Dry Friction Wedges Belt Friction

Friction
(Engineering Mechanics – CE11001)

Dr. Puneet Kumar Patra

Department of Civil Engineering

Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur
puneet.patra@civil.iitkgp.ac.in

August 1, 2024
Dry Friction Wedges Belt Friction

Outline

1 Dry Friction
Characteristics of Dry Friction
Problems involving Dry Friction

2 Wedges
Introduction
Sample Problems

3 Belt Friction
Introduction
Sample Problems
Dry Friction Wedges Belt Friction

Friction
Dry Friction Wedges Belt Friction

Characteristics of Dry Friction I

Dry friction occurs between two contacting surfaces of bodies in absence of
lubricating fluid

Friction a force that resists the movement of two contacting surfaces that
slide relative to one another.
Friction always acts tangent to the surface at the points of contact
Opposes the possible or existing motion between the surfaces.
Another type of friction, called fluid friction, is studied in fluid mechanics.
Dry Friction Wedges Belt Friction

Characteristics of Dry Friction II

Dry friction can be explained through effects caused by pulling a block horizontally:
Let a block of uniform weight W rest on a rough horizontal surface that is
nonrigid or deformable
The FBD of the block
P shows the floor exerting
P an uneven distribution of
both normal force ( ∆Nn ) and a force ( ∆Fn ) resisting the applied
horizontal force P
P P
Equilibrium: N = ∆Nn = W and F = ∆Fn = P
Origin: microscopic irregularities exist between the two surfaces and, as a
result, reactive forces ∆Rn are developed at each point of contact
Dry Friction Wedges Belt Friction

Characteristics of Dry Friction III

Impending Motion

Often, the frictional force F may not be great enough to balance P → the
block tends to slip
As P is slowly increased, F correspondingly increases until it attains a
certain maximum value Fs , called the limiting static frictional force
The block is in unstable equilibrium → any further increase in P will cause
the block to move.
The limiting static frictional force Fs is ∝ to the resultant normal force N:

Fs = µs N, (1)

µs = coefficient of static friction

Dry Friction Wedges Belt Friction

Characteristics of Dry Friction I

Angle of Static Friction

When the block is on the verge of sliding, the normal force N and frictional
force Fs combine to create a resultant Rs
The angle φs that Rs makes with N is called the angle of static friction:
 
Fs
φs = tan−1 = tan−1 (µs ) (2)
N
Dry Friction Wedges Belt Friction

Friction during Motion I

If the magnitude of P is such that:

P ≥ Fs , (3)

the frictional force at the contacting surface will decrease over Fs

Let the reduced friction be denoted by Fk → kinetic frictional force
The block will begin to slide with increasing speed.
The magnitude of the Fk is ∝ N :

Fk = µk N, (4)

where, µk = coefficient of kinetic friction

The angle of kinetic friction is denoted by φk :
 
Fk
φk = tan−1 = tan−1 µk (5)
N
Dry Friction Wedges Belt Friction

Friction during Motion II

Variation of frictional force F with applied force P

F is the static frictional force if equilibrium is maintained.
F is the limiting static frictional force Fs when it reaches a maximum value
needed to maintain equilibrium
F is the kinetic frictional force Fk when sliding occurs at the contacting
surface
For very large values of P or for high speeds, aerodynamic effects will cause Fk
and likewise µk to decrease
Dry Friction Wedges Belt Friction

Summary I

The frictional force acts tangent to the contacting surfaces in a direction

opposed to the motion or tendency for motion of one surface relative to
another
The maximum static frictional force Fs is independent of the area of
contact, provided the normal pressure is not very low nor great enough to
severely deform or crush the contacting surfaces of the bodies
Fs is generally greater than Fk for any two surfaces of contact
If Fs < P , then F = P
During impending motion, Fs = µs N
As motion starts: Fk = µk N
Dry Friction Wedges Belt Friction

Problems involving Dry Friction I

Three class of problems typically

1 No apparent impending motion → strictly equilibrium problems, F ≤ µs N
2 Impending motion at all points of contact → F = µs N for all points of
contact
3 Impending motion at some points of contact → F = µs N at the contacts
where there is impending motion and F ≤ µs N at all other contacts.
Let us solve a few problems
Dry Friction Wedges Belt Friction

Sample Problem - 1 I

Question: The uniform crate shown on the left side has a mass of 20 kg. If a
force P = 80 N is applied to the crate, determine if equilibrium can be
maintained. The coefficient of static friction is: µs = 0.3.

Solution: We start by drawing the free body diagram, as shown in right. Let us
investigate why Nc does not act at O.
Dry Friction Wedges Belt Friction

Sample Problem - 1 II
Assume Nc acts at O, then take moment about O:

MO = P sin 30 × 0.4 − P cos 30 × 0.2 = 0.027 × P (6)

i.e. there will be unbalanced moment, which can be counteracted only if Nc

acts away from O.
There are three unknowns: F , Nc and x, and we can write three equilibrium
equations, so the problem can be solved uniquely.
The three equilibrium equations are:
P
P Fx = 0 : 80 cos 30 − F = 0;
P Fy = 0 : −80 sin 30 + Nc − 196.2 = 0; (7)
MO = 0 : 80 sin 30 × 0.4 − 80 cos 30 × 0.2 + Nc × x = 0;

Solving the three equations simultaneously, we get: F = 69.3 N, Nc = 236

N, and x = −0.00908 m
What does the negative value of x indicate?
Check: The maximum frictional force developed = µs Nc = 70.8 N. Since,
F = 69.3 < 70.8, the crate remains in equilibrium.
Dry Friction Wedges Belt Friction

Sample Problem - 2 I

Question: The uniform 10-kg ladder shown in the figure rests against the smooth
wall at B, and the end A rests on the rough horizontal plane for which the
coefficient of static friction is µs = 0.3. Determine the angle of inclination θ of the
ladder and the normal reaction at B if the ladder is on the verge of slipping.
Dry Friction Wedges Belt Friction

Sample Problem - 2 II

Solution: On the verge of slipping → impending motion at A → frictional force

FA acts towards right.

NA can be obtained directly from force balance along y−direction:

NA − 10 × 9.81 = 0 =⇒ NA = 98.1N (8)

As the ladder is on the verge of slipping, FA = µs NA = 0.3NA = 29.43N.

Using force balance along horizontal direction, we get:

29.43 − NB = 0 =⇒ NB = 29.43N. (9)

The angle θ can be determined by taking moment at A:

29.43 × 4 sin θ − 98.1 × 2 cos θ = 0 =⇒ tan θ = 1.67 × θ ≈ 59◦ (10)

Dry Friction Wedges Belt Friction

Sample Problem - 3 I

Question: Beam AB is subjected to a uniform load of 200 N/m and is supported

at B by post BC. If the coefficients of static friction at B and C are µB = 0.2 and
µC = 0.5, determine the force P needed to pull the post out from under the beam.
Neglect the weight of the members and the thickness of the beam.
Dry Friction Wedges Belt Friction

Sample Problem - 3 II
Solution: Let us count the number of unknowns in this problem first: there are 2
unknown reactions at A : Ax &Ay , there are 2 unknowns at B : FB &NB , there are
2 unknowns at C : FC &NC , and there is 1 additional unknown: the force P .
There are 7 total unknowns and we can only write 6 equilibrium equations (3 for
the beam AB and three for the post BC.
The FBD of the beam and the post are shown as follows:

By applying MA = 0 → NB = 400 N from the FBD of the beam

The different equations of equilibrium for the post are:

P − FB − FC = 0;
NC − 400 = 0; (11)
−P × 0.25 + FB × 1 = 0
Dry Friction Wedges Belt Friction

Sample Problem - 3 III

These four unknowns cannot be solved using three equilibrium equations

indicated above. Such cases occur frequently when there is impending
motion.
We consider two cases:
1 The post slips at B and rotates about C
2 The post slips at C and rotates about B

The post slips at B and rotates about C: This requires FC ≤ µC NC

and FB = µB NB =⇒ FB = 0.2 × 400 = 80 N. Solving equation 11 we get:
P = 320 N, FC = 240 N, and NC = 400 N.
Since, FC > µC NC = 0.5 × 400 = 200 N, slipping at C occurs.
The post slips at C and rotates about B: This requires FB ≤ µB NB
and FC = µC NC =⇒ FC = 0.5 × NC . Solving equation 11 we get: P = 267
N, NC = 400 N, FC = 200 N, and FB = 66.67 N.
Since slipping at C requires smaller value of P , this case occurs first.
Dry Friction Wedges Belt Friction

Sample Problem - 4 I

Question: Two touching bars m1 and m2 are placed on an inclined plane

forming an angle α with the horizontal. The coefficients of friction between the
inclined plane and these bars are µ1 and µ2 respectively, with µ1 > µ2 . Find the
force of interaction between the bars in the process of sliding down with constant
acceleration.
Solution: For bar m1 :

N1 = m1 g cos α
f1 = µ1 N1 = µ1 m1 g cos α
Fg1 = m1 g sin α
Fnet1 = m1 a = Fg1 − f1

For bar m2 :

N2 = m2 g cos α
f2 = µ2 N2 = µ2 m2 g cos α
Fg2 = m2 g sin α
Fnet2 = m2 a = Fg2 − f2
Dry Friction Wedges Belt Friction

Sample Problem - 4 II

Since both bars are touching and moving together, they have the same
acceleration a:

m1 a = m1 g sin α − µ1 m1 g cos α
m2 a = m2 g sin α − µ2 m2 g cos α
g(sin α − µ1 cos α) g(sin α − µ2 cos α)
a= =
1 1

The force of interaction between the bars is the difference in the net forces acting
on each bar:

Fint = Fnet1 − Fnet2

Fint = (m1 g sin α − µ1 m1 g cos α) − (m2 g sin α − µ2 m2 g cos α)
Dry Friction Wedges Belt Friction

Sample Problem - 5 I
Question: Blocks A and B have a mass of 3 kg and 9 kg, respectively, and are
connected to the weightless links. Determine the largest vertical force P that can
be applied at the pin C without causing any movement. The coefficient of static
friction between the blocks and the contacting surfaces is µs = 0.3.
Dry Friction Wedges Belt Friction

Sample Problem - 5 II
Dry Friction Wedges Belt Friction

Solve on your own I

Question: Is it more effective to move the load forward at constant velocity with
the boom fully extended as shown, or should the boom be fully retracted? Power
is supplied to the rear wheels. The front wheels are free to roll. Do an equilibrium
analysis to explain your answer.
Dry Friction Wedges Belt Friction

Solve on your own I

Question: The rope is used to tow the refrigerator. In order to prevent yourself
from slipping while towing, is it best to pull up as shown, pull horizontally, or pull
downwards on the rope? Do an equilibrium analysis to explain your answer.
Dry Friction Wedges Belt Friction

Solve on your own I

Question: The homogeneous rectangular block of mass m, width b, and height H

is placed on the horizontal surface and subjected to a horizontal force P which
moves the block along the surface with a constant velocity. The coefficient of
kinetic friction between the block and the surface is µk . Determine (a) the
greatest value which h may have so that the block will slide without tipping over,
and (b) the location of a point C on the bottom face of the block through which
the resultant of the friction and normal forces acts if h = H/2.
Dry Friction Wedges Belt Friction

Wedges
Dry Friction Wedges Belt Friction

Introduction I

What are wedges?

Simple machines often used to transform an applied force into much larger
forces, directed at approximately right angles to the applied force
Very useful to slightly move or adjust heavy loads
Consider the wedge under a block shown in the figure whose FBDs are
shown at the center and right; Excluded the weight of the wedge ∵ W
The frictional forces F1 &F2 oppose the motion of wedge, and F3 that of
block.
Dry Friction Wedges Belt Friction

Introduction II

If the block is to be lowered, then the frictional forces will all act in the
opposite sense as shown
If P is not applied and friction forces hold the block in place, then the wedge
is referred to as self-locking
Dry Friction Wedges Belt Friction

Sample Problem - 1 I

Question: The horizontal position of the 500-kg rectangular block of concrete is

adjusted by the 5◦ wedge under the action of the force P . If the coefficient of
static friction for both pairs of wedge surfaces is 0.30 and if the coefficient of static
friction between the block and the horizontal surface is 0.60, determine the least
force P required to move the block.
FBDs are drawn with the reactions R1 , R2 , and R3 inclined with respect to
their normals by the amount of the friction angles for impending motion.
The friction angle for limiting static friction is given by φ = tan−1 µ. Each
of the two friction angles is computed and shown on the diagram.
Dry Friction Wedges Belt Friction

Sample Problem - 1 II

The simplest choice for the reference axes: for the block in the direction
a − a, and for the wedge in the direction b − b. The angle between R2 and
a−direction is 16.7 + 31 = 47.7◦ . So for the block we get:
X
Fa = 0 : 500 × 9.81 × sin 31◦ − R2 cos 47.7◦ = 0 =⇒ R2 = 3750N (12)

For the wedge, the angle between R2 and the b−direction is

90 − (2φ1 + 5) = 51.6◦ , and the angle between P and the b−direction is
φ1 + 5◦ = 21.7◦ . So:
X
Fb = 0 : 3750 × cos 51.6◦ − P cos21.7◦ = 0 =⇒ P = 2500N (13)
Dry Friction Wedges Belt Friction

Sample Problem - 2 I
Dry Friction Wedges Belt Friction

Belt Friction
Dry Friction Wedges Belt Friction

Introduction I

Consider a flat belt passing over a fixed cylindrical drum

In presence of friction between the belt and the cylindrical drum, how are
the two tensions – T1 and T2 related to each other?
Assume that the belt is just about to slide right
Focus your attention to the small segment P − P 0 of the belt and draw its
FBD. The segment subtends an angle ∆θ, the tension at P is T , and that at
P 0 is T + ∆T . An additional normal reaction ∆N exists due to the cylinder
along with the friction ∆F = µs ∆N .
Dry Friction Wedges Belt Friction

Introduction II
Writing the two force equilibrium equations, we get:

∆θ ∆θ
(T + ∆T ) cos − T cos − µs ∆N = 0
2 2 (14)
∆θ ∆θ
∆N − (T + ∆T ) sin − T sin = 0.
2 2

Expanding and solving we get:

∆θ ∆θ
∆T cos − µs (2T + ∆T ) sin =0 (15)
2 2

Under the assumption, that ∆θ  1, we can simplify the equation to:

dT
− µs T = 0 =⇒ log(T2 ) − log(T1 ) = µs β =⇒ T2 = T1 eµs β (16)
dθ

The expression just developed should be used only when there is impending
slippage
Caution: T2 → the tension in that part of the belt or rope which pulls,
T1 → the tension in the part which resists; the angle of contact β → in
radians and can be greater than 2π
Dry Friction Wedges Belt Friction

Sample Problem - 1 I

Question: A flexible cable which supports the 100-kg load is passed over a fixed
circular drum and subjected to a force P to maintain equilibrium. The coefficient
of static friction µs between the cable and the fixed drum is 0.30. (a) For α = 0,
determine the maximum and minimum values which P may have in order not to
raise or lower the load. (b) For P = 500 N, determine the minimum value which
the angle α may have before the load begins to slip.
Dry Friction Wedges Belt Friction

Sample Problem - 1 II

Impending slipping implies: T2 /T1 = eµβ

With α = 0, the angle of contact β = π/2. For impending upward motion,
the load T2 = Pmax , T1 = 981 N, so substituting in the expression we get:
Pmax /981 = e0.30π/2 =⇒ Pmax = 1572 N.
For impending downward motion, T2 = 981 N and T1 = Pmin . Therefore,
substituting it back, we get: Pmin = 981/(e0.30π/2 ) = 612 N.
With T2 = 981 N and T1 = P = 500 N, the equation gives us:

981
= e0.30β =⇒ 0.30β = log(981/500) = 0.674 =⇒ β = 2.25rad = 128.7◦
500

So, α = 128.7◦ − 90◦ = 38.7◦ .

Dry Friction Wedges Belt Friction

Sample Problem - 2 I

Question: A hawser thrown from a ship to a pier is wrapped two full turns
around a bollard. The tension in the hawser is 7500 N; by exerting a force of 150
N on its free end, a dockworker can just keep the hawser from slipping. (a)
Determine the coefficient of friction between the hawser and the bollard. (b)
Determine the tension in the hawser that could be resisted by the 150-N force if
the hawser were wrapped three full turns around the bollard.
Since, slipping of hawser is impending, we can make use of the equation
derived. T2 = 7500 N, T1 = 150 N, and β = 2 × 2π = 12.57 rad.
Substituting everything back, we get: µs = 0.311.
When the hawser is wrapped three turns around bollard, we now have
β = 3 × 2π = 18.85 rad. We need to determine T2 in this case. Substituting
it in the expression derived we see that T2 = 52, 275 N.