FASES DEL PROCESO DE DISEÑO

DETAIL DESIGN

Engineering Design Principles, Ken

Hurst, 1999, Elsevier.
 DETAIL DESIGN, Introduction
• Following the embodiment The input is the scheme
stage: drawing and the design intent.
Consider individual components.
As in all other stages, all
Ensure that the design or selection
decisions must be made within
the constraints of the PDS.
of these is optimized.

The output is a series of

Information which will enable production drawings
manufacture to commence is accompanied by
prepared. documentation.
 …Introduction
Again, solutions must be
synthesized.

Decisions made in the

design of one component
will influence the design
of others.

• Cyclic nature of detail

design
 DETAIL DESIGN, Contenido
• DETAIL DESIGN
– Factor of safety
– Selection procedure for bought out components
– Robust design
• Design for reliability
• Failure Modes and Effects Analysis (FMEA)
• Design for quality
• Design against high cycle fatigue
 DETAIL DESIGN
 Factor of safety

 Selection procedure for bought

out components

 Robust design
 DETAIL DESIGN, Factor of safety
Ensure that all components can Analysis process can be seen as
sustain the applied load for the the three stage process outlined
working life of the product or in “Modelling”:
process.
1. load type and force analysis;
Structural failure can occur due to
2. stress analysis of critical
sections;
• breakage or
3. analysis of possible modes of
component failure
• significant deformation
 Factor of safety
The vast majority of failures are we introduce a factor of safety to
caused by fatigue enable the analysis process to
commence.
In the early stages of detail design
the shape and form of a Factor of safety is usually based
component are often ill defined upon the yield strength of the
so, with incomplete knowledge, material and in exceptional
Límite circumstances upon the ultimate
elástico
strength of the material.
Esfuerzo
último
 …Factor of safety
Factor of safety (N) = Load carrying capability
Applied load

is the stress due to the applied load;

is the yield strength of the material;
is the ultimate strength of the material.
 …Factor of safety
For ductile materials (< 1500 MN/m2 tensile strength) typical factors of
safety N are

* This represents the crushing limit. You should also check buckling.
 …Factor of safety
Since factors of safety compensate
for uncertainties it is the
designer's duty to gain further
knowledge through

investigation and research

in order that doubts may be

removed and lower factors of
safety used.
Factor of safety. Statistical assessment
of factor of safety muesca
It is not possible for materials to be produced Factors, such as fatigue
economically without variation of properties. life, fracture toughness,
fluencia notch sensitivity, creep,
Variations also occur due to manufacturing abrasion and corrosion
methods such as: exhibit scatter.
• heat treatment,
• weld quality, For simplicity, all data is
assumed to follow the
• surface finish and normal distribution.
• dimensional accuracy.
 Statistical assessment of factor of safety
For both applied load and load The designer sets the allowable.
carrying capacity distributions,

it is normal to consider the area of

the normal curve contained by six
deviations.

Taking three deviations a side

covers 99.73% of all possibilities.
 …Statistical assessment of factor of safety
The concept of a factor of safety In calculating the factor of safety
has been employed for many as
years ,
no account is taken of the shape of
although is well recognized the either the
basis of its selection is often
nebulous.
• load distribution or the

In some industries it is referred to

• material strength distribution.
as the factor of ignorance!
 …Statistical assessment of factor of safety
For a machine or structure it is impossible both of which are
to predict precisely the external loads to susceptible to
which it will be subjected. uncontrollable
manufacturing flaws
Load carrying capability of the element is
affected by which can be significant.

• material strength variations and

• geometrical tolerances,
 …Statistical assessment of factor of safety
To minimize the chance of Both of these will add cost to the
failures occurring there are two design
main options,
An optimum or compromise
• tighter manufacturing control solution must be arrived at.
and material selection reducing
the spread of the capacity curve
and

• increasing the separation of the

mean values.
…Statistical
assessment
of factor of
safety
Where failure would
endanger human
life, for example, the
relationship shown
would be desirable:
 …Statistical assessment of factor of safety
For a component the particular failure mode
will occur if the load capability based on that
phenomenon is less than the corresponding
actual load.

The distribution curve for the difference

between load capability and actual load will
be very significant
…Statistical
assessment ?
of factor of
safety
All negative
values
correspond to
the occurrence
of failure.
Failure will occur if the load capability is less
than the actual load. ?...
𝜎Y : Load carrying capability
𝜎L : Applied load

Thus, failure:
𝜎Y < 𝜎L ,

And so:
𝜎Y - 𝜎L < 0 ≠
 …Statistical assessment of factor of safety
For cases where failure cannot be In order to take advantage of
tolerated, this distribution curve available statistics tables a new
should be located so that all unitless variable t is
realistic values are +ve. introduced.

For both loading and load capacity t = safety margin

curves it is normal to consider six
standard deviations, covering
99.73% of all cases.
 …Statistical assessment of factor of safety
Any value of t can be converted to The normal table, reproduced in
the proportion of the area under part.
the normal curve between the • The area shaded in the diagram
mean ordinate and the ordinate at is the area indicated from the
tabular values.
any standardized deviate from the
mean using the normal table. • In order to obtain the full
reliability figure we must add
the more positive half of the
area under the curve to the
shaded area.
 …Statistical assessment of factor of safety
Since we are only interested in the point on the combined applied and
capacity curve beyond which values go negative:

load carrying Load standard

capacity standard deviation
deviation
 …Statistical assessment of factor of safety, Example
A component has a load carrying The reliability of the component
capacity normally distributed, with per load application is estimated
a mean value of 5000 N and a by calculating the safety margin.
standard deviation of 400 N. The
load it has to withstand is also
5000 − 3500
normally distributed, with a mean t= = 2.65
value of 3500 N and a 4002 +4002
standard deviation of 400 N.
 Example
Referring to the section of normal Thus we have a reliability figure of
table a value for t of 0.496 is 0.996 which would normally be
obtained. expressed as 99.6%.

This must be added to the

remainder of the positive area
under the curve, since 0.496 only
represents the shaded area of the
diagram
 Example 2
It is illuminating to examine the Reliability drops to 98.3%.
effect of larger standard deviations
(less control of parameters).
Note that reliance on the static
factor of safety alone would be
Consider standard deviations of misleading since
500 N.
it is calculated on mean values and
5000 − 3500
t= = 2.12
5002 +5002 would be unchanged.
 DETAIL DESIGN, Selection
procedure for bought out
components
Successful selection of suitable elements is the
result of

• matching system requirements with the

• capabilities of one of a wide range of available

alternatives.
Selection procedure for bought out components

¡Es una cuestión de peso!

 …Selection procedure for bought out components

Generalized
procedure
for
selecting
the
elements of
a system
 …Selection procedure for bought out components
Essential at the outset to Information gathered:

• define the boundaries within • purpose for which the element

which the element must is required and to the
perform as comprehensively as
possible.
• criteria of life, performance,
cost and operating environment
with which it must comply.
 …Selection procedure for bought out components
Information is needed in order to The temptation of the design
understand the total system engineer to consider only
functionality should be resisted
so that the selection is consistent and
with the rest of the system.
time and effort expended at this
stage is invariably rewarded when
Estacionamiento con visión
artificial: una cámara muy cara,
an optimum design is selected.
¡y un sistema operativo muy
inestable! ¿Qué fin persigo
realmente?
 …Selection procedure for bought out components
Most important and common Not all these factors are important
factors governing selection are in every design so
often

careful study of the system is

• performance, required to ensure that those
• application, considered are actually relevant.
• geometry,
• environment, Reference should be made to the
• safety and Product Design Specification for
• commercial. the system.
 …Selection procedure for bought out components
Each factor should be defined in Following this the boundaries of
terms which are as objective as satisfaction must be defined for
possible. each of the chosen factors.

Where appropriate and possible,

numerical information should be
given,

terms must be explained and

vagueness avoided.
 …Selection procedure for bought out components
Subjective judgements There is a finite number of particular types
cannot always be avoided of component available from
and in such cases manufacturers and

a means of comparison the selection process is heavily constrained

must be established. by the

Manufacturers' data form and content of the information

should be collated and presented by them and the range of
arranged in a suitable catalogues available to the design engineer
format. when the need arises.
 …Selection procedure for bought out components
There is a good case for Data on size, cost and
maintaining a “rolling” catalogue performance can often be noted in
library, or data on numerical form,
microfilm/computer, since
• giving a range where
appropriate.
gathering such information can be
very time consuming,
In the case of less objective data:

particularly if a unique set of data • a rating may be shown based

is collected on each occasion. on advice or opinion gathered.
Selection procedure for bought out components

¡No todo lo
que brilla es
oro!
 …Selection procedure for bought out components
Optimizing the choice is now a In the initial stages some pruning
matter of selecting the best of potential alternatives is called
compromise, for.

in the opinion of the design team, As far as the factors involving

numerical data are concerned,
between the priorities of the
system and the availability of some yield a go/no-go situation
hardware. which will eliminate those which
do not fit within the boundaries
set.
 …Selection procedure for bought out components
Other requirements of a more
subjective nature should be

compared on the basis of the

elements' ability to meet the
criteria as laid down in the

Product Design Specification.

…Selection procedure for bought out components
Further advice on the detail of
installation or specifying and
ordering will be required
from manufacturers' information.

Normally this would be available

in a catalogue but

often it is necessary to
communicate directly with a
representative of the company.
 …Selection procedure for bought out components,
Example
Consider the decisions which
influence the type of spring most
suitable for a particular
application.
…example
…example
…example
 …Selection procedure for bought out components
For some applications safety codes The flow chart illustrates the level
require that a compression spring of thought which must be applied
is used. to the smallest detail in any
design.
This is because a failed
compression spring can continue It only takes the failure of a
to provide a stop and hold relatively insignificant component
components apart, to render the whole design
worthless.
 DETAIL DESIGN, Robust design
 Design for reliability Design for reliability

 Failure Modes and Steady increase in reliability engineering stems

Effects Analysis from the increasing awareness that the cost of
(FMEA) ownership of a product or system comprises
two components.
 Design for quality
• Capital cost and
 Design against high
cycle fatigue • cost of operating, administering, maintaining
and replacing the product or system.
 Robust design, Design for reliability
The running cost, can often exceed 100% reliability testing is
the capital cost and is a function of unthinkable since this implies that
reliability. there would be no products for
sale.
Disastrous
financial • Reliability adds cost to a
consequences of product
equipment failure:
most customers
specify tightly • Unreliability carries with it a
reliability cost penalty.
conditions.
 ...Robust design, Design for reliability

Optimum level of
reliability is always
a compromise
between the two.

a) En cuanto a

b) se tiene
 ...Robust design, Design for reliability
¿Tiene sentido
hacer máquinas o
sistemas
artificialmente
baratos?

-95 -50 -25 -10

 ...Robust design, Design for reliability
Reliability is concerned with the Parameter “failure rate”, (t).

• causes, A method of describing the

• distribution and occurrence of failures is to state
• prediction of failure. the mean time between
successive failures.

Failure:
termination of the ability of a
component or system to perform
its required function.
 ...Robust design, Design for reliability
MTBF: Mean time between failures. MTBF= MTTF + mean time
to repair.
MTTF: Mean time to fail.
 ...Robust design, Design for reliability
Failure rate, (t) is not necessarily
constant.

If a reliability test were

undertaken with a large sample
and each product were tested
until it failed and not replaced,

the typical failure rate against time

curve would be what is known as
the 'bath-tub'
 ...Robust design, Design for reliability
Usually has failures that occur at a relatively low rate but from a wide
variety of causes.

Often covered by
the
manufacturer's
guarantee.
End of the useful
working life.
 ...Robust design, Design for reliability
Reliability R(t) :
Time related, a probability,
expressed as a value between 0
and 100%.

Consider a number of components

No being tested and

allowed to fail without confiabilidad

replacement so that at any time t
there are Ns surviving.
 ...Robust design, Design for reliability
If now the failure rate, (t) is expressed in For this condition, the
terms of Ns(t) the relationship between MTBF,  is the reciprocal
failure rate and R(t) is: of the failure rate:
?

when the failure rate is constant:

 ...Design for reliability, Example
Records kept on 1000 engines of
the same type show an average
life to failure of 14000 flying hours.

What is the probability that one

such engine will survive a
transatlantic flight of 7 hours? R(7) = Probability of surviving 7 or
more hours:
R(7)
 ...example
The situation is more complex
since a modern passenger aircraft
will always have more than one
engine and

could continue flying without one

engine.

99.95% is only a measure of the

reliability of the engine not the
aircraft.
 ...Robust design, Design for reliability
Reliability of a system can be Consider a system comprising two
obtained from the knowledge of components connected in series
the reliabilities of its components. such that

Many types of system-component failure of either causes system

relationships exist. failure.

Series and parallel are two such

relationships.
 ...Robust design, Design for reliability
The reliability of the system is the Expanding to the case of N
product of the component components connected in series:
reliabilities.

If the components each have a : reliability of the system

reliability of 90% then

Reliability of the system =

0.9 x 0.9
= 0.81 or 81%
 ...Robust design, Design for reliability
If a series system comprises 100 In this order, there is no
components each with a reliability of hope of the system working
90% then: satisfactorily over the
required lifetime.

If the individual reliability is

increased to 0.999 then the
system reliability becomes

0.906 or 90.6%. 
 ...Robust design, Design for reliability
If the failure rates a and b Applying the series rule gives:
apply to the two-component
system such that:

and This shows that the system is a

constant failure-rate system of failure
rate a + b.
 ...Robust design, Design for reliability
Consider now another type of The failure of a single component
system, again does not cause system failure.

comprising two components but Probability of system success is now

so connected that if one fails the
the system does not fail.
probability that either or both units
This is a parallel system. succeed:
 ...Robust design, Design for reliability
In general: To achieve the degree of
reliability required it may be
necessary to

duplicate components so that

if one component fails there is

another available to carry on

working (redundancy).
 ... Design for reliability, Redundancy
Examples of redundancy: Operating theatres of
hospitals.
Altimeter in aircraft.
One is insufficient in case of malfunction. If the mains electricity fails
Two would pose the problem of provision is made for
identifying which is giving the correct switching to an emergency
reading if they differed. Three are supply.
required.
This is standby redundancy.
This is called active redundancy.
 ... Design for reliability, Redundancy
Spokes of a bicycle wheel

Several can break and the wheel

will still function.

This is called partial

redundancy.
 ... Design for reliability, Redundancy, Example.
Gearbox containing six rolling That is, [in that time], each bearing
element bearings. has a reliability of 0.9.

Life of a bearing, which is The gearbox has six bearings and all
quoted by a manufacturer, must function for the gearbox to
indicates the number of cycles operate.
after which
The gearbox reliability = (0.9)6 = 0.54
10% of the bearings would fail. or 54%.
 ...Redundancy, Example.
Considering a shaft requiring a bearing at each end:

The reliability of the two bearings is 0.81 or 81%

If this is unacceptable, two bearings could be used at each end of the

shaft.
 ...Redundancy, Example.
Model now is as shown and the reliability is increased.
 ...Redundancy, Example.

This gives an increase of 17% in reliability.

 ... Robust design,
FMEA
(Failure Modes and Effects Analysis)
First used in the 1960s by the An objective method for evaluating
aerospace industry, system design.

Now, used by most industrial

sectors.
 ... Robust design, FMEA
A multi-disciplinary team to It is one of the most powerful tools
available for identifying
consider all the potential failure
modes of the components • reliability, desempeño
which make up a system or • safety,
product and • compliance, and
• product non-conformities
quantifying the influence such
failures would have on overall during the design stages.
reliability.
 ... Robust design, FMEA
Directs attention to those areas Once critical components are
of a detail product design which identified then
may cause
corrective action can be taken to
non-satisfaction of the improve the design.

• reliability or

• safety criteria of the

specification.
 ... Robust design, FMEA
To identify critical FMEA is an ongoing process that should
parts within a system
or product start as a part of the first design review and

which benefit from continue throughout the life of the product.

the introduction of
parallel or redundant
components.
 ... Robust design, FMEA
Effect of a component failure The occurrence of the failure
depends upon the function of (Relative Failure Rate) is represented
the component in the system. by the variable O

The severity of a potential and is assigned a value between

failure is represented by the 1 & 10,
variable S

where 10 is the highest failure rate.

and is assigned a value between
1 & 10, 10 is the most severe.
 ... Robust design, FMEA
The ability to detect a failure is The relative importance of a failure
represented by the variable D mode is represented by its

which is assigned a value Risk Priority Number (RPN)

between 1 & 10

with 10 being the most difficult

to detect.
 ... Robust design, FMEA
A component with a RPN > 100
is considered to be definitely
worthy of attention.

The FMEA process develops

several very useful databases
that

provide manufacturers with the

basic tools necessary to control
the quality of their product.
 ... Robust design, FMEA
(1) A cross-functional team (4) Define the effects of failure in
must be used to develop the terms of what the customer might
FMEA. notice.

(2) Identify the function of the (5) Rate the severity (or seriousness)
component. of the potential effect of the failure.

(3) List at least one potential (6) Assign an occurrence rank to each
failure mode for each function. of the potential causes/mechanisms
of failure.
 ... Robust design, FMEA, Method
(7) Assign a detection ranking (9) Identify and carry out remedial
that assesses the ability of the actions for potential significant and
design controls to detect a critical characteristics of components
potential cause/mechanism or to lower the risk of the higher RPN
the ability of the design failure modes.
controls to detect the
subsequent failure mode.
(10) Calculate the new
(8) Calculate the RPN numbers severity, occurrence,
for each component. detection and RPN
numbers.
 ... Robust design, FMEA
The reasons for the FMEA being The following tables give general
carried out by a multi- guidance for this process and the
disciplinary team are explained ratings quoted are those used in the
by the automotive industry.

subjective nature of arriving at

the occurrence, severity and
detectability scores
... Robust design, FMEA, Occurrence
... Robust design, FMEA, Severity
... Robust design, FMEA, Severity
 ... Robust design, FMEA, Severity

?
... Robust design, FMEA, Detectability
... Robust design, FMEA, Detectability
 ... Robust design, FMEA, Detectability

Note: Zero (0) rankings for Severity, Occurrence or Detection are not
allowed.
 ... Robust design, FMEA
Example: did not release pressure unless the
redesign of the pressure relief toilet were operated.
valve for a toilet cassette in a
caravan.

It was required due to problems

associated with “blow-back”

when the valve became blocked

and therefore
 ... Robust design, FMEA
After consideration of various
alternatives the concept shown
was investigated using FMEA.

Most important features of the new

design are:

• rounded top of the float preventing

debris from settling,
• low friction coefficient material for the
float and the
• mesh guard.
... Robust design, FMEA
... Robust design, FMEA
 ... Robust design, FMEA
Since there are no RPNs over • possible clogging of the valve with
100, there is no serious need for solid waste.
attention to any one element of
the design. During detail design

The two which are highlighted • materials selection and

are the • surface finish
were considered more carefully than
• potential for chemical might have been the case without
breakdown of the valve carrying out an FMEA on the new
materials and design.
 ... Robust design, Design for quality
In the increasingly global The quality of a product is a measure
competitive world in which of the degree to which it meets the
companies must operate, customer's requirements.

persistent quality improvement, Reliability is defined as the probability

that a device or system will operate
often allied with assembly and without failure for a given period of
manufacture cost reduction, time.

is essential if a company is to
remain profitable.
 ... Robust design, Design for quality
Reliability is concerned with • Old concepts:
how long quality exists. improving product quality by
controlling manufacturing processes
and identifying poor quality items by
inspection.

• Recent concepts:
improving product and
process design at the design stage.
 ... Robust design, Design for quality
Reasons: vast majority
of engineering
changes occur close
to, and sometimes
after, the product is
released for
production.
 ... Robust design, Design for quality
The later in the design and The aim is to design quality in by
development process these getting the product right first time.
changes occur the greater
the cost penalty. The aim is to move the peak further
left, as far before the release date as
This is particularly true once possible.
manufacture has
commenced and the effect
is magnified by delaying the
launch of the product.
 ... Robust design, Design for quality
Adoption of the quality Quality has no meaning unless it is
techniques which follow will related to cost.
result in
• shorter lead times, a In general, the more expensive a
product is the better its quality.
• reduced number of
engineering changes, The aim is to improve the quality of a
product without increasing the cost
• reduced costs and increased of producing that product.
quality.
 ... Robust design, Design for quality
This can be achieved by Two different categories of factors are
reducing the effects of identified.
variability of controlling
parameters. • control factors, (easily controlled)
Examples: material selection,
The technique is called operating voltages and sizes.
parameter design.
• noise factors (cannot be controlled
easily)
Often very costly when control is
attempted.
 ... Robust design, Design for quality
The approach is: Consider the design of an electrical
power supply circuit.
to identify those control
factors which are insensitive
to noise factors and
particularly those which
exhibit non-linearity.

The aim is to reduce the

sensitivity of products to the
source of variation.
 ... Robust design, Design for quality
Following conceptual (system)
design the components making up
the circuit are selected.

There are many combinations of

• resistance,
• capacitance and
• transistor
characteristics which will provide a
functioning circuit.
 ... Robust design, Design for quality
If the desired output is 240 volts In order to obtain an
output voltage of 240 V
the designer selects gain
then parameter design seeks to reduce the
A1.
variability about this mean for all circuits
produced,
If the actual gain
deviation is as
without significant increase in associated
represented by the area
costs.
under the normal curve
then the voltage will also
The output voltage can be determined by the deviate about the target
gain on the transistor, which is non-linear. of 240 V.
 ... Robust design, Design for quality
An alternative course is to use Such adjustment of target value, and
the effect of the non-linearity of the introduction of an extra
the gain curve. component,

If the flatter part of the curve in this case a resistor to reduce 270 V
were used, the target voltage to 240 V, must be considered
carefully.
would increase to around 270 V
but the deviation about this
value would be reduced. It can often be a simpler and more
cost effective way of controlling
variance.
... Robust design, Design for quality
 ... Robust design, Design for quality
Although it is difficult to A product causes losses when it
quantify the quality of a product deviates from target values, even
one measure is becoming when within the specified tolerance
accepted. limits.

“Loss to Society.”

The smaller the loss the greater

the quality.
 ... Robust design, Loss to Society, Example
It involves two manufacturing The design philosophy in the Japanese
plants making identical plant was to aim for as many
television sets for Sony, one in televisions as possible to be near to
the USA and the other in Japan. the target value for colour density and

The key characteristic involved not to be too worried about a

was colour density, small number which were outside the
acceptable limits.
the target values for which were
set after extensive customer
trials.
 ... Robust design, Loss to Society, Example
By contrast, the design philosophy of the American factory was to
maximize the number within the acceptable limits.

The results are:

 ... Robust design, Loss to Society, Example
The Japanese philosophy whilst a small percentage of the
resulted in a normal distribution Japanese sets were outside these
whereas the American limits.
philosophy resulted in the flat
profile. It is clear from the distributions that
more of the Japanese sets were on
and around the target value.
All of the televisions produced
in the USA were within the
specified limits of acceptability Customer perception was that the
Japanese sets were of much higher
quality than the American sets.
 ... Robust design, Loss to Society, Example
Conclusion:
quality is best achieved by
minimizing variance rather than
by strict adherence to the
specification.

The loss to society in this case is

represented by a quadratic
function with the loss to society
increasing as the square of the
deviation from target.
 ... Robust design, Design for quality
Of foremost importance Measures to counteract and reduce product
is the definition of variability can only be taken during design.
'manufacturing' quality
as Techniques used later, during manufacturing
or process design can reduce variance
product uniformity introduced due to
around a target rather • manufacturing tolerances,
than • material imperfections, …

conformance to Even these can be most effectively tackled

specification limits. during design.
 ... Robust design, Design against high cycle fatigue

Only rarely does the failure of a

component or structure occur
due to the application of a
single static heavy load.

Failure is more often caused by

lighter repeated or cyclic
loading and usually occurs at a
point of stress concentration
 ... Robust design, Design against high cycle fatigue

Some simple rules will extend High cycle fatigue,

the life of a product greatly.
above 1000 cycles during expected
• Reduce stress raising effects. design life,
• Provide best possible surface
finish. is by far the most common cause of
• Compress the surface. component failure in service
• Stress relieve. accounting for an estimated 80% of all
• Select materials which resist fractures.
fatigue.
 ... Robust design, Design against high cycle fatigue
The cause of the failure can be Change in shape accompanied by the
traced back to a lack of detail welding of two components together
design consideration, has a potential for disaster
particularly in component or significantly increased.
joint shape.
This is due in the main to residual
Most failures occur at changes tensile stresses caused by the
in cross-section of a component
or at • cooling and

the joints between components. • contracting of the weld pool.

 ... Robust design, Design against high cycle fatigue
Many manufacturing processes These will relax with time but there
leave residual or built in stresses are various techniques for speeding
in the component or structure. the process.

Most common of these are Shot blasting, sand blasting or any

tensile stresses due to similar process which compresses the
differential cooling following surface reduces significantly any built
welding. in tensile stresses.

In stress relieving the structure is

heated and then allowed to relax.
 ... Robust design, Design against high cycle fatigue
There is a great deal of very Materials which exhibit a greater
advanced science in the most resistance to fatigue should be
refined areas of fatigue life selected for critical areas of a design.
prediction,
For example, ceramic materials are
but a good deal of common not thought to be susceptible to
sense and the application of fatigue at all.
these basic principles should
ensure that many potential
failures are avoided.
 ... Robust design, Design against high cycle fatigue
A century ago British engineer Sir William
Fairbaim, carried out classic experiments
on wrought iron girders.

A girder which was statically loaded would

support 12 tonf for an indefinite period

but would fail if a load of only 3 tonf were

raised and lowered on it more than a
million times.
 ... Robust design, Design against high cycle fatigue
The quantification of the •
mean stress
number of cycles that a •
alternating stress
product will last for, fatigue •
material ultimate tensile strength
life, is based on testing data.
•
the type of loading: bending, axial or
torsion
There is a great wealth of this • the surface finish
data.
• the effect of any stress raiser
• the size of the component
The factors which must be
taken into account in design
are:
 ... Robust design, Design against high cycle fatigue
 the surface finish (the
rougher the surface the
lower the number of cycles
the component will
complete)

 the size of the component

(since only relatively small
components are normally
tested to destruction)
 Detail design principles
Optimization Analysis
The search is for the best Ensure that all components have
compromise between appropriate factors of safety and are
conflicting criteria. not over designed.

Simplification Robustness
Where possible rely on the The designer should aim for a product
expertise and knowledge of which is fit for the purpose intended
specialist manufacturers by for the lifetime intended.
using proprietary components.
Detail design principles
Synthesis
A solution is often arrived at by
a combination of techniques
and elements.

Iteration Progress
towards the production stage is
made iteratively as knowledge
of the important factors grows.