Study Notes for Earth and Life Science

1. Introduction to Earth and Life Science

 Earth Science: Focuses on the Earth’s physical structure, materials, and processes. This
includes geology, meteorology, oceanography, and astronomy.
 Life Science: Concerns the study of living organisms (plants, animals, microorganisms)
and their interactions with each other and their environment. This includes biology,
ecology, genetics, and evolution.

2. Structure of the Earth

 Layers of the Earth:

o Crust: The outermost layer, made of solid rock. It includes the continents and
ocean floors.
o Mantle: Located beneath the crust, the mantle is made up of semi-solid rock that
can flow slowly.
o Outer Core: A liquid layer composed mainly of iron and nickel.
o Inner Core: The Earth’s innermost layer, a solid ball of iron and nickel.
 Tectonic Plates: The Earth’s lithosphere is broken into large plates that float on the semi-
fluid asthenosphere. The movement of these plates causes earthquakes, volcanoes, and
mountain formation.
 Earth’s Systems:
o Geosphere: The solid Earth, including rocks, minerals, and landforms.
o Hydrosphere: All water on Earth, including oceans, rivers, lakes, and
groundwater.
o Atmosphere: The layer of gases surrounding Earth, essential for life (e.g.,
oxygen, carbon dioxide).
o Biosphere: The zone where life exists, including land, water, and the atmosphere.

3. The Earth’s Processes

 Plate Tectonics: The theory that Earth's surface is divided into tectonic plates that move
over time, causing geological features such as mountains, ocean basins, and earthquakes.
 Volcanism: The eruption of molten rock (magma) onto Earth’s surface as lava. Volcanic
activity can shape the landscape and influence the atmosphere.
 Weathering and Erosion:
o Weathering: The breakdown of rocks into smaller particles due to physical,
chemical, or biological processes.
o Erosion: The movement of weathered material (sediment) by wind, water, or ice.
 The Water Cycle: Describes how water moves through the Earth’s atmosphere, surface,
and underground. The cycle involves evaporation, condensation, precipitation, and
runoff.

4. Life Science
  Characteristics of Life:
o Organization: Living organisms have cells, tissues, organs, and systems working
together.
o Metabolism: All chemical reactions within an organism that help it maintain life.
o Growth and Development: Organisms grow and develop over time, often going
through specific life stages.
o Reproduction: The ability of organisms to produce offspring.
o Response to Stimuli: Organisms respond to their environment.
o Adaptation: Over time, organisms evolve traits that help them survive in their
environment.

5. The Cell

 Basic Unit of Life: All living organisms are made up of cells, the fundamental units of
structure and function.
 Types of Cells:
o Prokaryotic Cells: Simple cells without a nucleus (e.g., bacteria).
o Eukaryotic Cells: Complex cells with a nucleus and organelles (e.g., plant and
animal cells).
 Cell Organelles:
o Nucleus: The control center of the cell containing DNA.
o Mitochondria: The powerhouse of the cell, responsible for energy production.
o Chloroplasts: Found in plant cells, these organelles convert sunlight into
chemical energy via photosynthesis.
o Cell Membrane: A protective layer that controls the movement of substances in
and out of the cell.

6. Genetics and Heredity

 DNA and Genes: DNA is the molecule that carries genetic information. Genes are
segments of DNA that determine traits.
 Chromosomes: Structures in the nucleus made up of DNA. Humans have 23 pairs of
chromosomes.
 Mendelian Inheritance: Gregor Mendel's experiments on pea plants revealed how traits
are inherited. Traits are passed from parents to offspring through dominant and recessive
alleles.
 Genetic Variation: Differences in the DNA sequence among individuals within a
population, leading to diversity.
 Mutations: Changes in the DNA sequence that can result in new traits or diseases.

7. Evolution and Natural Selection

  Theory of Evolution: Proposed by Charles Darwin, this theory suggests that species
evolve over time due to natural selection, where individuals with advantageous traits are
more likely to survive and reproduce.
 Natural Selection: The process by which organisms with traits that help them survive in
their environment are more likely to reproduce, passing those traits on to the next
generation.
 Adaptation: Over many generations, populations may change and adapt to better suit
their environment.

8. Ecology

 Ecosystem: A community of living organisms interacting with their physical

environment (abiotic factors like water, air, temperature).
 Food Chains and Food Webs: Describes how energy flows through ecosystems. A food
chain shows a linear path of energy transfer, while a food web shows interconnected food
chains.
 Trophic Levels:
o Producers: Organisms that produce their own food through photosynthesis (e.g.,
plants).
o Consumers: Organisms that eat other organisms. Includes herbivores, carnivores,
and omnivores.
o Decomposers: Organisms like fungi and bacteria that break down dead organic
material.
 Energy Flow: Energy enters an ecosystem through sunlight, is captured by producers,
and then flows through consumers and decomposers.
 Biomes: Large regions of Earth defined by their climate and the types of organisms that
live there (e.g., rainforest, desert, tundra).

9. Human Impact on Earth and Life

 Climate Change: Human activities, such as burning fossil fuels, contribute to global
warming and changes in climate patterns.
 Biodiversity Loss: Human actions, such as deforestation and pollution, threaten the
survival of species and ecosystems.
 Pollution: Contamination of the air, water, and soil can have devastating effects on
ecosystems and human health.
 Conservation: Efforts to protect biodiversity, preserve natural habitats, and reduce
human impact on the environment.

10. The Scientific Method

 Observation: Noticing and describing a phenomenon.

 Hypothesis: Proposing a testable explanation for the observation.
 Experimentation: Conducting controlled tests to verify or reject the hypothesis.
 Analysis: Interpreting the data from the experiment.
 Conclusion: Drawing conclusions based on the data and either supporting or revising the
hypothesis.