Chapter 1: Fluid Mechanics

Fluid: A fluid is substance that can flow. Fluids conform to the boundaries of any container
in which we put them. They do so because they can’t sustain a force that is tangential to its
surface. Fluids includes both liquid and gases.
Properties of fluid:
(i) fluid deforms continuously when subjected to a shear stress.
(ii) the spacing between molecules of fluids is large and the intermolecular forces are
relatively small.
(iii) a fluid can sustain only compressive forces and that too when it is confined in a container.
(iv) in certain cases, a fluid may sustain a small amount of tensile stress, but its tensile
strength is usually neglected.
(v) the shearing stress exists in a fluid when it is in motion.
(vi) among fluids, gases are extremely compressible but liquids are relatively incompressible.

Rate of flow: Here we shall concern ourselves only with ideal fluids. An ideal liquid is
considered to be perfectly mobile, practically incompressible and non-viscous i.e having no
internal friction. And an ideal gas is considered to be perfectly obey Boyles’ and Charles’
laws.
The rate of flow of a fluid is defined as the volume of it that flows across any section of a
pipe/tube in unit time. It is really the volume rate of flow of the fluid or its discharge, usually
represented by Q or V.
Considering the fluid to be incompressible, if it is velocity of the flow be v, in a direction
perpendicular to two sections A and B, of area a, and a distance l apart, and if t be the time
taken by the liquid to flow from A to B (Fig. 1), then we have
vt = l (1)
Obviously, the volume of liquid flowing through the section AB, in this time, is equal to the
cylindrical column AB

= l ×a = vt ×a

Therefore, vt ×a is the volume of liquid flowing across the section in time t.

vt ×a
Volume rate flow of the liquid =
𝑡
= v ×a
= velocity of the liquid ×area of cross-section of the tube
Sometimes, the rate flow of a liquid is also expressed in terms of the mass of the liquid
flowing across any section in unit time and is referred to as its mass rate of flow. Thus
mass rate of flow of liquid = mass of liquid flowing across any section per unit time
m
=
𝑡

ρV
=
𝑡
ρ×vt ×a
=
𝑡
= v ×a ×ρ
= velocity of liquid ×area of cross-section ×density of liquid

Uniform flow: The flow is said to be uniform when the velocity and other characteristics are
constant in a particular reach. A flow will be uniform if the rate of change of these
characteristics with respect to distance along the path is zero. For example, if v is the velocity
at any point, the flow will be uniform if
𝑑𝑣
=0
𝑑𝑆
where S is the distance measured from some fixed point on the path of flow. In other words,
the velocity is constant in the reach.
A liquid flowing through a long straight pipe of uniform diameter at a constant rate is an
example of uniform flow, as the velocity is the same at all sections in the reach (Fig. 2).

Non-uniform flow:
The flow is non-uniform when the flow characteristics change at various points along the
path. For example, if v is the velocity at any point, the flow will be non-uniform if
𝑑𝑣
≠0
𝑑𝑆

If the diameter of the pipe changes i.e the pipe is either converging or diverging, the velocity
at different sections in the reach is not constant and the flow is non-uniform (Fig. 3).

Steady flow: The flow is said to be steady when the flow characteristics, such as velocity,
density, pressure, temperature, do not change with time. A flow will be steady when the rate
of change of these characteristics is zero. For example, if v is the velocity at any point, the
flow will be steady if
𝑑𝑣
=0
𝑑𝑆
Water flowing through a tap at a constant rate is an example of steady flow.

Unsteady flow: The flow is unsteady if the velocity and other hydraulic characteristics
change with respect to time. Mathematically,
𝑑𝑣
≠0
𝑑𝑆
If the water is flowing at a changing rate, as is the case when the tap is just opened, the flow
is unsteady for some time. Similarly, in the case of a canal when the regulator is just opened,
the flow is unsteady. After some time, the flow in the canal becomes constant and the flow
becomes steady.
Streamline flow
The motion of a fluid may be either steady or unsteady. In steady or orderly motion, the
velocity v at a given point is constant in time. Since velocity at a certain point does not change
in time, every particle arriving at a point, say P, (Fig. 4) will pass on with the same speed in
the same direction. The same is true for points Q and R. Thus if we trace out the path of the
particle, as indicated by the curve in the figure, then this curve will be the path of every
particle arriving at P. This kind of flow is called streamline flow and the curve is called a
streamline.

No two streamlines can ever cross each other, for if they do, then the flow would not be
steady. In steady flow, the pattern of streamlines is stationary with time. The flow of thick
oils through a small tube is an example of streamline flow.

Turbulent flow: Flow is said to be turbulent when its path lines are irregular curves crossing
one another. The fluid particles occupy successively different transverse positions. The paths
are neither parallel nor fixed. A particle may be at the center of the conduit at an instant and
near the wall at the next instant. Fig. 5.1 shows the erratic path followed by a single particle
during an interval of time. Fig. 5.2 shows the paths taken by a number of particles at any
instant.

The flow in the rivers at the time flood is turbulent. Generally, the flow in nature is turbulent.
The equation of continuity
You may have notice that you can increase the speed of the water emerging from a garden
hose by partially closing the hose opening with your thumb. Apparently, the speed v of the
water depends on the cross-sectional area a through which the water flows. Here we wish to
derive an expression that relates v and a for the steady flow of an ideal fluid through a tube
with varying cross section.

Imagine the fluid to flowing through a pipe AB as shown in the Fig. 6 with a1 and a2 as its
areas of cross-section at section A and B and consider an infinitesimally small tube flow of
cross-sectional areas da1 and da2 at its two ends and with velocities of the fluid v1 and v2 at
section A and B, respectively. Then, if the fluid covers distances ds1 and ds2 in time dt, at the
tube ends and ρ1 and ρ2 be the densities of the fluid at A and B, we have

small mass of fluid entering flow-tube at end A per unit time = da1. ds1. ρ1/dt
= da1. v1. ρ1
and small mass of fluid leaving flow-tube at end B per unit time = da2. ds2. ρ2/dt
= da2. v2. ρ2
mass of fluid entering the whole section A per sec. i. e mass of flow rate at A
𝑎1

= ∫ 𝑑𝑎1 . 𝑣1 . 𝜌1 = 𝑎1 . 𝑣1 . 𝜌1
0

And mass of fluid leaving the whole section B per sec. i. e mass rate of flow at B
 𝑎2

= ∫ 𝑑𝑎2 . 𝑣2 . 𝜌2 = 𝑎2 . 𝑣2 . 𝜌2
0

For incompressible liquid, 𝜌1 = 𝜌2 and since we have no source or sink in between sections
A and B, we have from the law of conservation of matter
𝑎1 𝑣1 = 𝑎2 𝑣2 = 𝑉
i. e the rate of flow at A = the rate of flow at B
This relation between speed and cross-sectional area is called the equation of continuity for
the flow of an ideal fluid. It tells us that the flow speed increases when we decrease the cross-
sectional area through which the liquid flows.

Bernoulli’s theorem
This theorem, given by the Swiss engineer Daniel Bernoulli in the year 1738, states that
the total energy per unit mass of a liquid flowing from one point to another without any
friction remains constant throughout the displacement.
The pressure and potential energies of a liquid are convertible, one into the other, and so are
its pressure and kinetic energies. It flows, therefore, that in any streamline flow of liquid, the
loss of energy in one form is equal to the gain of energy in another, or that the sum total of
its energy, that is to say
pressure energy + potential energy + kinetic energy = constant
1 2
𝑝 + ℎ𝜌𝑔 + 𝜌𝑣 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
2
This relation is known as Bernoulli’s Equation.

Proof of Bernoulli’s Equation

Consider a steady, incompressible and non-viscous fluid flowing through a tube. The
portion of the tube flow is shown in the figure. We will apply the principle of conservation
of energy to this system as it moves from its initial state (Fig. 7a) to its final state (Fig. 7b).
The fluid lying between the two vertical planes separated by a distance L in the figure does
not change its properties during the process. Our concerned will be only with changes that
take place at the input and output ends.
Let y1, v1 and p1 be the elevation, speed and pressure of the liquid entering at the left, and
y2, v2 and p2 be the corresponding quantities for the liquid emerging at the right.
 From the work-kinetic energy theorem we have,
𝑊 = ∇𝐾 (1)
which tells that the change in kinetic energy of the system must be equal to the net work
done on the system. The change in kinetic energy results from the change in speeds between
the ends of the tube and is
1 1
∆𝐾 = ∆𝑚𝑣22 − ∆𝑚𝑣12
2 2
1
= 𝜌∆𝑉 (𝑣22 − 𝑣12 ) (2)
2

where ∆𝑚 (= 𝜌∆𝑉 ) is the mass of the fluid that enters at the input end and leave at the
output end during a small time interval ∆𝑡.
The work done on the system arises from two sources. The work Wg done by gravitational
force on the fluid of mass ∆𝑚 during the vertical lift of the mass from the input level to the
output level is
𝑊𝑔 = −∆𝑚𝑔(𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )
= −𝜌∆𝑉𝑔(𝑦2 − 𝑦1 ) (3)

This work is negative because the upward displacement and the downward gravitational force
have opposite directions.
Work must also be done on the system (at the input end) to push the entering fluid into the
tube and by the system (at the output end) to push forward the liquid that is located ahead of
the emerging fluid.
The work done by a force of magnitude F, acting on the fluid sample contained in a tube of
area A to move the fluid through a distance ∆𝑥, is given by
𝐹∆𝑥 = (𝑝𝐴)(∆𝑥) = 𝑝(𝐴∆𝑥 ) = 𝑝∆𝑉 (4)

The work done on the system is then p1∆𝑉, and the work done by the system is – p2∆𝑉. Their
sum Wp is

𝑊𝑝 = – p2∆𝑉 + p1∆𝑉
= −(𝑝2 − 𝑝1 )∆𝑉 (5)
The work-kinetic energy theorem (Eqn. 1) now becomes
 𝑊 = 𝑊𝑔 + 𝑊𝑝 = ∆𝐾

Substituting from Eqns. (2), (3), (4) and (5) yields

1
−𝜌∆𝑉𝑔(𝑦2 − 𝑦1 ) + −(𝑝2 − 𝑝1 )∆𝑉 = 𝜌∆𝑉(𝑣22 − 𝑣12 )
2

1 1
𝑝1 + 𝜌𝑔𝑦1 + 𝜌𝑣12 = 𝑝2 + 𝜌𝑔𝑦2 + 𝜌𝑣22 = ⋯
2 2
1
𝑝 + 𝜌𝑔𝑦 + 𝜌𝑣 2 = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
2
which is the Bernoulli’s equation.
Application of Bernoulli’s Equation and the Equation of Continuity
Bernoulli’s equation can be used to determine fluid speeds by means of pressure
measurements. The principle generally used in such measuring devices is the following: The
equation of continuity requires that the speed of the fluid at a constriction increases;
Bernoulli’s equation then shows that the pressure must fall there. That is, for a horizontal
1
pipe 𝜌𝑣 2 + 𝑝 equals a constant; if v increases and the fluid is incompressible, p must
2

decrease.

Speed of efflux and Torricelli’s theorem

Let us consider a tank T of cross-sectional area A1, filled to a height H with a liquid of
density ρ (Fig. 8). Suppose that a very small hole of cross-sectional area A2, known as the
orifice, is made in the side of the tank at a depth h below the surface of the liquid. We would
like to calculate the velocity of the liquid with which it issues out of the orifice. This velocity
is referred to as the speed of efflux.

Let us consider the entire volume of the moving fluid as a single tube of flow. Now
consider a point 2 at the orifice. Applying Bernoulli’s theorem to the points 1 and 2 and taking
the orifice as our reference level, we have

1 1
𝑝1 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ + 𝜌𝑣12 = 𝑝2 + 𝜌𝑔(0) + 𝜌𝑣22 (1)
2 2

Where p1 and p2 are the respective pressure at the surface of the tank and at the opening i.e
the orifice. Now

𝑝1 = 𝑝2 (2)
Since both these points are exposed to the atmosphere.
Also since the A1 >> A2, then from the relation A1 v1 = A2v2, v1 << v2 and v1 may be taken to
be zero.
Hence eqns. (1) becomes
1 2
𝜌𝑔ℎ = 𝜌𝑣
2 2
 𝑣22 = 2𝑔ℎ
𝑣2 = 𝑣 = √2𝑔ℎ (3)
The above equation was first obtained by Evangelista Torricelli in 1964 and known as
Torricelli’s theorem of the law of efflux, which can be stated as follows:
The speed of efflux of a liquid issuing out of an orifice is the same as that acquired by any
body in falling freely through the vertical height between the liquid surface and the orifice.
No liquid is ideal i.e completely free from viscosity of internal friction. Hence the velocity
𝑣 = √2𝑔ℎ is never really attained in practice. The actual velocity is given by the relation
𝑣 = 𝐶𝑣 . √2𝑔ℎ where Cv is a constant called the coefficient of velocity. In case of water its
value lies between 0.95 to 0.99 depending upon the head of water i.e., the depth of the orifice
below the water surface and the shape of the orifice. If the orifice is circular and sharp-edged
then its value is usually taken to be 0.97.

The Venturimeter
The figure given bellow (Fig. 9) is a Venturimeter put in a flow pipe to measure the flow
speed of a liquid. A liquid of density ρ flows through a pipe of cross-sectional area A. At the
throat the area is reduced to a and a manometer tube is attached as shown. Let the manometer
liquid, such as mercury, have a density ρ’. By applying Bernoulli’s equation and the and the
equation of continuity at points 1 and 2, it can be shown that the speed of flow at A is

2(𝜌́ − 𝜌)𝑔ℎ
𝑣 = 𝑎√
𝜌(𝐴2 − 𝑎2 )

If we want the volume flux or flow rate R, which is the volume of liquid transported past any
point per second, we simply compute
𝑄 = 𝑣𝐴
Range of liquid issuing out through an orifice
The liquid jet issuing out of the orifice in the form of a parabola and strikes the plane
surface at a distance x from the tank call the its range. If h1 is the height of the orifice from
the plane surface, then the time t taken by the liquid, flowing out of the orifice, to fall through
this height can be obtained from the relation

1
𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2 (1)
2

Here u is the initial vertical component of the speed of efflux and is zero, s = h1 and a = g,
the acceleration due to gravity. Then

1 2ℎ1
ℎ1 = 𝑔𝑡 2 or 𝑡 = √
2 𝑔

2ℎ1
Hence x = vt = √2𝑔ℎ × √ = 2√ℎ × ℎ1
𝑔

But ℎ1 = 𝐻 − ℎ where H is the height of the liquid column in the tank.

Hence
𝑥 = 2√(𝐻 − ℎ)ℎ
𝑥 2 = 4 (𝐻 − ℎ )ℎ
= 4𝐻ℎ − ℎ2
Differentiating with respect to h yields
𝑑𝑥
2𝑥 = 4H – 8h
𝑑ℎ

𝑑𝑥
For x to be maximum, =0
𝑑ℎ

Therefore, 4H-4h = 0
 𝐻 𝐻
ℎ= hence ℎ1 =
2 2

Thus, for the range (x) to be maximum, the orifice must be at half the height of the liquid.
Venturimeter

It is a simple appliance, based on Bernoulli’s theorem, for measuring the discharge

or the rate of flow of a liquid through a pipe. It is invariably used to determine the rate of
flow of water at any point along a pipe line on the drains of the water supply, in which case
it is referred to as the venturi water meter.

It consists of three distant parts: (i) a convergent cone AB, with a slope of its sides
about 1 in 4 to 1 in 5, (ii) a short length BC, of uniform diameter, called the throat and (iii) a
divergent cone of diffuse CD, with a slope of its sides about 1 in 10 or 1 in 20.
The whole of the instrument is connected up as shown in Fig. 1.2, to form part of
the main pipe through which the rate of flow of the liquid is to be determined. Obviously, the
diameter of the inlet or the upstream end A of the cone AB as also that of the outlet or the
downstream end D of cone CD is the same as that of the main pipe, say, d1. Thus, if the
unifom diameter of the throat be d2, the ratio d1/d2 is called the throat ratio, the usual value
of which is ½, though it may vary between ¼ to ¾. It should not, however, be such that the
pressure at that throat may become negative. For, if the pressure here be very low, the liquid
or the water starts giving up its dissolved air and thus begins to vaporize, breaking the
continuity of the liquid flow.
Further, the comparatively sharper slope of the convergent cone AB (with the angle
of convergence between 200 and 300) is designed to rapidly accelerate the liquid flow in order
to develop an appreciable pressure difference between the inlet and the throat, measure by
the rise of liquid in two vertical tubes p1 and p2 called piezometer tubes, filled in the main,
close to the outer end of AB and in the throat, respectively as shown.
The smaller slope of the divergent cone CD (with the angle of divergence between
50 and 140) serves to decelerate the liquid flow and to increase the area of cross-section of
the liquid stream back to that at the inlet or the main pipe in a gradual manner. For, if this
latter process be hastened by making the slope sharper, the layer in contact with the wall of
the diffuser or cone CD may break away from it, due to what is called boundary effect, roll
itself up in the form of vortices and be left behind. Indeed, it is for this very reason, that the
pressure measurements for calculating the rate of flow are made only between the converging
cone (AB) and the throat (BC) and not between the throat and the diverging cone CD.

Calculation
Let p1, v1 and p2, v2 be the pressures and velocities respectively in the inlet and the
throat at some points as 1 and 2. Then, since the pipe is horizontal, we have, in accordance
with Bernoulli’s theorem,
1 1
𝜌𝑣12 + 𝑝1 = 2 𝜌𝑣22 + 𝑝2 (1)
2

where ρ is the density of the liquid assumed to be constant.

So that
𝑝1 − 𝑝2 = 𝜌(𝑣12 − 𝑣22 )/2
𝜌𝑣12 𝑣12− 𝑣22 𝜌𝑣12 𝑣12
𝑝1 − 𝑝2 = ( )= (𝑣 2 − 1) (2)
2 𝑣12 2 2

Now, in accordance with the equation of continuity of flow, we have 𝑎1 𝑣1 = 𝑎2 𝑣2 , where

a1 and a2 are the cross-section at points 1 and 2. Substituting v2/v1 = a1/a2 in Eqn. (2) we have

𝜌𝑣12 𝑎12 𝜌𝑣12 𝑎12−𝑎22

𝑝1 − 𝑝2 = (𝑎2 − 1) = ( ) (3)
2 2 2 𝑎22

Clearly, 𝑝1 − 𝑝2 = ℎ𝜌𝑔, where h is the difference of liquid levels in the two piezometer
tubes.
𝜌𝑣12 𝑎12−𝑎22 2ℎ𝜌𝑔.𝑎22
Sothat, ℎ𝜌𝑔 = ( ) or 𝑣12 =
2 𝑎22 𝑎12 −𝑎22

2ℎ𝑔
or 𝑣1 = 𝑎2 √𝑎2 −𝑎2 (4)
1 2

where h is called the venturi head.

And therefore, ratio of flow or discharge of the liquid
2ℎ𝑔
𝑉 = 𝑎1 𝑣1 = 𝑎1 𝑎2 √𝑎2 −𝑎2 (5)
1 2

2𝑔
Clearly, the factor 𝑎1 𝑎2 √𝑎2−𝑎2 depends upon the dimensions of the venturimeter itself. It
1 2

is therefore, called the constant of the venturimeter, denoted by C, and is known for a given
instrument. So that
 𝑉 = 𝐶√ℎ, (6)

which gives the theoretical rate of flow or discharge. When the slight fall in pressure head
between AB and BC is taken into account, the rate of discharge is given by
𝑉 = 𝑘𝐶√ℎ (7)
where k is called the coefficient of discharge or the coefficient of venturimeter. The usual
value of k for water is 0.97, though it is not strictly constant for all velocities. The variation
in the value of k being responsible for taking away from the accuracy of the venturimeter at
low velocities of the liquid flow.