Test<float, int> test1(1.23,123);
Test<int,char>test2(100,'W');
test1.show();
test2.show();
return 0;
}
Output

Function Templates:
template<class T>
returntype functionname (arguments of type t)
{
……………………..
…………………….. // Body of function with type T
……………………..
…………………….. // Wherever appropriate
}

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

template <class T>

void swap1(T &x, T &y)
{
T temp = x;
x = y;
y = temp;
}

void fun (int m, int n, float a, float b)

{
cout <<"m and n before swap: "<<m<<" "<<n<<"\n";
swap1 (m,n);
cout <<"m and n after swap: "<<m<<" "<<n<<"\n";

cout <<"a and b before swap: "<<a<<" "<<b<<"\n";

swap1(a,b);
cout <<"a and b after swap: "<<a<<" "<<b<<"\n";

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 Compiled By:
Er. Ranjan Raj Aryal
Amrit Campus

int main()
{
fun(100,200,11.22,33.44);
return 0;
}

Function Templates with multiple parameters:

Template<class T1, class T2, ………>
returntype functionname (arguments of types T1, T2….)
{
……………………..
…………………….. // Body of function with type T
……………………..
}
Example

#include<iostream>
#include<string.h>
using namespace std;
template<class T1, class T2>
void display (T1 x, T2 y)
{
cout<< x << " " <<y <<"\n";
}
int main ()
{
display (2022, "NEPAL");
display (12.34, 1234);
return 0;
}

Overloading of template functions:

A template function may be overloaded either by template function or ordinary functions of its
name. In such cases, the overloading resolution is accomplished as follows:
1. Call an ordinary function that has an exact match.
2. Call a template function that could be created with an exact match.
3. Try normal overloading resolution to ordinary functions and call the one that matches.

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 Compiled By:
Er. Ranjan Raj Aryal
Amrit Campus

Example:
#include<iostream>
#include<string.h>
using namespace std;
template<class T>
void display (T x)
{
cout<<”Template display:”<<x<<”\n”;
}
void display (int x)
{
cout<<”Explicity display:”<<x<<”\n”;
}
int main()
{
display (100);
display(12.34);
display (‘C’);
return 0;
}

Type conversion using Template:

/*----------Rectangle to polar using Template and one class to another class type conversion using
the concept of Template--------------*/
#include<iostream>
#include<math.h>
using namespace std;
template<class T>
class rectangle
{ T x;
T y;
public:
rectangle(T a,T b)
{ x=a;
y=b;
}
T get_x()
{ return(x);
}
T get_y()
{ return(y);
}

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 Compiled By:
Er. Ranjan Raj Aryal
Amrit Campus

};
template <class T1>
class polar
{
T1 radius;
T1 thita;
public:
polar(){ }
polar(rectangle <float> r)
{ T1 tempx=r.get_x();
T1 tempy=r.get_y();
radius = sqrt(tempx*tempx + tempy*tempy);
thita = atan(tempy/tempx);
}

void show()
{ cout<<"radius is:"<<radius<<endl;
cout<<"thita is:"<<thita*(180/3.14);
}
};
int main()
{
rectangle <float> r(6.0,9.0);
polar <float> p(r);
p.show();

return 0;
}

Exception Handling
 The two most common types of bugs are logic errors and syntactic errors
 The logic errors occur due to poor understanding of the problem and solution procedure
 The syntactic error occurs due to poor understanding of the language itself
 We often come across with some peculiar problems other than logic or syntax errors. They are
known as exceptions.
 Exceptions are runtime anomalies or unusual conditions that a program may encounter while
executing
 Anomalies might include conditions such as division by zero, access to an array outside of its
bounds or running out of memory or disk space.
 Exception handling is a new feature added to ANSI C++

Basics of Exception Handling

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 Compiled By:
Er. Ranjan Raj Aryal
Amrit Campus

 The purpose of exception handling mechanism is to provide means to detect and report an
“exceptional Circumstances” so that appropriate actions can be taken.
 This mechanism suggests the following tasks:
o 1. Find the problem (Hit the exception)
o 2. Inform that an error has occurred (Throw the exception)
o 3. Receive the error information (catch the exception)
o 4. Take corrective actions (Handle the exception)
 “ try “
 The keyword try is used to preface a block of statements which may generate
exceptions.
 “ throw “
 When an exception is detected, it is thrown using a throw statement in the try block
 “ catch “
 “ catch “ catches the exceptions thrown by the throw statement in the try block.

Note: The catch block that catches the exceptions must immediately follow the try block that throws the
exception.

General form:

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 Compiled By:
Er. Ranjan Raj Aryal
Amrit Campus

--------------

--------------

try {

---------

---------

Throw exception; // block of statements which detects and throw an exception

----------

----------

catch(type argument) // catches exception

----------

----------- //Block of statements that handles the exception

---------

----------

Example

#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
int main()
{

int a,b;
cout<<"Enter values of a and b\n";
cin>>a>>b;
int x = a - b;
try{
if(x!=0)
{
cout<<"Result(a/x)="<<a/x<<"\n";
}

else{
throw(x);
}

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 Compiled By:
Er. Ranjan Raj Aryal
Amrit Campus

}
catch(int i)
{
cout<<"Exception caught : x= "<<x<<"\n";
}
cout<<"END" ;
return 0;
}

Throw Point outside “ try “ block

type function(arg list) // function with exception

{
…….
…….
throw (object); // throws exception
…….

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 Compiled By:
Er. Ranjan Raj Aryal
Amrit Campus

…….
}
try
{

…..
….. invoke function here
…..
}
catch (type arg) // catches exception
{
…….
……. Handles exception here
…….

Note: The try block is immediately followed by the catch block, irrespective of the location of the throw
point. In the below program show how a try block invokes a function that generates an exception
/* Throw point outside the try block */
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
void divide(int x, int y, int z)
{
cout << "\n we are inside the function \n";
if((x-y)!=0) // it is ok
{
int r=z/(x-y);
cout << "Result= " << r <<"\n";
}

else // There is a problem

{

throw(x-y); // throw point

}
}
int main()
{
try
{

cout << "we are inside the try block \n";

divide(10,20,30); // invoke divide()
divide(10,10,20); // invoke divide()
}
catch(int i)
{
cout << "caught The exception \n";

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 Compiled By:
Er. Ranjan Raj Aryal
Amrit Campus

}
}

Multiple Catch Statement

 It is possible that a program segment has more than one condition to throw an
exception
 In such cases, we can associate more than one catch statement with a ‘ try ‘.
Example:
#include<iostream>

using namespace std;

void test(int x)

try

if(x==1) throw x; // int

else

if(x==0) throw 'x'; // char

else

if(x==-1) throw 1; // double

cout<<"END of try block \n";

catch(char c) // catch 1

cout << "caught a character \n";

catch(int m) // catch 2

cout << "caught an integer \n";

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 Compiled By:
Er. Ranjan Raj Aryal
Amrit Campus

catch(double d) // catch 3

cout << "caught a double \n";

cout << "End of try catch system \n\n";

int main()

cout << "Testing multiple catches \n";

cout << "x==1 \n";

test(1);

cout << "X==0 \n";

test(0);

cout << "X==-1 \n";

test(-1);

cout << "x==2 \n";

test(2);

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 Compiled By:
Er. Ranjan Raj Aryal
Amrit Campus

Catch All Exceptions

 Catch Catches all exceptions, irrespective of their type.

Example

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
void test(int x)
{
try
{
if (x==0) throw x;
if (x==-1) throw 'x';
if (x==1) throw 1.0;
}
catch (...)
{
cout << "Caught an exception \n";
}
}
int main()
{
cout << "Testing generic catch \n";
test(-1);
test(0);
test(1);
return 0;
}

Rethrowing an Exception
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
void divide(double x, double y)
{
cout << "Inside function \n";
try
{
if (y==0.0)
throw y; // throwing double
else
cout << "Division=" << x/y << "\n";
}
catch (double)

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 Compiled By:
Er. Ranjan Raj Aryal
Amrit Campus

// catch a double
{
cout << "caught double inside function \n";
throw ; // re-throwing double
}
cout << "End of function \n \n";
}
int main()
{
cout << "Inside main \n";
try
{
divide(10.5,2.0);
divide(20.0,0.0);
}
catch (double)
{
cout << "Caught double inside main \n";
}
cout << "End of main \n";
return 0;
}

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