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vardhansinghharsh33021. What is C programming?
[BCA-2016,2018,2019]
programming isa general-purpose, procedural programminglanguage that provides
C
low-level access to system memory,
Key points about C programming:
rocedural:
P
Instructions are executed in a sequential manner, following a set of procedures.
Low-level access:
Can directly interact with system memory and hardware, giving fine-grained control.
Widely used:
Commonly used for developing operating systems (like Unix), device drivers, and
embedded systems.
Efficient:
Considered one of the fastest programming languages due to its close connection to
machine code.
Learning curve:
Can be challenging for beginners due to its manual memory management and
low-level features.
2. What are the features or characteristics of C? [BCA-2016,2018]
Simplicity: C has a straightforward syntax, makingit easy to learn and use.
Efficiency: Provides high performance and enablesdirect interaction with hardware.
Portability: Programs written in C can run on differentplatforms with minimal changes.
Low-Level Access: Supports memory manipulation throughpointers, offering
fine-grained control.
Structured Programming: Encourages modular programmingby dividing code into
functions.
Rich Library Support: Includes a robust standard librarywith numerous built-in
functions.
Wide Application Range: Used in system programming,embedded systems, and
performance-critical software.
Extensibility: Allows integration with other programminglanguages and tools.
Dynamic Memory Allocation: Enables efficient use ofmemory through functions like
malloc and free.
Foundation for Modern Languages: Forms the basis oflanguages like C++, Java, and
Python.
3. Why C is called a Mid-level programming language? [BCA-2016,2019]
is called amid-level programming languagebecauseit combines the features of
C
both low-level and high-level languages:
1. Low-Level Features:
○ Provides direct access to hardware and memory through pointers.
○ Enables system-level programming, such as writing operating systems
and drivers.
2. High-Level Features:
○ Supports structured programming, functions, and modular code design.
○ Offers a rich standard library and easier syntax compared to assembly
language.
his dual nature makes C versatile, allowing programmers to write efficient,
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hardware-focused code while maintaining readability and portability, bridging the gap
between machine-level and high-level programming.
4. Explain a brief history of C.
C was developed byDennis Ritchieat Bell Labs inthe early 1970s. It evolved from the
B language, which was created by Ken Thompson. Initiallydesigned for developing the
UNIX operating system, C became popular due to its efficiency, portability, and ability to
write system-level programs. The first standardized version of C, known asK&R C, was
introduced in 1978 with the bookThe C ProgrammingLanguageby Kernighan and
Ritchie. Later, theANSI C standardwas establishedin 1989 to ensure uniformity across
platforms, making C a foundation for modern programming languages.
5. Explain the general structure of C. [BCA-2016,2018,2019]
The general structure of a C program includes the following components:
#include
1. Preprocessor Directives: Includes header files andmacros (e.g.,
stdio.h>
< ).
.
2 Global Declarations: Defines global variables andfunction prototypes.
3. Main Function: The entry point of the program ( intmain() ), where execution
starts.
.
4 Variable Declarations: Declares variables and initializesthem as needed.
5. Statements and Logic: Contains the main logic, includingloops, conditional
statements, and function calls.
6. Functions: User-defined or library functions to organizeand reuse code.
This modular structure ensures readability, reusability, and maintainability in C programs.
6. Explain how can we execute a C program? [BCA-2016,2018,2019]
To execute a C program, follow these steps:
1. W rite the Code: Create a C program using a text editor(e.g., Notepad, VS
Code) and save the file with a .cextension (e.g.,
program.c ).
2. Compile the Code: Use a C compiler likeGCC(GNU CompilerCollection) to
compile the C code. This step converts the source code into machine-readable
code (an executable).
gcc program.c -o program
3. Link the Code: The compiler automatically links thenecessary libraries and
program
produces an executable file (e.g., ).
4. Execute the Program: Run the compiled executable fromthe terminal or
command prompt.
program.exe
hese steps will compile and execute your C program, displaying the output on
T
the screen.
7. What are the comments in c.
omments in C are used to add explanatory notes to the code, making it easier to understand
C
and maintain. They are ignored by the compiler and do not affect the program's execution.
There are two types of comments in C:
//and continue tothe end of the line.
1. Single-line comments: Begin with
// This is a single-line comment
2. M /*and end with
ulti-line comments: Begin with */
,allowing comments to span
multiple lines.
// This is a single-line comment
8. What is a token? Explain different types of C tokens. [BCA 2018,2019]
In C, atokenis the smallest unit of a program thathas meaningful interpretation by the
compiler. Tokens are the building blocks of C code. There are six types of tokens in C:
int
1. Keywords: Reserved words with special meaning (e.g., return
, if
, ).
. Identifiers: Names given to variables, functions, or other user-defined entities.
2
3. Constants: Fixed values, such as numbers ( 100 3.14
, )or characters (
'a'
).
+,
4. Operators: Symbols that perform operations (e.g., -,
* ==
, ).
. P
5 ;,
unctuation: Characters used to separate code components(e.g., {,
},
,).
6. String Literals: Sequences of characters enclosedin double quotes (e.g.,
"Hello, World!"
).
Tokens are essential for constructing valid C programs.
9. Explain the term variable and constants. Explain the types of constants. [BCA 2017,2019]
ariable:
V
Avariableis a named storage location in memory thatcan hold different values during
program execution. The value of a variable can be changed, and it must be declared
int
with a specific data type (e.g., float
, ).
onstant:
C
Aconstantis a value that cannot be modified duringprogram execution. Once
assigned, it remains fixed. Constants provide safety and clarity in the code by preventing
accidental changes.
Types of Constants:
10
1. Integer Constants: Whole numbers (e.g., -5
, 200
, ).
3.14
2. Floating-point Constants: Numbers with decimals (e.g., -0.5
, ).
'A'
3. Character Constants: Single characters enclosed insingle quotes (e.g., ,
1'
' ).
4. String Constants: Sequences of characters enclosedin double quotes (e.g.,
"Hello"
"C language"
, ).
onstants ensure values remain constant throughout the program and are often used for
C
fixed values like pi or max limits.
10. Explain escape sequence characters. [BCA 2016,2018,2019]
scape Sequence Charactersin C are special characters used to represent certain
E
actions or formatting in strings, often involving characters that are difficult to type directly.
They begin with a backslash (\)followed by a character. Here are some commonly used
escape sequences:
1.
\n
: Newline (moves the cursor to the next line).
2.
\t
: Tab (inserts a tab space).
3.
\\
: Backslash (inserts a literal backslash).
4.
\'
: Single quote (inserts a literal single quote).
5.
\"
: Double quote (inserts a literal double quote).
6.
\r
: Carriage return (moves the cursor to the beginning of the line).
7.
\b
: Backspace (moves the cursor one character back).
8.
\f
: Form feed (moves the cursor to the next page in printing).
9.
\0
: Null character (marks the end of a string).
hese escape sequences are essential for formatting output and handling special
T
characters in C programs.
11. What is Data Type? Explain various data types in C. [BCA-2016,2018.2019]
ata Type:
D
Adata typein C defines the type and size of data that can be stored in a variable. It
specifies the operations that can be performed on the data and determines the memory
required to store it.
Types of Data Types in C:
1. Basic Data Types:
10
○ int: Stores integers (e.g., -5
, ).
3.14
○ float: Stores floating-point numbers (e.g., -0.5
, ).
3.14159
○ double: Stores double-precision floating-point numbers (e.g., ).
char: Stores single characters (e.g.,
○ 'A' '1'
, ).
2. Derived Data Types:
○ Arrays: A collection of elements of the same data type.
○ Pointers: Stores the address of another variable.
○ Structures: A collection of different data types grouped together.
○ Unions: A collection where different data types share the same memory
location.
. Void Data Type:
3
○ v
oid: Represents no value or absence of type (e.g., function that doesn’t
return a value).
hese data types allow C programs to store and manipulate various types of data
T
efficiently.
12. What is an Operator? Explain various operators in C. [BCA-2016,2018,2019]
perator:
O
Anoperatorin C is a symbol used to perform operations on variables and values.
Operators allow manipulation of data and variables, enabling arithmetic, logical, and
relational operations in a program.
Types of Operators in C:
1. Arithmetic Operators: Perform basic mathematical operations.
○ +(Addition),
-(Subtraction),
*(Multiplication),
/(Division),
%(Modulus).
2. Relational Operators: Compare two values.
○
==(Equal to),!=(Not equal to),
>(Greater than), <(Less than),
>=
<=(Less than or equal to).
( Greater than or equal to),
3. Logical Operators: Used for logical operations, often in conditional statements.
○ &&(Logical AND),||(Logical OR), !(Logical NOT).
. Bitwise Operators: Perform bit-level operations.
4
○ &(Bitwise AND),
|(Bitwise OR),^(Bitwise XOR),~(Bitwise NOT),
<<
>>(Right shift).
(Left shift),
5. Assignment Operators: Assign values to variables.
○ =(Simple assignment), += -=
, *=
, /=
, %=(Compound assignment).
,
6. Increment/Decrement Operators: Increase or decrease the value of a variable
by 1.
○ ++(Increment), --(Decrement).
7. Conditional (Ternary) Operator: Shortened form of if-else.
○ ?:(Condition ? True_expression : False_expression).
8. Sizeof Operator: Returns the size of a data type or variable.
○ sizeof .
9. Pointer Operators: Used to access the address or value of a pointer.
○ &(Address of), *(Dereference).
hese operators are fundamental to performing calculations, comparisons, and
T
manipulating data in C programs.
13. Explain different types of input/output functions with syntax.[BCA-2016,2018,2019]
// Output Functions
// printf() - Prints formatted output
printf("format_string", argument1, argument2, ...);
// Example:
printf("Hello, World!\n");
// putchar() - Prints a single character
putchar(char);
// Example:
putchar('A');
// puts() - Prints a string followed by a newline
puts("string");
// Example:
puts("Hello, World!");
// Input Functions
// scanf() - Reads formatted input
scanf("format_string", &variable1, &variable2, ...);
// Example:
scanf("%d", &age);
// getchar() - Reads a single character
getchar();
// Example:
char ch = getchar();
// gets() - Reads a string until newline (not recommended for safety reasons)
gets(str);
// Example:
gets(name);
4. Explain different types of Flow control or Control structure or statements in C.
1
[BCA-2016,2019]
// Flow Control Statements in C
// 1. Sequential Control - Default execution (one after another)
// 2. Conditional Statements (Decision-making)
// if - Executes block of code if condition is true
if (condition) {
// code to execute
}
// if-else - Executes one block if condition is true, another if false
if (condition) {
// true code
} else {
// false code
}
// else-if - Checks multiple conditions
if (condition1) {
// code for condition1
} else if (condition2) {
// code for condition2
} else {
// code if no condition is true
}
// switch - Executes one block of code based on variable's value
switch (variable) {
case value1:
// code for value1
break;
case value2:
// code for value2
break;
default:
// default code
}
// 3. Looping Statements (Repetition)
// for - Repeats code a specified number of times
for (initialization; condition; increment) {
// code to execute
}
// while - Repeats code as long as condition is true
while (condition) {
// code to execute
}
// do-while - Repeats code at least once, then checks condition
do {
// code to execute
} while (condition);
// 4. Jump Statements
// break - Exits a loop or switch statement early
break;
// continue - Skips the current iteration of a loop and continues to the next
continue;
// return - Exits from a function and optionally returns a value
return value;
5. Explain Decision Making or Control Statement. [BCA 2018] Explain difference between
1
if-else and switch case statement.
Decision Making / Control Statements:
ecision-making statements in C allow the program to execute different code depending on
D
whether a condition is true or false. These control statements help in making decisions,
branching, and executing certain sections of code based on conditions.
Types of Decision Making Statements:
. if: Executes a block of code if the condition is true.
1
2. if-else: Executes one block of code if the conditionis true, another if false.
3. else-if: Checks multiple conditions and executes correspondingblocks.
4. s
witch-case: Compares a variable with different values (cases) and executes the
corresponding block of code.
if-elseand
Difference between switch-case
:
Aspect if-elseStatement
switch-caseStatement
Use Case est for complex conditions with
B est for selecting among a limited set
B
relational or logical comparisons. of options based on a single variable.
ondition
C an evaluate a wide range of
C ompares a variable against a series
C
Type conditions (comparisons, logical of constants or values.
operators).
Efficiency ess efficient for checking multiple
L ore efficient for handling many
M
conditions. possible values for a single variable.
Flexibility ore flexible, can handle complex
M ess flexible, only works with specific
L
conditions with different operators. constant values.
Example c if (x > 10) { /* code */ }
c switch(x) { case 1: /*
else { /* code */ }
code */ break; default: /*
code */ }
if-elsewhen you have complex conditionsor different types of comparisons,
In short, use
nd use
a switch-casewhen you need to compare a singlevariable with multiple constant
values.
16. Compare if-else with the ternary operator. [BCA 2017]
if-elseand Ternary Operator:
Comparison between
Aspect if-elseStatement
Ternary Operator (
?:
)
Syntax if (condition) { Compact:
More verbose: condition ?
/* code */ } else { /* code
true_expression :
*/ }
false_expression;
Use Case sed for multiple statements or more B
U est for simple conditions with one
complex logic. expression for both true/false.
Readability asier to read for complex
E ore concise but can be harder to
M
conditions. read for complex conditions.
xecution
E xecutes multiple statements for
E xecutes only one expression based
E
Flow each condition. on the condition.
Example if (x > 10) { y = 5; } else
y = (x > 10) ? 5 : 10;
{ y = 10; }
Key Differences:
● if-elseis used for more complex conditions and multiplestatements.
● Ternary operatoris a more compact way of writingsimpleif-elselogic in a single line.
if-elsefor more
In summary, use theternary operatorfor simpler,one-liner conditions, and
complex decision-making.
17. What is Loop? Explain all types of loops in C with an example. [BCA-2016,2017,2018]
// Loop in C
// A loop is a control structure that repeats a block of code as long as a condition is true.
// 1. for Loop
// The for loop is used when the number of iterations is known beforehand.
for (initialization; condition; increment/decrement) {
// code to execute
}
// Example:
for (int i = 0; i < 5; i++) {
printf("%d ", i); // Output: 0 1 2 3 4
}
// 2. while Loop
// The while loop executes the code block as long as the given condition is true.
// The condition is checked before each iteration.
while (condition) {
// code to execute
}
// Example:
int i = 0;
while (i < 5) {
printf("%d ", i); // Output: 0 1 2 3 4
i++;
}
// 3. do-while Loop
// The do-while loop guarantees at least one iteration because the condition is checked
after the code block is executed.
do {
// code to execute
} while (condition);
// Example:
int i = 0;
do {
printf("%d ", i); // Output: 0 1 2 3 4
i++;
} while (i < 5);
// Summary:
// - for loop: Best when the number of iterations is known.
// - while loop: Best when the condition is checked before the loop starts.
// - do-while loop: Ensures at least one iteration regardless of the condition.
8. Explain the difference between entry-controlled and exit-controlled loops with a suitable
1
example. [BCA 2019]
// Entry-Controlled vs Exit-Controlled Loops
// 1. Entry-Controlled Loop
// In an entry-controlled loop, the condition is checked before the loop body is executed.
// If the condition is false initially, the loop body is not executed at all.
// Example: for loop and while loop are entry-controlled
for (initialization; condition; increment) {
// loop body
}
// Example:
int i = 0;
while (i < 5) {
printf("%d ", i); // Output: 0 1 2 3 4
i++;
}
// Here, the condition i < 5 is checked before the loop body is executed. If false initially, the loop
won't run.
// 2. Exit-Controlled Loop
// In an exit-controlled loop, the condition is checked after the loop body is executed.
// This ensures the loop body executes at least once, even if the condition is false initially.
// Example: do-while loop is exit-controlled
do {
// loop body
} while (condition);
// Example:
int i = 0;
do {
printf("%d ", i); // Output: 0 1 2 3 4
i++;
} while (i < 5);
// Here, the loop body is executed first, and then the condition i < 5 is checked after each
iteration.
/* Summary:
- Entry-Controlled Loop: The condition is checked before the loop starts (e.g., `for`, `while`).
- Exit-Controlled Loop: The condition is checked after the loop body is executed (e.g.,
̀do-while`).
In an entry-controlled loop, the loop may not execute if the condition is false initially,
while in an exit-controlled loop, the loop will always execute at least once. */
19. What are jump statements? Explain. [BCA-2016,2017,2018]
// Jump Statements in C
// 1. break
// The break statement is used to exit from a loop or a switch statement prematurely.
for (int i = 0; i < 10; i++) {
if (i == 5) {
break; // Exits the loop when i equals 5
}
}
// 2. continue
// The continue statement skips the current iteration of a loop and moves to the next iteration.
for (int i = 0; i < 5; i++) {
if (i == 3) {
continue; // Skips the iteration when i equals 3
}
printf("%d ", i); // Output: 0 1 2 4
}
// 3. return
// The return statement is used to exit a function and optionally return a value.
int add(int a, int b) {
return a + b; // Exits the function and returns the result
}
// Summary:
// - break: Exits a loop or switch statement early.
// - continue: Skips the current loop iteration and moves to the next.
// - return: Exits from a function and optionally returns a value.
20. Write a program to check whether a number is perfect or not. [BCA-2018,2019]
Here's a C program to check whether a given number is aperfect numberor not:
perfect numberis a positive integer that is equalto the sum of its proper divisors, excluding
A
the number itself. For example, 6 is a perfect number because its divisors (excluding 6) are 1, 2,
and 3, and 1 + 2 + 3 = 6.
#include <stdio.h>
// Function to check if a number is perfect
int isPerfect(int num) {
int sum = 0;
// Find divisors and calculate the sum
for (int i = 1; i <= num / 2; i++) {
if (num % i == 0) {
sum += i;
}
}
// Check if sum of divisors equals the number
if (sum == num) {
return 1; // Perfect number
}
return 0; // Not a perfect number
}
int main() {
int num;
// Input number from the user
printf("Enter a number: ");
scanf("%d", &num);
// Check and output result
if (isPerfect(num)) {
printf("%d is a perfect number.\n", num);
} else {
printf("%d is not a perfect number.\n", num);
}
return 0;
}
Explanation:
● T isPerfect(int num)calculates the sumof all divisors of the given
he function
number (excluding the number itself).
num / 2
● It loops from 1 to numwithout a remainder
, checking if each numberdivides
(
num % i == 0 ). If it does, the divisor is added tothe sum.
A
● fter the loop, if the sum of divisors equals the original number, it is aperfect number.
● The mainfunction prompts the user for input and displayswhether the number is perfect
or not.
Example Output:
nter a number: 6
E
6 is a perfect number.
nter a number: 10
E
10 is not a perfect number.
21. Write a program to check whether a number is prime or not. [BCA 2016,2017]
Here is a C program to check whether a number is aprime numberor not:
prime numberis a number greater than 1 that hasno divisors other than 1 and itself. For
A
example, 7 is a prime number because it can only be divided by 1 and 7.
C Program:
#include <stdio.h>
// Function to check if a number is prime
int isPrime(int num) {
// Handle edge cases for numbers less than 2
if (num <= 1) {
return 0; // Not a prime number
}
// Check for divisors from 2 to sqrt(num)
for (int i = 2; i * i <= num; i++) {
if (num % i == 0) {
return 0; // Not a prime number
}
}
return 1; // Prime number
}
int main() {
int num;
// Input number from the user
printf("Enter a number: ");
scanf("%d", &num);
// Check and output result
if (isPrime(num)) {
rintf("%d is a prime number.\n", num);
p
} else {
printf("%d is not a prime number.\n", num);
}
return 0;
}
Explanation:
isPrime(int num)checks if a number isprime.
● The function
0(not prime).
● For numbers less than or equal to 1, it returns
● It then checks if the number is divisible by any integer from 2 to sqrt(num)(this
optimization reduces unnecessary checks).
● If the number has a divisor other than 1 and itself, it is not prime.
● The mainfunction reads input from the user and callsthe
isPrimefunction to
determine whether the number is prime.
Here is a C program to check whether a number is aprime numberor not:
prime numberis a number greater than 1 that hasno divisors other than 1 and itself. For
A
example, 7 is a prime number because it can only be divided by 1 and 7.
C Program:
#include <stdio.h>
// Function to check if a number is prime
int isPrime(int num) {
// Handle edge cases for numbers less than 2
if (num <= 1) {
return 0; // Not a prime number
}
// Check for divisors from 2 to sqrt(num)
for (int i = 2; i * i <= num; i++) {
if (num % i == 0) {
return 0; // Not a prime number
}
}
return 1; // Prime number
}
int main() {
int num;
// Input number from the user
printf("Enter a number: ");
scanf("%d", &num);
// Check and output result
if (isPrime(num)) {
printf("%d is a prime number.\n", num);
} else {
printf("%d is not a prime number.\n", num);
}
return 0;
}
Explanation:
isPrime(int num)checks if a number isprime.
● The function
0(not prime).
● For numbers less than or equal to 1, it returns
● It then checks if the number is divisible by any integer from 2 to sqrt(num)(this
optimization reduces unnecessary checks).
● If the number has a divisor other than 1 and itself, it is not prime.
● The mainfunction reads input from the user and callsthe
isPrimefunction to
determine whether the number is prime.
Example Output:
nter a number: 7
E
7 is a prime number.
nter a number: 10
E
10 is not a prime number.
22. Write a program to find the factorial of a number.[BCA 2019]
#include <stdio.h>
// Function to find factorial of a number
int factorial(int num) {
int fact = 1;
// Calculate factorial
for (int i = 1; i <= num; i++) {
fact *= i;
}
return fact;
}
int main() {
int num;
// Input number from the user
printf("Enter a number: ");
scanf("%d", &num);
// Check for negative numbers
if (num < 0) {
printf("Factorial of a negative number doesn't exist.\n");
} else {
// Find and output factorial
printf("Factorial of %d is %d\n", num, factorial(num));
}
return 0;
}
Explanation:
● T he factorial(int num)function now returns an inttype. Since the int
type is typically suitable for smaller factorial values (up to 12!), it's appropriate if
the user is working with relatively small numbers.
● If the number is negative, the program informs the user that the factorial of a
negative number doesn't exist.
● The program computes the factorial using a loop and returns the result as an
integer.
xample Output:
E
Enter a number: 5
Factorial of 5 is 120
nter a number: 7
E
Factorial of 7 is 5040
nter a number: -3
E
Factorial of a negative number doesn't exist.
3. What is an Array? How is it different from an ordinary variable? Discuss rules to declare a
2
one-dimensional array. [BCA-2016]
Array in C
narrayin C is a collection of variables of thesame type that are stored in contiguous memory
A
locations. Arrays allow you to store multiple values in a single variable, making it easier to
manage and manipulate related data. For example, you can store multiple integers, floats, or
characters in an array, rather than creating multiple variables for each value.
Difference Between an Array and an Ordinary Variable
1. Single vs. Multiple Values:
○ Anordinary variableholds onlyone valueof a specifiedtype at a time (e.g., an
intcan store only a single integer).
○ Anarrayholdsmultiple valuesof the same type, whereeach value is accessed
using anindex.
2. Memory Allocation:
○ Anordinary variableis allocated memory for one element.
○ Anarrayallocates memory for multiple elements, basedon its size. Each
element is stored in contiguous memory locations.
3. Access:
○ Anordinary variableis accessed directly by its name.
○ Anarrayis accessed using an index that specifiesthe position of the element
arr[0]
within the array (e.g., arr[1]
, ).
4. Flexibility:
○ Anordinary variablecan only store one value at atime.
○ Anarraycan store many values, and those values canbe accessed and
manipulated individually.
Declaring a One-Dimensional Array
one-dimensional array is essentially a list of elements stored in contiguous memory. Here's
A
how to declare a one-dimensional array in C:
Syntax:
data_type array_name[array_size];
data_type
int
: The type of data the array will hold (e.g., float
, char
, ).
array_name
arr
: The name of the array (e.g., ).
rray_size
a : The number of elements in the array (this should be a constant value or a
variable).
Rules for Declaring a One-Dimensional Array:
1. T ype of Elements: All elements in an array must beof the same data type (e.g., all
integers, all floats).
2. Array Size: The size of the array must be specifiedduring declaration (except in the
case of dynamic arrays where the size can be defined at runtime).
3. Indexing: The elements of the array are accessed usingzero-based indexing (i.e., the
first element is at index0 1,etc.).
, the second element atindex
4. Memory Allocation: The size of the array determineshow much memory will be
allocated to store its elements.
Example of One-Dimensional Array Declaration:
#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
// Declaring a one-dimensional array of integers with 5 elements
int arr[5];
// Initializing the array
arr[0] = 10;
arr[1] = 20;
arr[2] = 30;
arr[3] = 40;
arr[4] = 50;
// Accessing and printing array elements
for (int i = 0; i < 5; i++) {
printf("arr[%d] = %d\n", i, arr[i]);
}
return 0;
}
Explanation:
i
● nt arr[5];declares an integer array arrwith 5 elements.
● Each element of the array is assigned a value.
forloop is used to print the elements of the array.
● A
Summary:
● A narrayis a collection of elements of the same type,stored in contiguous memory
locations.
● Unlike anordinary variable, an array can store multiplevalues of the same type.
● The rules for declaring a one-dimensional array include specifying the type, name, and
size of the array.
4. What do you mean by an Array? What are the different types of Array? Explain the merits
2
and demerits of array.[BCA 2018, BCA MJ-1 2022]
Array in C (Short Summary)
narrayin C is a collection of variables of thesame type stored in contiguous memory
A
locations. It allows you to store multiple values in a single variable and access them using an
index.
Types of Arrays:
1. O ne-Dimensional Array (1D): A list of elements of the same type.
int arr[5] = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5};
2. Two-Dimensional Array (2D): A matrix with rows and columns.
int arr[3][3] = {{1, 2, 3}, {4, 5, 6}, {7, 8, 9}};
3. Multi-Dimensional Array: Arrays with more than two dimensions.
4. Dynamic Array: Arrays whose size is determined at runtime.
int *arr = (int*) malloc(n * sizeof(int)); // Dynamic 1D array
Merits of Arrays:
.
1 fficient Access: Fast access to elements via index.
E
2. Easy Use: Simplifies managing related data.
3. Memory Efficient: Fixed size can be memory-efficient.
4. Supports Multi-Dimensional Data: Useful for matrices,grids.
5. Easy Iteration: Simplifies operations like searching and sorting.
Demerits of Arrays:
.
1 ixed Size: Size must be known at declaration time.
F
2. Memory Wastage: Extra space may be unused.
3. Difficult Insertion/Deletion: Operations can be inefficient.
4. Limited Flexibility: Not as flexible as dynamic structures(e.g., linked lists).
5. Risk of Overflow: Accessing out-of-bounds elementscauses errors.
Arrays are essential in C but have limitations in flexibility and dynamic use.
5. What is a two-dimensional array? How it is different from a one-dimensional array? Give
2
Syntax. [BCA 2019]
Two-Dimensional Array in C
two-dimensional arrayis an array of arrays thatrepresents data in a tabular or matrix form,
A
where data is organized in rows and columns. Each element in a 2D array is accessed using
two indices: one for the row and one for the column.
Difference Between One-Dimensional and Two-Dimensional Arrays
Aspect One-Dimensional Array Two-Dimensional Array
Structure Represents a list of elements. epresents a table or matrix (rows &
R
columns).
Access ccessed using a single index
A ccessed using two indices (e.g.,
A
arr[i]
(e.g., ). arr[i][j]
).
emory
M lements are stored in contiguous R
E ows are stored as 1D arrays in
Layout memory. contiguous memory.
Example int arr[5];(list of integers).
nt arr[2][3];(2 rows and 3
i
columns).
Syntax of a Two-Dimensional Array
c
Copy code
data_type array_name[rows][columns];
●
data_type int
: The type of data to be stored (e.g., float
, char
, ).
●
array_name
: The name of the array.
●
rows
: The number of rows in the array.
●
columns
: The number of columns in the array.
Example Program for 2D Array
#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
int arr[2][3] = {{1, 2, 3}, {4, 5, 6}};
// Displaying elements of the 2D array
printf("Elements of the 2D array are:\n");
for (int i = 0; i < 2; i++) {
for (int j = 0; j < 3; j++) {
printf("%d ", arr[i][j]);
}
printf("\n");
}
return 0;
}
Explanation:
int arr[2][3];creates a 2D array with2 rows and 3 columns.
1. Declaration:
arr[2][3] = {{1, 2, 3}, {4, 5, 6}};initializes the array with
2. Initialization:
values.
arr[i][j]
3. Accessing Elements: Each element is accessed using iis the row
, where
jis the column index.
index and
Output:
lements of the 2D array are:
E
1 2 3
4 5 6
This demonstrates how to work with two-dimensional arrays in C.
6. Write a program to find the sum of left and right diagonal elements of a square matrix/2D
2
array.[BCA 2016,2018]
ere’s a C program to find the sum of the left and right diagonal elements of a square matrix:
H
#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
int n;
// Input size of the square matrix
printf("Enter the size of the square matrix: ");
scanf("%d", &n);
int matrix[n][n];
int leftDiagonalSum = 0, rightDiagonalSum = 0;
// Input elements of the matrix
printf("Enter the elements of the %dx%d matrix:\n", n, n);
for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
for (int j = 0; j < n; j++) {
scanf("%d", &matrix[i][j]);
}
}
// Calculate the sums of the left and right diagonals
for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
leftDiagonalSum += matrix[i][i]; // Left diagonal: matrix[i][i]
rightDiagonalSum += matrix[i][n - i - 1]; // Right diagonal: matrix[i][n-i-1]
}
// Output the results
printf("Sum of left diagonal: %d\n", leftDiagonalSum);
printf("Sum of right diagonal: %d\n", rightDiagonalSum);
return 0;
}
Explanation:
1. Matrix Input:
○ The user is prompted to enter the size of the square matrix (
n).
○ The elements of the n x nmatrix are input row byrow.
2. Diagonal Calculations:
○ Left Diagonal: The elements where the row index equalsthe column index
(
m
atrix[i][i] ).
○ R ight Diagonal: The elements where the row index and column index sum to
n-1(
m
atrix[i][n-i-1] ).
3. Output:
○ The program prints the sums of the left and right diagonals.
Example Input/Output:
Input:
nter the size of the square matrix: 3
E
Enter the elements of the 3x3 matrix:
1 2 3
4 5 6
7 8 9
utput:
O
Sum of left diagonal: 15
Sum of right diagonal: 15
This program handles square matrices and calculates the diagonal sums efficiently.
7. Write a program to find the transpose of a square matrix of 3x3 order. [BCA 2019]
2
Here’s a C program to find the transpose of a 3x3 square matrix:
#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
int matrix[3][3], transpose[3][3];
// Input the 3x3 matrix
printf("Enter the elements of the 3x3 matrix:\n");
for (int i = 0; i < 3; i++) {
for (int j = 0; j < 3; j++) {
scanf("%d", &matrix[i][j]);
}
}
// Calculate the transpose of the matrix
for (int i = 0; i < 3; i++) {
for (int j = 0; j < 3; j++) {
transpose[j][i] = matrix[i][j];
}
}
// Output the original matrix
rintf("\nOriginal Matrix:\n");
p
for (int i = 0; i < 3; i++) {
for (int j = 0; j < 3; j++) {
printf("%d ", matrix[i][j]);
}
printf("\n");
}
// Output the transposed matrix
printf("\nTranspose of the Matrix:\n");
for (int i = 0; i < 3; i++) {
for (int j = 0; j < 3; j++) {
printf("%d ", transpose[i][j]);
}
printf("\n");
}
return 0;
}
Explanation:
1. Matrix Input:
○ The user enters the elements of a 3x3 matrix, row by row.
2. Transpose Calculation:
○ The transpose of a matrix is obtained by swapping rows and columns. For each
matrix[i][j]
element , the transposed element is storedas
ranspose[j][i]
t .
3. Display Results:
○ The original matrix is printed first, followed by the transposed matrix.
Example Input/Output:
Input:
nter the elements of the 3x3 matrix:
E
1 2 3
4 5 6
7 8 9
utput:
O
Original Matrix:
1 2 3
4 5 6
7 8 9
ranspose of the Matrix:
T
1 4 7
2 5 8
3 6 9
This program efficiently computes and displays the transpose of a 3x3 matrix.
28. What is a string? Explain all types of string functions with examples.[BCA 2016,2017,2018]
What is a String in C?
In C, astringis a sequence of characters terminatedwith a null character (
\0). Strings are
typically stored as arrays of characters. For example:
char str[] = "Hello";
strcontains the characters
Here, the string 'H' 'e'
, 'l'
, 'l'
, 'o'
, , and the null character
\0automatically added by the compiler.
Types of String Functions in C
<string.h>library. Below are some
provides various functions to manipulate strings in the
C
commonly used string functions with examples:
strlen()- String Length
1.
P
● urpose: Returns the length of a string (excludingthe null character).
size_t strlen(const char *str);
● Syntax:
● Example:
include <stdio.h>
#
#include <string.h>
int main() {
char str[] = "Hello";
printf("Length of string: %lu\n", strlen(str));
return 0;
}
Output:Length of string: 5
strcpy()- String Copy
2.
P
● urpose: Copies one string to another.
char *strcpy(char *dest, const char *src);
● Syntax:
● Example:
include <stdio.h>
#
#include <string.h>
int main() {
char src[] = "World";
char dest[10];
strcpy(dest, src);
printf("Copied string: %s\n", dest);
return 0;
}
Output: Copied string: World
strcat()- String Concatenation
3.
P
● urpose: Appends one string to another.
char *strcat(char *dest, const char *src);
● Syntax:
● Example:
include <stdio.h>
#
#include <string.h>
int main() {
char str1[20] = "Hello, ";
char str2[] = "World!";
strcat(str1, str2);
printf("Concatenated string: %s\n", str1);
return 0;
}
Concatenated string: Hello, World!
Output:
strcmp()- String Comparison
4.
P
● urpose: Compares two strings lexicographically.
int strcmp(const char *str1, const char *str2);
● Syntax:
● Example:
include <stdio.h>
#
#include <string.h>
int main() {
char str1[] = "Hello";
char str2[] = "World";
if (strcmp(str1, str2) == 0)
printf("Strings are equal.\n");
else
printf("Strings are not equal.\n");
return 0;
}
Output: Strings are not equal.
strchr()- Find Character in String
5.
P
● urpose: Finds the first occurrence of a characterin a string.
char *strchr(const char *str, int c);
● Syntax:
● Example:
include <stdio.h>
#
#include <string.h>
int main() {
char str[] = "Hello";
char *ptr = strchr(str, 'e');
if (ptr)
printf("Character found at position: %ld\n", ptr - str);
else
printf("Character not found.\n");
return 0;
}
Character found at position: 1
Output:
strstr()- Find Substring
6.
P
● urpose: Finds the first occurrence of a substring in a string.
char *strstr(const char *haystack, const char
● Syntax: *needle);
● Example:
include <stdio.h>
#
#include <string.h>
int main() {
char str[] = "Hello, World!";
char *ptr = strstr(str, "World");
if (ptr)
printf("Substring found: %s\n", ptr);
else
printf("Substring not found.\n");
return 0;
}
Output: Substring found: World!
strrev()- Reverse String (Non-Standard)
7.
P
● <string.h>in standard C.)
urpose: Reverses a string.(Note: Not part of
● Example:
include <stdio.h>
#
#include <string.h>
void reverse(char *str) {
int len = strlen(str);
for (int i = 0; i < len / 2; i++) {
char temp = str[i];
str[i] = str[len - i - 1];
str[len - i - 1] = temp;
}
}
int main() {
char str[] = "Hello";
reverse(str);
printf("Reversed string: %s\n", str);
return 0;
}
Output: Reversed string: olleH
Summary Table
Function Purpose Example Usage
strlen( Finds the length of a string.
strlen(str)
)
strcpy( Copies one string to another.
strcpy(dest, src)
)
strcat( Concatenates two strings.
strcat(dest, src)
)
strcmp( Compares two strings.
strcmp(str1, str2)
)
strchr( Finds a character in a string.
strchr(str, 'a')
)
strstr( Finds a substring in a string.
strstr(str, "hello")
)
strrev( R
everses a string Custom implementation required.
)
(non-standard).
These string functions are widely used in C for string manipulation tasks.
9. Write a program to check whether a string is Palindrome. [BCA 2018]
2
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
int main() {
char str[100];
int length, isPalindrome = 1;
// Input string from the user
printf("Enter a string: ");
scanf("%s", str);
// Find the length of the string
length = strlen(str);
// Check if the string is a palindrome
for (int i = 0; i < length / 2; i++) {
if (str[i] != str[length - i - 1]) {
isPalindrome = 0; // Not a palindrome
break;
}
}
// Output the result
if (isPalindrome)
printf("The string \"%s\" is a Palindrome.\n", str);
else
printf("The string \"%s\" is not a Palindrome.\n", str);
return 0;
}
Explanation:
1. Input:
○ The program takes a string as input from the user.
strarray.
○ The input string is stored in the
2. Palindrome Check:
forloop, it compares characters from thebeginning (
○ Using a str[i]
) with
corresponding characters from the end (
str[length
- i - 1]
).
○ If any pair of characters do not match, the isPalindromeflag is set to 0,
indicating the string is not a palindrome.
3. Output:
○ If all characters match, the string is a palindrome.
○ Otherwise, it is not.
Example Input/Output:
Input 1:
Enter a string: radar
utput 1:
O
The string "radar" is a Palindrome.
Input 2:
Enter a string: hello
utput 2:
O
The string "hello" is not a Palindrome.
0. Write a program to check vowels, Consonants and white spaces in a given text/string. [BCA
3
2016,2017]
Here’s a C program to count the number of vowels, consonants, and white spaces in a given
text/string:
#include <stdio.h>
#include <ctype.h>
int main() {
char str[200];
int vowels = 0, consonants = 0, whiteSpaces = 0;
// Input the string
printf("Enter a string: ");
fgets(str, sizeof(str), stdin);
// Iterate through the string
for (int i = 0; str[i] != '\0'; i++) {
char ch = tolower(str[i]); // Convert character to lowercase for uniformity
if (ch == 'a' || ch == 'e' || ch == 'i' || ch == 'o' || ch == 'u') {
vowels++;
} else if ((ch >= 'a' && ch <= 'z')) {
consonants++;
} else if (ch == ' ') {
whiteSpaces++;
}
}
// Output the counts
printf("Vowels: %d\n", vowels);
printf("Consonants: %d\n", consonants);
printf("White Spaces: %d\n", whiteSpaces);
return 0;
}
Explanation:
1. Input:
○ The program uses fgets()to read a string from theuser, allowing spaces to be
included.
2. Processing:
forloop.
○ Each character in the string is processed using a
C
○ haracters are converted to lowercase using tolower()for easy comparison.
○ Conditions:
■ If the character is a vowel (a, e, i, o, u vowelscounter is
), the
incremented.
■ If the character is an alphabet (checked using ASCII values) but not a
vowel, it is counted as a consonant.
■ If the character is a space (
' ' whiteSpacescounter is
), the
incremented.
3. Output:
○ The program displays the counts of vowels, consonants, and white spaces.
31. Explain various functions used for reading and writing strings.
Functions for Reading and Writing Strings in C
provides several functions for reading and writing strings. Here’s a summary of the commonly
C
used functions:
scanf()
1.
P
● urpose: Reads a string input from the user.
● Syntax: scanf("%s", str);
● Key Points:
○ It stops reading at the first whitespace character.
○ Does not allow spaces in input.
● Example:
#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
char str[50];
printf("Enter a string: ");
scanf("%s", str);
printf("You entered: %s\n", str);
return 0;
}
gets()(Deprecated in C99 and Removed in C11)
2.
P
● urpose: Reads a line of text, including spaces.
● Syntax: gets(str);
● Key Points:
○ Vulnerable to buffer overflow, so its usage is discouraged.
● Example:
#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
char str[50];
rintf("Enter a string: ");
p
gets(str); // Unsafe function
printf("You entered: %s\n", str);
return 0;
}
fgets()
3.
● P urpose: Reads a string input from the user, includingspaces, with buffer overflow
protection.
● Syntax: fgets(str, size, stdin);
● Key Points:
○ Stops reading after a newline (
\n) or when the bufferis full.
○ Adds a newline character at the end of the string if not fully consumed.
● Example:
#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
char str[50];
printf("Enter a string: ");
fgets(str, sizeof(str), stdin);
printf("You entered: %s", str);
return 0;
}
printf()
4.
P
● urpose: Prints a string to the console.
● Syntax: printf("%s", str);
● Key Points:
○ Prints the entire string until the null character (
\0
).
● Example:
#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
char str[] = "Hello, World!";
printf("String: %s\n", str);
return 0;
}
puts()
5.
● Purpose: Writes a string to the console and adds anewline (
\n
) at the end.
S
● puts(str);
yntax:
● Key Points:
printf()for strings.
○ Safer and simpler alternative to
● Example:
#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
char str[] = "Hello, World!";
puts(str); // Automatically adds a newline
return 0;
}
fputs()
6.
P
● urpose: Writes a string to a file or standard outputwithout adding a newline.
● Syntax: fputs(str, stream);
● Key Points:
○ Does not append a newline like puts() .
● Example:
#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
char str[] = "Hello, World!";
fputs(str, stdout); // Output to the console
return 0;
}
Comparison of String Functions
Function Purpose Allows Adds Safety
paces
S Newline
scanf() R
eads a single No No Moderate
word
gets()
Reads a line Yes No Unsafe
fgets() Reads a line
Yes No Safe
printf( Prints a string
N/A No Safe
)
puts()
Prints a string N/A Yes Safe
fputs() Writes a string
N/A No Safe
Key Notes:
fgets()for reading strings safely, especiallywhen spaces are involved.
● Prefer
● U puts()or
se printf()for output, depending on whetheryou want a newline to be
added automatically.
2. Write a program to find the length of a string.[BCA 2019]
3
#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
char str[100];
int length = 0;
// Input string from user
printf("Enter a string: ");
fgets(str, sizeof(str), stdin);
// Calculate string length manually
for (int i = 0; str[i] != '\0'; i++) {
if (str[i] != '\n') { // Exclude the newline character if present
length++;
}
}
// Print the length of the string
printf("The length of the string is: %d\n", length);
return 0;
}
Explanation:
1. Input:
○ The program uses fgets()to read a string from theuser, allowing spaces and
limiting the input to the buffer size.
2. Processing:
○ The forloop iterates through each character of thestring.
○ It checks for the null terminator (
\0
) to determinethe end of the string.
A condition ensures the newline character (
○ \n
) isnot counted in the string length.
3. Output:
○ The total number of valid characters is printed as the length of the string.
Example Input/Output:
Input:
Enter a string: Hello, World!
utput:
O
The length of the string is: 13
his program calculates the length of a string manually without using library functions like
T
strlen()
.
33. Write a program to compare two strings.
include <stdio.h>
#
#include <string.h>
int main() {
char str1[100], str2[100];
int result;
// Input two strings from the user
printf("Enter the first string: ");
fgets(str1, sizeof(str1), stdin);
rintf("Enter the second string: ");
p
fgets(str2, sizeof(str2), stdin);
// Remove newline characters (if any) from strings
str1[strcspn(str1, "\n")] = '\0';
str2[strcspn(str2, "\n")] = '\0';
// Compare the two strings
result = strcmp(str1, str2);
// Print the comparison result
if (result == 0) {
printf("The strings are equal.\n");
} else if (result < 0) {
printf("The first string is less than the second string.\n");
} else {
printf("The first string is greater than the second string.\n");
}
return 0;
}
Explanation:
1. Input:
fgets()to input two strings, allowingspaces in the input.
○ The program uses
strcspn()function is used to remove the newlinecharacter (
○ The \n
) added by
gets()
f .
2. String Comparison:
○ The strcmp()function is used to compare the two strings.
○ Return Values:
■
0:Strings are equal.
■
< 0
: The first string is lexicographically smallerthan the second.
■
> 0
: The first string is lexicographically greaterthan the second.
3. Output:
○ The result of the comparison is displayed as a message indicating equality or
lexicographical order.
Example Input/Output:
Input 1:
nter the first string: apple
E
Enter the second string: banana
utput 1:
O
The first string is less than the second string.
Input 2:
Enter the first string: hello
Enter the second string: hello
utput 2:
O
The strings are equal.
strcmp()andhandles edge cases such
his program effectively compares two strings using
T
as trailing newline characters.
4. What is function? Explain the difference between user-defined and library (built-in) functions.
3
[BCA 2018, BCA MJ-1 2022]
What is a Function in C?
function is a block of code that performs a specific task and can be reused multiple times.
A
Functions are used to break down large programs into smaller, manageable sections, promoting
modularity and code reuse.
Types of Functions in C
. L
1 ibrary (Built-in) Functions: Predefined functionsprovided by C libraries.
2. User-defined Functions: Functions created by the programmer.
Difference Between User-defined and Library Functions
Feature Library (Built-in) Functions User-defined Functions
Definition redefined functions in C
P Defined by the programmer.
libraries.
Location ound in header files (e.g.,
F Located in the source code.
stdio.h
).
Examples printf()
scanf()
, , add()
Functions like factorial()
, .
strlen()
.
ode
C Directly available for use. Reused only after being defined.
Reusability
Complexity Simple and ready to use. Requires logic, design, and definition.
Performance Optimized for efficiency. erformance depends on
P
implementation.
Usage Used for common operations. sed for specific, custom
U
requirements.
Portability Standardized across systems. Must be rewritten in other projects.
Example of a Library Function
include <stdio.h>
#
#include <string.h>
int main() {
char str[] = "Hello";
printf("Length of string: %lu\n", strlen(str)); // Library function
return 0;
}
Example of a User-defined Function
#include <stdio.h>
// User-defined function to calculate the sum of two numbers
int add(int a, int b) {
return a + b;
}
int main() {
int result = add(10, 20);
printf("Sum: %d\n", result);
return 0;
}
Key Points
L
● ibrary functions save time and effort for common operations.
● User-defined functions provide flexibility to meet custom requirements.
5. What is function? Explain at least two categories of function with examples. [BCA 2019]
3
Refer Question#34
6. What is a recursion/recursive function [BCA 2019, BCA MJ-1 2022]? Write a program to find
3
the factorial of a number using function recursion. [BCA 2016,2018]
What is Recursion?
ecursion is a programming technique in which a function calls itself to solve a problem. The
R
function continues to call itself until a base case is reached, at which point the recursion stops,
and the results are combined or returned.
recursive functionis a function that calls itself to perform a task. It generally consists of two
A
main components:
. B
1 ase Case: The condition that stops the recursion.
2. Recursive Case: The part where the function callsitself with a modified argument.
Example Program to Find the Factorial of a Number Using Recursion in C:
nis the product of allpositive integers less than or equal to
The factorial of a number n
:
●
n! = n * (n - 1) * (n - 2) * ... * 1
0! = 1
● Base case:
C Program:
#include <stdio.h>
// Recursive function to find the factorial of a number
int factorial(int n) {
if (n == 0 || n == 1) {
return 1; // Base case
} else {
return n * factorial(n - 1); // Recursive call
}
}
int main() {
int number, result;
// Input from the user
printf("Enter a number: ");
scanf("%d", &number);
// Check if the number is non-negative
if (number < 0) {
printf("Factorial is not defined for negative numbers.\n");
} else {
// Call the recursive function
result = factorial(number);
printf("Factorial of %d is: %d\n", number, result);
}
return 0;
}
Explanation:
1. Recursive Function:
factorial()is defined to compute thefactorial of
○ The function n
.
n == 0or
○ Base Case: If n == 1 1
, return 0!and
, as 1!are both defined as
1
.
○ R ecursive Case: Ifn > 1 n - 1and multiplies
, the function calls itselfwith n
with the result of the recursive call.
2. Main Function:
○ The program reads an integer from the user and checks if it's non-negative.
○ It then calls the recursive function factorial()to compute and print the
factorial.
Example Input/Output:
Input:
Enter a number: 5
utput:
O
Factorial of 5 is: 120
7. Explain /Differentiate call by value and call reference with an example. [BCA
3
2016,2018,2019, MJ-1 2022]
Call by Value vs. Call by Reference in C
In C, when a function is called, the arguments passed to the function can be handled in two
different ways:Call by ValueandCall by Reference.
1. Call by Value:
● InCall by Value, a copy of the actual argument'svalue is passed to the function. The
function works on this copy, and any changes made to the parameter inside the function
do not affect the actual argument.
● Modificationsmade to the parameter inside the functiondo not affectthe original
variable outside the function.
Example of Call by Value:
#include <stdio.h>
// Function to modify the value (Call by Value)
void modifyValue(int x) {
x = 10; // Changing the value of x
printf("Inside modifyValue: %d\n", x); // 10
}
int main() {
int num = 5;
printf("Before modifyValue: %d\n", num); // 5
modifyValue(num); // Call by Value
printf("After modifyValue: %d\n", num); // 5 (unchanged)
return 0;
}
Explanation:
numis passed to the
● The variable modifyValue()function.However, only a copy of
numis passed.
xis modified, but it does notaffect
● Inside the function, numin the
main()function.
numin the mainfunction remains unchanged.
● The output shows that the value of
Output:
efore modifyValue: 5
B
Inside modifyValue: 10
After modifyValue: 5
2. Call by Reference:
● InCall by Reference, instead of passing a copy ofthe variable, thememory address
(reference) of the actual argument is passed to the function. This means the function
works directly with the original variable.
● Modificationsmade to the parameter inside the functionaffect the actual variable
outside the function.
Example of Call by Reference:
#include <stdio.h>
// Function to modify the value (Call by Reference)
void modifyValue(int *x) {
*x = 10; // Dereferencing to change the value at the address
printf("Inside modifyValue: %d\n", *x); // 10
}
int main() {
int num = 5;
rintf("Before modifyValue: %d\n", num); // 5
p
modifyValue(&num); // Call by Reference (passing address of num)
printf("After modifyValue: %d\n", num); // 10 (modified)
return 0;
}
Explanation:
main()function, the address of
● In the numis passedto the
modifyValue()function
using the address-of operator (
&).
● Inside the function, the pointer xaccesses the memorylocation ofnumand modifies its
value directly.
● The change to numis reflected outside the functionbecause the function works on the
actual variable.
Output:
efore modifyValue: 5
B
Inside modifyValue: 10
After modifyValue: 10
Key Differences:
Feature Call by Value Call by Reference
assing
P copy of the argument's value
A he address (reference) of the argument
T
Mechanism is passed. is passed.
ffect on
E odifications inside the function M
M odifications inside the function affect the
Original do not affect the original original variable.
variable.
emory
M ses more memory (copies of
U ses less memory (only the address is
U
Usage variables are created). passed).
Use Cases sed when the function does
U sed when the function needs to modify
U
not need to modify the original the original argument or when large data
argument. structures are passed.
Example odifyValue(x)(where
m xis odifyValue(&x)(where
m xis passed
passed by value) by reference)
Summary:
C
● all by Valueis safer because it prevents modification of the original data.
● Call by Referenceis more efficient when working withlarge data structures or when you
need to modify the original variable in the calling function.
38. Explain the Scope, Visibility and Lifetime of a variable.[BCA 2019]
Scope, Visibility, and Lifetime of a Variable in C Language
In C programming, variables have characteristics that define where they can be accessed, how
long they exist, and when they are valid. These characteristics are known asscope,visibility,
andlifetimeof a variable. Let's discuss each one:
1. Scope of a Variable:
hescopeof a variable refers to theregion of theprogramwhere the variable is accessible or
T
valid. It determines the part of the program in which the variable can be used.
● L
ocal Scope: A variable declared inside a functionor block (enclosed by {}) islocally
scoped. It can only be accessed within that functionor block and is not visible to other
functions or blocks.
void function() {
int x = 5; // x has local scope to this function
printf("%d", x); // x can be accessed here
}
● G
lobal Scope: A variable declared outside all functions (at the top of the program,
main()
before ) isglobally scoped. It can be accessed from any function in the
program.
int x = 10; // x has global scope
void function() {
printf("%d", x); // x can be accessed here
}
int main() {
function(); // x is also accessible here
return 0;
}
● B
lock Scope: A variable declared inside ablock(e.g., loops, if statements) hasblock
scopeand is accessible only within that block.
if (1) {
int y = 20; // y has block scope
printf("%d", y); // y can be accessed here
}
// y is not accessible outside the block
2. Visibility of a Variable:
hevisibilityof a variable is related to where thevariable can be referenced in the program. A
T
variable isvisiblein the part of the program whereits scope is valid.
● L ocal Variables: Only visible inside the functionor block where they are declared. They
cannot be accessed by other functions or blocks.
● Global Variables: Visible throughout the program aftertheir declaration. Any function
can access a global variable after its declaration (unless shadowed by a local variable
with the same name).
● Extern Variables: A variable declared with the externkeyword allows visibility across
different files in a multi-file program. It tells the compiler that the variable is defined
elsewhere (outside the current file).
Example ofextern:
// file1.c
#include <stdio.h>
extern int x; // Declare the global variable x
int main() {
printf("%d", x); // x can be accessed here
return 0;
}
// file2.c
int x = 10; // Define the global variable x
3. Lifetime of a Variable:
helifetimeof a variable refers to how long thevariableexistsin memory during the execution
T
of a program. The lifetime of a variable is determined by where and how it is declared.
● Automatic Variables(local variables):
○ L ifetime: They are created when the function or block in which they are declared
is called, and destroyed when the function or block exits.
○ Example: A local variable inside a function exists only while that function is
executing.
○ Default Storage Class: auto(implicitly applied tolocal variables).
Static Variables:
●
○ Lifetime: They exist throughout the program's execution.Even though they are
declared inside functions, they retain their values between function calls.
○ Visibility: Static variables can be either local orglobal, but they arenot visible
outside the scopeof their declaration.
void function() {
static int count = 0; // Static variable
count++;
printf("%d\n", count);
}
int main() {
function(); // Outputs 1
function(); // Outputs 2
function(); // Outputs 3
return 0;
}
● Global Variables:
● Lifetime: They exist for the entire duration of the program. A global variable is
created when the program starts and is destroyed when the program terminates.
● Visibility: Global variables are visible throughout the program after their
declaration.
Dynamic Variables(using
● malloc calloc
, realloc
, ):
● L free()
ifetime: They exist until explicitly freed using . The lifetime of
dynamically allocated memory is managed manually.
xample of dynamic memory:
E
int *ptr = (int *)malloc(sizeof(int)); // Dynamically allocated memory
*ptr = 10; // Assign a value
free(ptr); // Manually free the memory when done
Summary of Scope, Visibility, and Lifetime:
Property Scope Visibility Lifetime
ocal
L ccessible within the
A isible only within the
V xists as long as the
E
Variable function or block. function or block. function or block is
executing.
lobal
G ccessible throughout
A isible throughout the
V xists for the entire
E
Variable the program. program after its program execution.
declaration.
tatic
S an be local (within a
C isible only within the
V xists for the entire
E
Variable function) or global. function or file where program execution.
declared.
ynamic
D ot tied to scope but
N isible through the
V xists until explicitly
E
Variable allocated using pointer used for free()
freed by .
malloc()
, etc. allocation.
Key Points:
S
● cope: Defines where a variable can be accessed inthe program.
● Visibility: Determines where the variable can be referenced.
● Lifetime: Defines how long a variable exists in memoryduring the program execution.
hese concepts are important in controlling how variables are used and managed in C
T
programs.
9. What is a pointer? How are they declared and initialized? [BCA MJ-1 2022] Write a program
3
to check prime numbers using a pointer. [BCA 2018,2019]
What is a Pointer in C?
pointerin C is a variable that stores the memoryaddress of another variable. Pointers allow
A
indirect access to variables, enabling you to manipulate the value of variables indirectly through
their memory addresses. This feature is widely used for dynamic memory allocation, passing
malloc()
large structures or arrays to functions efficiently, and dealing with functions like ,
free()
, etc.
Declaration and Initialization of Pointers:
1. D *symbol before the pointer
eclaration: A pointer is declared using the asterisk
variable name. The type of the pointer must match the type of the variable it will point to.
int *ptr; // Pointer to an integer
char *ch_ptr; // Pointer to a character
2. Initialization: A pointer can be initialized to point to a specific variable by using the
address-of operator &
.
int x = 10;
int *ptr = &x; // Pointer ptr stores the address of variable x
Program to Check Prime Numbers Using a Pointer:
he program below checks whether a given number is prime using pointers. It uses a pointer to
T
iterate through numbers to check divisibility.
#include <stdio.h>
// Function to check if a number is prime using a pointer
int isPrime(int *num) {
int i, flag = 1;
// A prime number is greater than 1
if (*num <= 1) {
return 0; // Not prime if less than or equal to 1
}
// Check divisibility from 2 to num-1
for (i = 2; i <= *num / 2; i++) {
if (*num % i == 0) {
flag = 0; // Not prime if divisible by any number other than 1 and itself
break;
}
}
return flag;
}
int main() {
int num;
int *ptr = # // Pointer to the integer num
// Input a number
printf("Enter a number: ");
scanf("%d", ptr); // Using pointer to store the input
// Check if the number is prime using pointer
if (isPrime(ptr)) {
printf("%d is a prime number.\n", *ptr);
} else {
printf("%d is not a prime number.\n", *ptr);
}
return 0;
}
Explanation of the Program:
1. Pointer Declaration:
○
int *ptr;declares a pointer
ptrthat will point toan integer.
○ int *ptr = #initializes the pointer
ptrto storethe address of
num
.
2. isPrime Function:
isPrime(int *num)takes a pointer toan integer as an
○ The function
num
argument. This allows the function to work with the address of the variable .
*num(the value pointed toby
○ The function checks if ptr
) is divisible by any
*num / 2
integer between 2 and . If it is divisible,it's not prime.
3. Input Using Pointer:
main()function,
○ In the scanf("%d", ptr);is usedto take input for num
. The
ptrholds the address of
pointer num
, so the inputvalue is stored directly at the
emory location of
m num
.
4. Output:
isPrime()function, the
○ After checking whether the number is prime using the
result is printed.
Example Input/Output:
Input:
Enter a number: 17
utput:
O
17 is a prime number.
Input:
Enter a number: 20
utput:
O
20 is not a prime number.
Summary of Pointers:
A
● pointeris a variable that stores the memory addressof another variable.
● Pointers are declared with a *symbol, and they areinitialized using the address-of
&
operator.
● In the above program, we use pointers to pass the address of a variable to a function
and check whether the number is prime.
0. What is a pointer? What are its uses? Write a program to find the factorial of a number using
4
a pointer. [BCA 2016]
What is a Pointer in C?
pointerin C is a variable that stores the memoryaddress of another variable. Instead of
A
holding a data value itself, a pointer holds the location of where the data is stored. Pointers
provide powerful features such as dynamic memory allocation, function arguments passing by
reference, and efficient handling of arrays and strings.
Uses of Pointers in C:
1. D ynamic Memory Allocation: Pointers are used to allocatememory dynamically during
program execution using functions like malloc() calloc()
, free()
,and .
2. Passing Arguments to Functions by Reference: By passingthe address of a variable
to a function, you can modify the actual content of the variable, which is not possible with
call-by-value.
3. Efficient Array Handling: Pointers can be used toaccess and manipulate arrays, as
array names in C are essentially pointers.
4. Function Pointers: Pointers can be used to point tofunctions, enabling dynamic
function calls.
5. Linked Data Structures: Pointers are used in implementingdynamic data structures
like linked lists, stacks, queues, and trees.
Program to Find the Factorial of a Number Using a Pointer in C:
Below is a C program that calculates the factorial of a number using pointers.
#include <stdio.h>
// Function to calculate factorial using pointer
void calculateFactorial(int *n, int *fact) {
*fact = 1; // Initialize factorial to 1
for (int i = 1; i <= *n; i++) {
*fact *= i; // Multiply current value of fact by i
}
}
int main() {
int num, fact;
int *nPtr = # // Pointer to num
int *factPtr = &fact; // Pointer to fact
// Input number
printf("Enter a number: ");
scanf("%d", nPtr); // Input the number using pointer
// Calculate factorial using pointers
calculateFactorial(nPtr, factPtr);
// Output result
printf("Factorial of %d is %d\n", *nPtr, *factPtr); // Dereferencing pointers to print the result
return 0;
}
Explanation of the Program:
1. Pointer Declarations:
○
int *nPtr = #declares a pointer
nPtrand initializesit with the address
num
of .
○
int *factPtr = &fact;declares another pointer
factPtrto store the
fact
address of , where the calculated factorial willbe stored.
calculateFactorial()
2. Function :
nPtr(pointer tothe input number) and
○ This function takes two pointers:
factPtr(pointer to the factorial).
1tothe value stored at
○ It calculates the factorial by iterating from *nPtr(the
nPtr
dereferenced value of ).
○ factPtr
The result is stored in the memory location pointed to by .
3. Input:
scanf("%d",
○ The program asks the user to enter a number and reads it using
nPtr);
numis passed to
. The address of nPtrto storethe value.
4. Output:
calculateFactorial()functionand prints the result
○ The program calls the
factPtrand
by dereferencing nPtr
.
Example Input/Output:
Input:
Enter a number: 5
utput:
O
Factorial of 5 is 120
Summary:
P
● ointersare variables that hold the memory addressof another variable.
● They are essential for tasks like dynamic memory allocation, passing data by reference,
and efficient array handling.
● The example program demonstrates calculating the factorial of a number using pointers.
The address of the input number is passed to the function, and the factorial is calculated
by manipulating the value stored at that address.
41. Explain the array of pointers. [BCA 2016]
Array of Pointers in C Language
narray of pointersis an array where each elementof the array is a pointer that holds the
A
memory address of a variable. Essentially, it’s an array whose elements are pointers, and each
pointer can point to a different data location.
his concept is widely used in cases where you need to store addresses of different variables,
T
manage arrays of strings, or work with dynamic memory in an efficient way.
Syntax of Array of Pointers:
To declare an array of pointers, the syntax is:
<type> *<array_name>[size];
Here:
●
<type>is the type of data that the pointer will point to (e.g.,
int char
, , etc.).
●
<array_name>is the name of the array.
●
sizeis the number of elements in the array.
For example:
int *arr[5]; // Array of 5 integer pointers
arrthat can hold 5 pointers to integers.
This declares an array
Example: Array of Pointers
Here’s an example that demonstrates how anarray of pointersworks in C:
#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
int num1 = 10, num2 = 20, num3 = 30, num4 = 40;
// Declare an array of pointers to integers
int *arr[4];
// Assign the addresses of variables to the array elements
arr[0] = &num1;
arr[1] = &num2;
arr[2] = &num3;
arr[3] = &num4;
// Access values using the pointers in the array
printf("Value at arr[0]: %d\n", *arr[0]); // Dereference arr[0]
printf("Value at arr[1]: %d\n", *arr[1]); // Dereference arr[1]
printf("Value at arr[2]: %d\n", *arr[2]); // Dereference arr[2]
printf("Value at arr[3]: %d\n", *arr[3]); // Dereference arr[3]
return 0;
}
Explanation of the Program:
1. Declaration of Array of Pointers:
int *arr[4];
This creates an array of 4 pointers (
arr
), where each pointer is intended to point
to an integer.
2. A
ssigning Addresses to the Pointers:
arr[0] = &num1;
arr[1] = &num2;
arr[2] = &num3;
arr[3] = &num4;
3. A
ccessing Values Through Pointers:
printf("Value at arr[0]: %d\n", *arr[0]); // Dereference arr[0]
y dereferencing the pointers in the array, we access and print the values of the
B
variables that the pointers point to.
xample Output:
E
Value at arr[0]: 10
Value at arr[1]: 20
Value at arr[2]: 30
Value at arr[3]: 40
Applications of Array of Pointers:
1. S toring Addresses of Multiple Variables: You can storethe memory addresses of
multiple variables of the same type in an array of pointers.
2. Array of Strings: An array of pointers is often used to store strings in C because each
string is an array of characters, and you can store the addresses of these arrays in an
array of pointers.
Example:
har *str[] = {"Hello", "World", "C", "Programming"};
c
for (int i = 0; i < 4; i++) {
printf("%s\n", str[i]); // Print each string
}
3. D
ynamic Memory Allocation: An array of pointers can be used to dynamically allocate
memory for an array of structures or other data types.
Key Points:
● A rray of Pointers: It's an array where each elementis a pointer to a specific type of
data (e.g., integers, characters).
● Use Case: It is commonly used for dynamic memory allocation,handling arrays of
strings, and managing multiple data locations.
● Dereferencing: The elements of the array are pointers,so you must dereference the
pointers to access the values they point to.
his concept is helpful for managing and working with complex data structures and improving
T
memory management in C programs.
2. Write a program to create the structure of a student having fields Roll, name, and Marks.
4
Input records and display them. [BCA 2016,2018]
H Roll
ere is a C program to create a structure for a student with fields name
, Marks
, and . The
program will input student records and display them:
include <stdio.h>
#
#include <string.h>
// Define the structure
struct Student {
int roll; // Roll number
char name[50]; // Name of the student
float marks; // Marks of the student
};
int main() {
struct Student students[5]; // Array of 5 students
int i;
// Input student records
printf("Enter details of 5 students:\n");
for (i = 0; i < 5; i++) {
printf("\nEnter details for student %d:\n", i + 1);
printf("Roll Number: ");
scanf("%d", &students[i].roll);
printf("Name: ");
getchar(); // To consume any leftover newline character in the buffer
fgets(students[i].name, sizeof(students[i].name), stdin);
students[i].name[strcspn(students[i].name, "\n")] = '\0'; // Remove newline character
printf("Marks: ");
scanf("%f", &students[i].marks);
}
// Display student records
printf("\nDisplaying student records:\n");
for (i = 0; i < 5; i++) {
printf("\nStudent %d details:\n", i + 1);
printf("Roll Number: %d\n", students[i].roll);
rintf("Name: %s\n", students[i].name);
p
printf("Marks: %.2f\n", students[i].marks);
}
return 0;
}
Explanation of the Program:
1. Structure Declaration:
Studentis defined with three fields:
○ The structure
■
roll
: An integer to store the roll number.
■
name
: A character array (string) to store the nameof the student.
■ marks: A floating-point number to store the marksof the student.
2. Input Data:
○ The program uses a loop to input details for 5 students.
○
fgets()is used to read the name to allow spaces inthe name. After reading
the name, the newline character at the end is removed using strcspn() .
3. Display Data:
○ After inputting the details of the students, the program displays the stored
information for each student in a formatted manner.
Example Input/Output:
Input:
Enter details of 5 students:
nter details for student 1:
E
Roll Number: 101
Name: John Doe
Marks: 75.5
nter details for student 2:
E
Roll Number: 102
Name: Alice
Marks: 88.0
nter details for student 3:
E
Roll Number: 103
Name: Bob Smith
Marks: 92.5
nter details for student 4:
E
Roll Number: 104
Name: Charlie
Marks: 60.0
nter details for student 5:
E
Roll Number: 105
Name: David
Marks: 78.5
utput:
O
Displaying student records:
tudent 1 details:
S
Roll Number: 101
Name: John Doe
Marks: 75.50
tudent 2 details:
S
Roll Number: 102
Name: Alice
Marks: 88.00
tudent 3 details:
S
Roll Number: 103
Name: Bob Smith
Marks: 92.50
tudent 4 details:
S
Roll Number: 104
Name: Charlie
Marks: 60.00
tudent 5 details:
S
Roll Number: 105
Name: David
Marks: 78.50
Key Points:
int
● Structure: A structure in C allows grouping different data types (such as char[]
, ,
float
) together to represent a single entity (in thiscase, a student).
scanf()for reading numbers and
● Input: The program uses fgets()for reading
strings with spaces.
printf()to display thestudent records in a structured
● Display: The program uses
format.
43. What is a union? How is it different from structure? [BCA 2016,2018,2019]
What is a Union in C?
unionin C is a special data type that allows storingdifferent data types in the same memory
A
location. Unlike a structure, where each member has its own memory space, a union uses a
shared memory space for all its members. This means that at any point, only one of the union
members can hold a value, and the size of a union is determined by the size of its largest
member.
yntax of Union:
S
union <union_name> {
<data_type> member1;
<data_type> member2;
<data_type> member3;
// more members
};
xample of Union:
E
#include <stdio.h>
// Define a union
union Data {
int i;
float f;
char c;
};
int main() {
union Data data; // Declare a variable of type union Data
// Assign values to the members
data.i = 10;
printf("Data.i = %d\n", data.i);
ata.f = 3.14;
d
printf("Data.f = %.2f\n", data.f);
ata.c = 'A';
d
printf("Data.c = %c\n", data.c);
return 0;
}
Explanation of the Union Example:
1. Memory Sharing:
○ The union Datahas three members: i(integer),
f(float),and
c(char).
○ All members share the same memory location, so when you assign a value to
one member (e.g., data.i = 10 ), it overwrites anypreviously stored value in
the union. Only the most recently assigned value is valid at any time.
2. Size of Union:
○ The size of the union is determined by the largest member. In this case, if intis
floatis 4 bytes, and
bytes,
4 charis 1 byte, theunion will have a size of 4
bytes.
Key Points about Union:
● M emory Efficiency: Unions save memory because theyallow different types of data to
share the same memory location. However, only one member can store a value at a
time.
● Accessing Members: When you access a member, the valueof the most recently
written member is accessible. All other members will contain garbage values.
● Size of Union: The size of a union is equal to the size of its largest member.
Difference Between Union and Structure:
Feature Union Structure
emory
M ll members share the same memory E
A ach member has its own memory
Allocation space. The size of the union is the space. The size of the structure is the
size of its largest member. sum of sizes of all its members.
Storage nly one member can hold a value at A
O ll members can hold values
any time. simultaneously.
Usage sed when you need to store
U sed when you need to store different
U
different data types but only one data types and access them
value at a time (e.g., saving simultaneously.
memory).
Size he size is the maximum size of the
T he size is the sum of the sizes of all
T
members. members.
ccessing
A ccessing one member overwrites
A ll members are independent and can
A
Members the other members. be accessed at the same time.
Example int
For a variable that can hold an , name
For a record that stores age
, ,
loat
f charbut not
, or marksfor a student.
and
simultaneously.
Summary:
● U nion: A union allows multiple members of differentdata types to share the same
memory space. At any given time, only one member can store a value, and the union’s
size is the size of its largest member.
● Structure: A structure stores different data typesin separate memory locations. Each
member of the structure holds its own value independently, and the total size of a
structure is the sum of the sizes of all its members.
hile aunionis used for memory efficiency when onlyone value is needed at a time, a
W
structureis used when you need to store multiple values of different types simultaneously.
4. How the structure is different from an array? Explain the terms ‘Array of Structure’ and
4
‘Nesting of structure’ with examples. [BCA 2019]
Difference Between Structure and Array in C
Structures and arrays are both used to store data, but they have some fundamental differences:
Feature Structure Array
Definition structure is a user-defined data
A n array is a collection of elements of the
A
type that groups different types of same data type, stored in contiguous
data under a single name. memory locations.
Data Types structure can hold elements of
A ll elements in an array must be of the
A
different data types (e.g., int, float, same data type.
char, etc.).
emory
M ach member of a structure has its
E ll elements of an array occupy
A
Allocation own memory space. The size of a contiguous memory locations. The size of
structure is the sum of sizes of its the array is the number of elements
members. multiplied by the size of each element.
ccessing
A ach member can be accessed
E rray elements are accessed using an
A
Members using a dot operator (e.g., array[index]
index (e.g., ).
struct.member
).
Usage tructures are used to represent a
S rrays are used to store multiple
A
collection of related data of elements of the same type.
different types.
Array of Structures:
narray of structuresis a collection of structureswhere each element of the array is a
A
structure. It allows you to store multiple records of a type where each record may contain
different types of data.
Syntax:
struct <structure_name> array_name[size];
●
structure_name
: The name of the structure.
●
array_name
: The name of the array.
●
size
: The number of elements in the array.
xample of Array of Structures:
E
#include <stdio.h>
// Define a structure
struct Student {
int roll;
char name[50];
float marks;
};
int main() {
// Declare an array of 3 structures
struct Student students[3];
// Input details for 3 students
for (int i = 0; i < 3; i++) {
printf("Enter roll number: ");
scanf("%d", &students[i].roll);
printf("Enter name: ");
getchar(); // To clear the newline character from the input buffer
fgets(students[i].name, sizeof(students[i].name), stdin);
printf("Enter marks: ");
scanf("%f", &students[i].marks);
}
// Display the records of the students
for (int i = 0; i < 3; i++) {
printf("\nStudent %d Details:\n", i + 1);
printf("Roll Number: %d\n", students[i].roll);
printf("Name: %s", students[i].name); // No need for newline since fgets() captures it
printf("Marks: %.2f\n", students[i].marks);
}
return 0;
}
Explanation:
● A rray of Structures: In the example above, studentsis an array of 3
Student
structures. Each structure stores information about a student (roll number, name, and
marks).
● Input: The program uses a loop to input the data for3 students.
● Display: It then displays the stored records of each student.
Nesting of Structures:
esting of structuresrefers to the concept of havinga structure as a member of another
N
structure. In other words, a structure can contain other structures as its members. This is useful
when you want to represent complex data where some members themselves are collections of
data.
Syntax:
struct <outer_structure> {
<structure_type> inner_structure;
// other members
};
xample of Nesting of Structures:
E
#include <stdio.h>
// Define inner structure
struct Date {
int day;
int month;
int year;
};
// Define outer structure
struct Student {
int roll;
char name[50];
struct Date dob; // Nested structure
};
int main() {
struct Student student1;
// Input student details
printf("Enter roll number: ");
scanf("%d", &student1.roll);
printf("Enter name: ");
getchar(); // To clear the newline character
fgets(student1.name, sizeof(student1.name), stdin);
// Input Date of Birth (nested structure)
printf("Enter date of birth (day month year): ");
scanf("%d %d %d", &student1.dob.day, &student1.dob.month, &student1.dob.year);
// Display student details
printf("\nStudent Details:\n");
printf("Roll Number: %d\n", student1.roll);
printf("Name: %s", student1.name); // No need for newline since fgets() includes it
printf("Date of Birth: %d/%d/%d\n", student1.dob.day, student1.dob.month,
student1.dob.year);
return 0;
}
Explanation:
Studentstructure contains another
● Nesting of Structures: In the example, the
Dateas a member. The
tructure
s Datestructure storesthe student's birth date (day,
month, year).
● Input: The program inputs the roll number, name, anddate of birth for the student.
Display: It then displays the student’s details, including the nested date of birth.
●
Key Differences:
Feature Array of Structures Nesting of Structures
Definition n array of structures is a
A esting of structures is when one structure
N
collection of multiple structures. contains another structure as a member.
Usage sed when you have multiple
U sed when a structure requires another
U
instances of a structure (e.g., an structure as part of its data (e.g., a student
array of students). with a date of birth).
ccessing
A ccess each structure element
A ccess the nested structure members
A
Members by index and then use dot using the dot operator twice: once for the
operator to access members. outer and once for the inner structure.
Summary:
● A rray of Structures: Allows you to store multipleinstances of the same type of structure
in an array.
● Nesting of Structures: Allows you to define a structurewithin another structure to
represent more complex data relationships.
oth concepts provide ways to organize and structure data efficiently in C programming,
B
enabling you to handle more complex data types.
45. Explain preprocessor directives. When do we use #define and #include? [BCA 2016,2017]
Preprocessor Directives in C
reprocessor directives in C are commands that are processed by the preprocessor before the
P
compilation of the program begins. They are used to manipulate the source code, manage file
inclusion, define constants, and control conditional compilation.
reprocessor directives are not C language statements; they are instructions for the
P
#symbol. The mostcommonly used preprocessor directives in
preprocessor that start with the
#define
C are #include
, #ifdef
, #ifndef
, #if
, and .
#defineDirective:
1.
he
T #definedirective is used to definemacrosorconstantsthat are used throughout the
program. These macros can represent values or expressions. When the preprocessor
encounters the macro, it replaces it with the defined value or expression.
Syntax:
#define NAME value
NAMEis the identifier that will be replaced by
valuein the program wherever it is used.
xample of
E #define:
#include <stdio.h>
define PI 3.14159 // Defining a constant macro
#
#define AREA(r) (PI * (r) * (r)) // Defining a macro for calculating area of a circle
int main() {
float radius = 5.0;
printf("Area of the circle with radius %.2f is %.2f\n", radius, AREA(radius));
return 0;
}
#define
Explanation of :
● T he #definedirective defines
PIas a constant value(3.14159), andAREA(r)as a
macro function that calculates the area of a circle.
● The preprocessor replaces all instances of PIandAREA(r)with their respective values
during the precompilation stage.
#define
When to Use :
● D #defineto define constantsthat will remain unchanged
efining Constants: Use
throughout the program.
● Creating Macros: Use#defineto define reusable codesnippets or expressions that
can be evaluated at compile-time.
#includeDirective:
2.
he
T #includedirective is used to include header filesinto your C program. Header files
contain function declarations, macro definitions, and other declarations that are needed for a
program to work properly.
Syntax:
include <filename> // For standard library header files
#
#include "filename" // For user-defined header files
<filename>is used for including standard libraryheader files.
"filename"is used for including user-defined header files.
xample of
E #include :
#include <stdio.h> // Including standard library header file for I/O functions
#include "myheader.h" // Including a user-defined header file
int main() {
printf("Hello, World!\n");
return 0;
}
#include
Explanation of :
#include <stdio.h>directive includes the standardinput/output header file,
● The
printf()
which provides functions like .
#include "myheader.h"directive includes a user-definedheader file (e.g.,
● The
myheader.h
), which might contain additional declarationsor definitions for the program.
#include
When to Use :
#includeto include standardlibrary header files like
● Standard Libraries: Use
<stdio.h>
<math.h>
, , etc., to use built-in functions.
● U
ser-Defined Header Files: Use#include "filename"to include your own custom
header files, which may contain function prototypes, constants, and macros.
#defineand
Key Differences Between #include
:
Directive Purpose When to Use
#define D
efines constants or macros that are se
U #defineto declare constants or
replaced by the preprocessor before create macros that are used throughout
compilation. the program.
#includ Includes header files, either standard
se
U #includeto bring in function
e
library files or custom header files, prototypes and definitions from external
into the program. libraries or your own files.
xample Program Using
E #defineand #include
:
#include <stdio.h> // Standard library for I/O
#define MAX 100 // Defining a constant macro
int main() {
int numbers[MAX]; // Array with size MAX (100)
// Assigning values
for (int i = 0; i < MAX; i++) {
numbers[i] = i + 1;
}
// Printing the numbers
printf("First 10 numbers in the array are:\n");
for (int i = 0; i < 10; i++) {
printf("%d ", numbers[i]);
}
return 0;
}
Explanation:
#include <stdio.h>directive is used to includethe standard I/O functions.
● The
● T #define MAX 100directive defines a constant
he MAXthat is used to declare an
array of size 100.
● The array numbers[MAX]is initialized with values, and the program prints the first 10
numbers.
Summary:
● #define : Used to define constants or macros. It helpsin making the code more
readable and reusable by substituting values and expressions at compile-time.
● #include : Used to include external files (standardor user-defined header files). It
allows you to use predefined functions, constants, and other structures from libraries in
your program.
#defineand
oth
B #includeare essential preprocessordirectives that help in making the
code more modular, maintainable, and efficient.
46. Explain Macros. [BCA 2016]
efinition:
D
Macros in C are preprocessor directives used to define constants, expressions, or code
snippets that are replaced by the preprocessor before the compilation. They are defined using
#definedirective.
the
Types of Macros:
1. Object-like Macros:
Simple macros that represent constant values or expressions.
define PI 3.14159
#
#define MAX_SIZE 100
2. F
unction-like Macros:
Macros that take parameters and return expressions or values based on those
parameters.
define SQUARE(x) ((x) * (x))
#
#define MAX(a, b) ((a) > (b) ? (a) : (b))
Advantages:
. C
1 ode Reusability: Reuse code or expressions withoutrewriting them.
2. Efficiency: Faster execution as they are replacedduring preprocessing.
3. Readability: Improves readability and maintainability by using meaningful names for
constants.
Disadvantages:
. D
1 ebugging: Difficult to debug due to lack of typechecking and no runtime information.
2. Global Replacement: Macros are replaced throughoutthe program, which can cause
unexpected behavior.
3. No Type Safety: Macros do not check types, leading to potential errors in function-like
macros.
Example of Macros:
#include <stdio.h>
define PI 3.14159
# // Object-like macro
#define SQUARE(x) ((x) * (x)) // Function-like macro
#define MAX(a, b) ((a) > (b) ? (a) : (b)) // Function-like macro
int main() {
float radius = 5.0;
float area = PI * SQUARE(radius); // Using macros
int a = 10, b = 20;
int max_value = MAX(a, b); // Using MAX macro
rintf("Area of the circle: %.2f\n", area);
p
printf("Maximum value: %d\n", max_value);
return 0;
}
Key Points:
● # defineis used to define both constants (object-likemacros) and
expressions/functions (function-like macros).
● Parenthesesare essential around parameters and theentire expression to avoid errors
in function-like macros.
● Macros are expanded at compile-time and do not have a scope, leading to potential
issues in larger programs.
47. Explain file handling functions. [BCA 2016,2018,2019]
File Handling Functions in C Language
ile handling in C is performed using a set of library functions that allow reading from and
F
writing to files. These functions are part of the standard library (
stdio.h).
Common File Handling Functions in C:
fopen()
:
sed to open a file in a specified mode (read, write, etc.).
U
Syntax:
FILE *fopen(const char *filename, const char *mode);
Modes:
●
"r"
: Read mode (file must exist).
●
"w"
: Write mode (creates file if it doesn't exist).
●
"a"
: Append mode (opens file for writing at the end).
●
"rb" "wb"
, : Binary read/write modes.
Example:
FILE *file = fopen("example.txt", "r");
fclose()
:
Used to close an opened file.
Syntax:
int fclose(FILE *file);
xample:
E
fclose(file);
fread()
:
Reads data from a file into a buffer.
yntax:
S
size_t fread(void *buffer, size_t size, size_t count, FILE *file);
xample:
E
char buffer[100];
fread(buffer, sizeof(char), 100, file);
fwrite()
:
Writes data from a buffer to a file.
yntax:
S
size_t fwrite(const void *buffer, size_t size, size_t count, FILE *file);
xample:
E
char data[] = "Hello, World!";
fwrite(data, sizeof(char), strlen(data), file);
fgetc()
:
Reads a single character from a file.
yntax:
S
int fgetc(FILE *file);
xample:
E
char ch = fgetc(file);
fputc()
:
Writes a single character to a file.
yntax:
S
int fputc(int char, FILE *file);
xample:
E
fputc('A', file);
fgets()
:
Reads a string from a file until a newline or the end-of-file is encountered.
yntax:
S
char *fgets(char *str, int n, FILE *file);
xample:
E
char line[100];
fgets(line, 100, file);
fputs()
:
Writes a string to a file.
yntax:
S
int fputs(const char *str, FILE *file);
xample:
E
fputs("Hello, World!", file);
feof()
:
Checks if the end of the file has been reached.
yntax:
S
int feof(FILE *file);
xample:
E
if (feof(file)) {
printf("End of file reached\n");
}
fseek()
:
Moves the file pointer to a specific location in the file.
yntax:
S
int fseek(FILE *file, long int offset, int whence);
xample:
E
fseek(file, 0, SEEK_SET); // Move to the beginning of the file
ftell()
:
Returns the current position of the file pointer.
yntax:
S
long int ftell(FILE *file);
xample:
E
long int position = ftell(file);
rewind()
:
Resets the file pointer to the beginning of the file.
yntax:
S
void rewind(FILE *file);
xample:
E
rewind(file); // Move file pointer to the beginning
xample Program:
E
#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
FILE *file;
char text[] = "Hello, file handling in C!";
// Opening file for writing
file = fopen("example.txt", "w");
if (file == NULL) {
printf("Unable to open file\n");
return 1;
}
// Writing to the file
fwrite(text, sizeof(char), strlen(text), file);
// Closing the file
fclose(file);
// Reopening file for reading
file = fopen("example.txt", "r");
if (file == NULL) {
printf("Unable to open file\n");
return 1;
}
char ch;
while ((ch = fgetc(file)) != EOF) {
putchar(ch); // Printing the content to console
}
// Closing the file
fclose(file);
return 0;
}
Conclusion:
ile handling in C provides several functions for performing input and output operations on files.
F
These functions allow you to read, write, and manipulate data in files, providing a way to persist
data beyond the program’s execution.
48. Explain Dynamic Memory Allocation. [BCA MJ-1 2022]
Dynamic Memory Allocation in C Language
ynamic memory allocation in C allows the allocation of memory at runtime (as opposed to
D
static memory allocation, which occurs at compile-time). This gives the programmer flexibility to
allocate memory as needed, freeing memory once it's no longer in use.
Functions for Dynamic Memory Allocation:
<stdlib.h>header.
These functions are defined in the
malloc()(Memory Allocation):
A
○ llocates a block of memory of a specified size.
○ Returns a pointer to the first byte of the allocated memory.
NULL
○ If allocation fails, returns .
yntax:
S
void *malloc(size_t size);
xample:
E
int *ptr = (int *)malloc(sizeof(int) * 5); // Allocates memory for 5 integers
calloc()(Contiguous Allocation):
A
● llocates memory for an array of elements, initializing all elements to zero.
● Returns a pointer to the allocated memory.
Syntax:
void *calloc(size_t num_elements, size_t size);
xample:
E
int *ptr = (int *)calloc(5, sizeof(int)); // Allocates memory for 5 integers, initialized to 0
realloc()(Reallocation):
R
● esizes a previously allocated memory block.
● If the new size is larger, the new memory is uninitialized. If smaller, extra memory is
freed.
● Returns a pointer to the new memory block, orNULLif allocation fails.
Syntax:
void *realloc(void *ptr, size_t new_size);
xample:
E
ptr = (int *)realloc(ptr, sizeof(int) * 10); // Resizes the memory block to hold 10 integers
free()
:
Deallocates previously allocated memory, making it available for reuse.
●
● It's crucial to free memory after it’s no longer needed to prevent memory leaks.
Syntax:
void free(void *ptr);
xample:
E
free(ptr); // Frees the memory pointed by ptr
Key Points:
●
malloc()
: Allocates memory without initialization.
●
calloc()
: Allocates memory and initializes it to zero.
●
realloc()
: Changes the size of an allocated memory block.
●
free()
: Deallocates memory to avoid memory leaks.
xample Program:
E
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
int main() {
int *arr;
int i;
// Allocating memory dynamically for an array of 5 integers
arr = (int *)malloc(5 * sizeof(int));
if (arr == NULL) {
printf("Memory allocation failed\n");
return 1;
}
// Initializing values
for (i = 0; i < 5; i++) {
arr[i] = i + 1;
}
// Printing values
for (i = 0; i < 5; i++) {
printf("%d ", arr[i]);
}
// Reallocating memory to hold 10 integers
arr = (int *)realloc(arr, 10 * sizeof(int));
if (arr == NULL) {
printf("Reallocation failed\n");
return 1;
}
// Printing the updated values
for (i = 0; i < 10; i++) {
printf("%d ", arr[i]);
}
// Freeing allocated memory
free(arr);
return 0;
}
Conclusion:
ynamic memory allocation allows flexibility in memory management during runtime. It's
D
essential to manage memory properly using malloc() calloc()
, realloc()
, free()
, and
to prevent memory leaks and optimize resource use.
49. Explain Storage classes. (static, extern, auto, register). [BCA MJ-1 2022]
Storage Classes in C
In C, storage classes define the scope, lifetime, and visibility of variables and functions. There
auto
are four primary storage classes in C: register
, static
, extern
, and . These affect
how variables are stored, accessed, and initialized.
autoStorage Class:
D
● efaultstorage class for local variables.
● Variables declared with autoare local to the function/blockand have automatic storage
duration.
● Memory is allocated when the block is entered and deallocated when it exits.
autokeyword is optional as local variablesare automatically considered
● Typically, the
auto
.
Syntax:
auto int x = 5;
xample:
E
void function() {
auto int num = 10; // num is local to function
}
registerStorage Class:
● U sed for variables that are heavily accessed, typically used for loop counters or
frequently accessed variables.
● Requests the compiler to store the variable in a CPU register rather than RAM (if
possible), making it faster to access.
● The variable cannot be accessed by the address operator ( &), since it may not be stored
in memory.
Syntax:
register int x;
xample:
E
void function() {
register int i; // i may be stored in a register
for(i = 0; i < 10; i++) {
printf("%d\n", i);
}
}
staticStorage Class:
U
● sed to retain the value of a variable across function calls.
● Local static variablesretain their value betweenfunction calls, but they are not visible
outside the function.
● Global static variablesare restricted to the filein which they are declared (cannot be
accessed from other files).
Syntax:
static int x = 5;
xample:
E
void counter() {
static int count = 0; // retains its value between calls
count++;
printf("%d\n", count);
}
int main() {
counter(); // Output: 1
counter(); // Output: 2
}
externStorage Class:
● U sed to declare a variable or function that is defined outside the current file, in another
file.
● Global variabledeclared with externallows accessto it across multiple files.
● It doesn't allocate memory, just refers to an existing variable/function declared
elsewhere.
Syntax:
extern int x;
xample:
E
// File1.c
int num = 10; // Definition of the variable
// File2.c
extern int num; // Reference to the variable in another file
Summary Table:
Storage Scope Lifetime Default Value
Class
auto Local to function/block Until the block ends Garbage value
register Local to function/block Until the block ends Garbage value
static ocal (function scope) or Global
L or the lifetime of the
F ero (if
Z
(file scope) program uninitialized)
extern Global (accessible across files) or the lifetime of the
F ero (if
Z
program uninitialized)
Conclusion:
torage classes in C help determine thevisibility,lifetime, andmemory locationof variables
S
and functions. Using the appropriate storage class can optimize the performance and
organization of your program.
50. Write a program to display the Fibonacci series. [ BCA MJ-1 2022]
#include <stdio.h>
void fibonacci(int n) {
int first = 0, second = 1, next;
printf("Fibonacci Series up to %d terms:\n", n);
for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
if (i <= 1) {
next = i; // First two terms are 0 and 1
} else {
next = first + second; // Next term is the sum of previous two
first = second; // Move to next term
second = next; // Move to next term
}
printf("%d ", next); // Print the current term
}
printf("\n");
}
int main() {
int terms;
// Input number of terms
printf("Enter the number of terms for Fibonacci series: ");
scanf("%d", &terms);
// Call the function to display Fibonacci series
fibonacci(terms);
return 0;
}
Explanation:
1.
fibonacci()function:
T
○ n(the number of terms to display).
akes an integer
○ It uses a loop to calculate and print each term in the Fibonacci sequence.
○ The first two terms are 0and
1
, and subsequent termsare the sum of the
previous two.
2. Main function:
○ Prompts the user to input the number of terms.
fibonacci()function to display the series.
○ Calls the
Example Output:
nter the number of terms for Fibonacci series: 10
E
Fibonacci Series up to 10 terms:
0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34
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