ARUNACHALA COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING FOR WOMEN

Manavilai, Vellichanthai.

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

LECTURE NOTES

CE3402 –STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

PREPARED BY,

R.JOTHI /A.P/CIVIL
 Syllabus
CE3402 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS LTPC

3003

COURSE OBJECTIVES:

 To learn the fundamental concepts of Stress in simple and complex states and to know the mechanism of load
transfer in beams and the induced stresses due to simple bending and unsymmetrical bending and to determine
the deformation in determinate beams and to know the basic concepts of analysis of indeterminate beams.

UNIT I SIMPLE AND COMPOUND STRESSES 9

Stresses in simple and compound bars – Thermal stresses – Elastic constants - Thin cylindrical and spherical
shells – Biaxial state of stress – Principal stresses and principal planes – Mohr‟s circle of stresses - Torsion on
circular shafts.

UNITII BENDING OF BEAMS 9

Types of beams and transverse loadings– Shear force and bending moment for simply supported, cantilever and
over-hanging beams - Theory of simple bending – Bending stress distribution – Shear stress distribution.

UNIT III DEFLECTION OF BEAMS 9

Double Integration method – Macaulay‟s method – Area moment method – Conjugate beam method - Strain
energy method for determinate beams.

UNIT IV INDETERMINATE BEAMS 9

Propped Cantilever and Fixed Beams – Fixed end moments reactions, slope and deflection for standard cases of
loading –– Continuous beams – support reactions and moments – Theorem of three moments – Shear Force and
Bending Moment Diagrams.

UNIT V ADVANCED TOPICS 9

Unsymmetrical bending of beams - shear centre applied - Thick cylinders - Theories of failure – Principal stress,
principal strain, shear stress, strain energy and distortion energy theories – application problems.

TOTAL: 45
PERIODS

COURSE OUTCOMES:

Students will be able to

CO1 Understand the concepts of stress and strain, principal stresses and principal planes.

CO2 Determine Shear force and bending moment in beams and understand concept of theory of simple
bending.

CO3 Calculate the deflection of beams by different methods and selection of method for determining slope or
deflection. CO4 Analyse propped cantilever, fixed beams and continuous beams for external loadings and
support settlements.

CO5 Determine the stresses due to Unsymmetrical bending of beams, locate the shear centre, and study the
various theories of failure
TEXTBOOKS

1. Rajput R.K. "Strength of Materials (Mechanics of Solids)", S.Chand & company Ltd., New Delhi, 2018.

2. Rattans‟. "Strength of Materials", Tata McGraw Hill Education Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, 2017.

3. Punmia B.C., Ashok Kumar Jain and Arun Kumar Jain, “Theory of Structures" (SMTS) Vol -II, Laxmi
Publishing Pvt Ltd, New Delhi 2017.

4. Basavarajiah and Mahadevapa, Strength of Materials, University press, Hyderabad, 2016

5. Vazirani.V.N, Ratwani.M.M, Duggal .S.K Analysis of Structures: Analysis, Design and Detailing of
Structures-Vol.1, Khanna Publishers, New Delhi 2014.

REFERENCES:

1. Kazimi S.M.A, “Solid Mechanics”, Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Co., New Delhi, 2017

2. William A .Nash, “Theory and Problems of Strength of Materials”, Schaum‟s Outline Series,Tata McGraw
Hill Publishing company, 2017.

3. Singh. D.K., “Strength of Materials”, Ane Books Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, 2021

4. Egor P Popov, “Engineering Mechanics of Solids”, 2nd edition, PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd., NewDelhi, 2015

5. Irwing H.Shames, James M.Pitarresi, Introduction to Solid Mechanics, Prentice Hall of India, New Delhi,
2002

6. Beer. F.P. &Johnston.E.R.“Mechanics of Materials”, Tata McGraw Hill, Sixth Edition, New Delhi 2010.

. James M.Gere., Mechanics of Materials, Thomas Canada Ltd., Canada, 2006.

8. Egor. Popov, Engineering Mechanics of Solids, Prentice Hall of India, Second Edition New Delhi 2015. 74
 UNIT I

SIMPLE AND COMPOUND STRESSES

Stresses in simple and compound bars – Thermal stresses – Elastic constants - Thin cylindrical
and spherical shells – Biaxial state of stress – Principal stresses and principal planes – Mohr’s
circle of stresses - Torsion on circular shafts

1.Introduction to Mechanics of Materials:

Strength of Materials or Mechanics of Materials is a branch of applied mechanics that deals with the
behaviour of deformable solid bodies subjected to various types of loadings. While studying
Engineering Mechanics it is assumed that all bodies are either rigid or point particles.

In this course on Strength of Materials, the bodies are considered deformable and subjected to failure
or breakage. The focus is more on the internal effects in a body due to externally applied loads. This
helps in determining the safe loads on a structure and is essential in the safe design of all types of
structures like airplanes, antennas, buildings, bridges, ships, automobiles, space crafts, etc.

This course forms the foundation for most engineering disciplines. Mechanical Properties of
Engineering Materials The mechanical properties of a material are those which affect the mechanical
strength and ability of material to be engineered into a suitable shape or application. Some of the
typical mechanical properties of a material are as follows.

Strength: The strength of a material is its ability to withstand an applied load without failure. Failure
is the state of the material in which it is no longer able to bear the applied load.

Elasticity: The property of a material by the virtue of which it returns to its original shape and size
after removal of the applied load is called elasticity. The materials which follow such behaviour are
said to be elastic.

Plasticity: The property of a material by the virtue of which it undergoes permanent deformations,
even after removal of the applied loads is

Ductility: Ductility is a property which allows the material to be deformed longitudinally to a reduced
section under tensile stress. Ductility is often categorized by the ability of material to get stretched
into a wire by pulling or drawing. This mechanical property is also an aspect of plasticity of material.

Brittleness: Brittleness means lack of ductility. A brittle material cannot be deformed longitudinally
to a reduced section under tensile stress. It fails or breaks without significant deformation and without
any warning. It is an undesirable property from structural engineering point of view.

Malleability: Malleability is property of the material which allows the material to get easily
deformed into any shape under compressive stress. Malleability is often categorized by the ability of
material to be formed in the form of a thin sheet by hammering or rolling. This mechanical property is
an aspect of plasticity of material.

Toughness: Toughness is the ability of material to absorb energy and gets plastically deformed
without fracturing. Its numerical value is determined by the amount of energy per unit volume. It unit
is Joule/ m3. Value of tough ness of a material can be determines by stress-strain characteristics of
material. For good toughness material should have good strength as well as ductility.

1.2.Concept of Stress and Strain:

Stress: There are no engineering materials which are perfectly rigid and hence when material is
subjected to external loads, it undergoes deformation. While undergoing deformation the particles of
the material exert a resisting force. When this resisting force becomes equal to the applied load, an
equilibrium condition takes place and deformation stops. This internal resistance is called stress.

Internal resistance per unit area is called intensity of stress (ζ). Its SI unit is N/m or Pascal (Pa). It is
common in engineering practices to specify the units of stress in N/mm2 or MPa.

Consider a uniform cross-section bar under an axial load P. Let us pass an imaginary plane
perpendicular to the bar along the middle so that the bar is divided into two halves. What hold one
part of the bar with the other part is the internal molecular forces, which arise due to the external load
P. In other words, due to the external load there is an internal resistive force that is generated which
the holds the body together. This internal resistive force per unit area is defined as stress. If A is the
area of cross-section of the bar, then the average stress (ζ) on a given cross-sectional area (A) of a
material, which is subjected to load P, is given by (ζ)= P/A

Classification of forces:

Tensile force: Tensile force is a type of loading in which the two sections of material on either side
of a plane along its length tend to be pulled apart or elongated.

Compressive force: Compressive force is a type of loading in which the two sections of material on
either side of a plane along its length tend to be pushed or compressed. • Tensile or compressive stress
acts normal to the stress plane.

Shear/Tangential : A shear stress, symbolized by the Greek letter tau, η, results when a member is
subjected to a force that is parallel or tangent to the surface. The average shear stress in the member is
obtained by dividing the magnitude of the resultant shear force V by the cross sectional area A. Shear
stress is:

Strain : Strain is a measure of deformation produced by the application of external force. It is the
ratio of change in length to original length. It is denoted by (e ). Strain is dimensionless. Strain in
direction of applied load is known as linear or longitudinal strain.

Types of Strain:

1. Tensile strain: Let initial length of bar before applied load be, when tensile load P is applied.
Let the bar be elongated by

2. Compressive strain: Let initial length of bar before applied load be, when compressive
load P is applied. Its length gets decrease by.
3. Shear Strain ( ) : The shear strain is best defined as the change in the angle between the
originally perpendicular edges of the rectangular element of the material, upon application

of the shear stress.

Hooke’s Law:
Within elastic limit or more accurately up to the proportional limit of the material, the stress is
directly proportional to strain.
Simple Tension Test for Mild Steel Specimen on Universal Testing Machine (UTM):
Study the behaviour of ductile materials in tension, a standard mild steel specimen is used for
tensile test on universal testing machine (UTM). On the UTM more than one test can be
performed like Tension, Compression, Bending and Shear etc. The end of specimens is
gripped in UTM and one of the grips is moved apart by hydraulic jack or system, thus
exerting tensile load on the specimen. The load applied is indicated on dial and the extension
in the initial stages is measured by using an extensometer fixed on specimen itself and later
stages by scale fixed on machine. Almost all machines are provided with an autographic
recorder which is directly records the load vs deformation curve (or) stress vs strain curve.
To fix the extensometer on specimen, two points are marked on a portion of specimen. The
distance between these points over which the extension is marked is called gauge length. The
load Vs deformation curve is not unique, even for the specimen of the same material. As the
geometry (either length or cross-sectional area) of the specimen changes, the load-
deformation curve also changes. On the other hand, the Stress vs Strain curve for a material is
unique, irrespective of the geometric dimensions of the material specimen. Thus, for studying
engineering properties of a material, Stress Strain curve is commonly used. The following is
an example of a Stress-Strain curve for mild steel specimen.
 Important Points on the Stress-Strain Curve •

Proportionality Limit: The point up to which stress is linearly proportional to strain and
hence Hooke‟s law is valid up to P. linear elasticity is valid. The slope of this line OP is
nothing but the modulus of elasticity or Young‟s modulus.

• E, Elastic Limit: The maximum stress that may be developed in a simple tension test such
that there is no permanent or residual deformation when the load is entirely removed.
Between P and E material is non-linearly elastic.
• Y1, upper yield point: Point around which dislocations break through interstitial carbon
atoms and relieve lateral strains. This phenomenon is particular to mild steels
• Y2 , lower yield point: Once carbon atoms are overcome by the dislocation, relatively
lower stresses are required to keep the dislocation moving. This happens around Y2. This
phenomenon is also specific to mild carbon steel. The stress corresponding to this point is
called as yield stress or yield strength. Note: Yield stress is also defined, in other words, as
the stress at the material begins to deform plastically.
• U, Ultimate Stress: Maximum stress in a tensile test is reached at this point. The stress
corresponding to this point is called as the Ultimate Strength.
• B, Breaking point or Rupture
Point at which specimen fails, breaking into two. The stress corresponding to this point is
called as the breaking strength or the rupture strength.
Factor of Safety Working Stress: Maximum stress to which the material of a member is
subjected in practice is called working stress.

Factor of Safety: Ratio of yield stress to working stress is called factor of safety. And sometime
factor of safety is taken as the ratio of ultimate stress to working stress. It is necessary that the
working stress should be well below the elastic limit and to achieve this condition, the ultimate stress
is divided by factor of safety to obtain working stress.

Lateral Strain and Poisson‟s Ratio: Strain at right angles to the direction of applied load is known as
lateral strain.
Deformation of a Body due to Self Weight:

Consider a bar AB hanging freely under its own weight as shown in the figure. Let L= length of the
bar A= cross-sectional area of the bar E= Young‟s modulus of the bar material w= Specific weight of
the bar material Then deformation due to the self-weight of the bar.

Members in Uni – axial state of stress

For a prismatic bar loaded in tension by an axial force P, the elongation of the bar can be determined
as

Suppose the bar is loaded at one or more intermediate positions, then equation (1) can be readily
adapted to handle this situation, i.e. we can determine the axial force in each part of the bar i.e. parts
AB, BC, CD, and calculate the elongation or shortening of each part separately, finally, these changes
in lengths can be added algebraically to obtain the total charge in length of the entire bar.
Principle of Superposition:

The principle of superposition states that when there are numbers of loads are acting together on an
elastic material, the resultant strain will be the sum of individual strains caused by each load acting
separately. Types of problem Both ends are free (to expand or shrink) determinate structure: Total
change in length is equal to algebraic sum of change in length of each section of its load P, length L,
Area A, and Young‟s modulus E. These parameters may vary from section to section.

The material is free to expand and shrink. δL =δ 1+ δ2+ δ3+ …..+ δn

Both ends are fixed (cannot expand or shrink) indeterminate structure: Total change in length is zero
because the ends are fixed which will not allow the sections to expand or shrink. Load or stress is
produced by expansion or shrinkage of the section is taken by the ends. Therefore ends carry some
load or stress. Using principle of superposition the reactions at the end of each section is found from
free body diagram. Equate the direction of force in free body diagram to force applied for each
section,

PAB- PBc= P1

PBC + PCD = P2Equations –(A)

The equation shows that the section AB and BC is under tension and CD under compression. The
direction of load in each section can be chosen as we desire, but if the final result is negative then the
direction chosen is incorrect but the answer is correct. So in other words tensile force is actually a
compressive force vice versa. Sum of change in length of each section due to expansion is equal to
sum of change in length of each section due to compression.

The load P, length L, Area A, and Young‟s modulus E parameters may vary from section to section

Expansion section = Compression section δ1+ δ2+....+ δn= δ3+ δ4+ …..+ δn Equations – (B)
Composite Material of Equal length Reinforced Columns, Supporting load, Suspended load,
Composite structure of equal length (example pipe inside a pipe) these problems can be solved with
the following expression.

The change length is same for all materials in that structure. Example in reinforced concrete column
(RCC), steel and concrete length change equally, similarly for supporting load, suspended load, and
composite structure of equal length. Therefore to solve these problems use the following expressions.

Change in length of concrete = change in length of steel

δlc= δls Equation – (A)

is same as equation below for equal length only

ζ c ----- - ζs = ------- Ec - Es

Unequal length it is ζcLc ------ ζsLs =------- - Ec Es

The load P may be shared by two material equally or unequally.

P = Pc+ Ps

P is Total load,

Pc -load taken by concrete and Ps steel. Or P = Acζc+ Asζs(B) When the lengths of the composite
material are equal by substituting B in A, find the stresses in the materials.

The ratio of Es/ Ec is known as modular ratio.

Composite Material of Unequal length tubular section :

1. Find the material or section whose length is shorter or longer than other material. 1. Calculate the
load required to make the section of equal length using formula of δl.

2. This will give the remaining load that will be shared by both the sections. 3. At this point onwards
it is similar to composite material of equal length.

Thermal Stresses: When there is increase in temperature the material expands this will produce stress.
This is known as thermal stress. δl= L αt Thermal stresses when the material is not allowed to
expand: δl ε = ------ = αt ---------Equation (A) L ζ = Eε---------Equation (B)

Substituting A in B ζ = E αt

Thermal stresses when the material is allowed to expand to a length Δ: δl= l αt

Volumetric Strain: Change in volume to the original volume is known as volumetric strain.

Poisson ratio: It is the ratio of lateral strain to the linear strain. It is denoted by symbol µ

µ = lateral strain/ linear strain

Change in volume due to axial load in all three directions for a cube or cuboids
 This equation is valid only when all the loads are applied as tensile load. The same equation can be
used for the following loads,

1. Compressive load change to minus sign to that direction only for the above formula.

2. Load only in one direction the remaining stresses are zero.

3. Load in two directions the remaining stress is zero.

Three important moduli‟s are Elasticity, Bulk, and Rigidity Modulus of Elasticity

Modulus of Rigidity: For elastic materials it is found that shear stress is proportional to the shear
strain within elastic limit. The ratio is called modulus rigidity. It is denoted by the symbol „G‟ or „C‟.

Bulk modulus (K): It is defined as the ratio of uniform stress intensity to the volumetric strain. It is
denoted by the symbol K.

Modulus of Elasticity (or Young’s Modulus) :Young‟s modulus is defined as the ratio of stress to
strain within elastic limit.

Relation between elastic constants: Elastic constants: These are the relations which determine the
deformations produced by a given stress system acting on a particular material. These factors are
constant within elastic limit, and known as modulus of elasticity E, modulus of rigidity G, Bulk
modulus K and Poisson‟s ratio μ.

Problems:1

2. A circular rod of diameter 16 mm and 500 mm long is subjected to a tensile force 40 kN. The
modulus of elasticity for steel may be taken as 200 kN/mm2 . Find stress, strain and elongation of the
bar due to applied load.

Solution: Load P = 40 KN = 40 × 1000 N E = 200 kN/mm2 = 200 × 103 N/mm2 L = 500 mm

Diameter of the rod d = 16 mm Therefore,

Sectional area A = d 2 /4  × 162 /4 = 201.06 mm2

Stress p = P  40  1000 = 198.94 N/mm2

Strain e = 201.06/ 198.94 200  103 = 0.0009947

Elongation  = PL / AE = 4O  103  500/( 201.06  200  103) = 0.497 mm

 BARS WITH CROSS-SECTIONS VARYING IN STEPS

A typical bar with cross-sections varying in steps and subjected to axial load is as shown in Fig.
15(a). Let the length of three portions be L1, L2 and L3 and the respective cross-sectional areas of the
portion be A1, A2, A3 and E be the Young‟s modulus of the material and P be the applied axial load.

Figure 15(b) shows the forces acting on the cross-sections of the three portions. It is obvious that to
maintain equilibrium the load acting on each portion is P only. Hence stress, strain and extension of
each of these portions are as listed below

5. The bar shown in Fig. 16 is tested in universal testing machine. It is observed that at a load of 40
kN the total extension of the bar is 0.280 mm. Determine the Young‟s modulus of the material.
BARS WITH CONTINUOUSLY VARYING CROSS-SECTIONS:

When the cross-section varies continuously, an elemental length of the bar should be
considered and general expression for elongation of the elemental length derived. Then the
general expression should be integrated over entire length to get total extension.

A bar of uniform thickness„t‟ tapers uniformly from a width of b1 at one end to b2 at other
end in a length „L‟ as shown in Fig. 18. Find the expression for the change in length of the
barwhensubjectedtoanaxialforceP.
= 11471.3 2   / 4  20 2 = 18.26 N/mm 2
PROBLEMS ON PRINCIPAL STRESSES:
Principal Plane: - It is a plane where shear force is zero is called principal plane. Principal Stress: -
The normal stress on the principal plane is called principal stress.

Obliquity: - It is angle between the resultant stress and normal stress. Mohr‟s circle: - It is a
graphical (circle) method to find the stresses and strains on a plane.

Principal Plane and Stresses can be solved by

1. Analytical Method – Solving horizontal and vertical stresses to find the normal stress and
shear stress using trigonometry method.
2. Graphical Method –Mohr‟s circle
 3. Analytical Method: The equation is solved assuming ζx and ζy as tensile stresses as positive
and η xy shear stress clockwise as positive to major principal stress. Simply changes the sign
are opposite.
Graphical Method - Drawing Rules of Mohr’s Circle:

1. Fix the origin (0,0) that is (x,y) at convenient place in the graph. 2. X –axis to locate axial stress for
both x and y directions.

3. Y –axis to locate shear stress for clockwise and anti-clockwise shear.

4. Tensile stress is positive along x axis right of origin.

5. Compressive stress is negative along x axis left of origin

6. Clockwise Shear stress is positive along y axis upward of origin

7. Anti-clockwise shear stress is negative along y axis downward of origin..

8. When there is no shear force (η xy= 0) draw Mohr‟s circle from axial stresses. The centre of the
Mohr‟s circle bisects axial stresses (ζx,0) and (ζy,0).

9. When there is shear force draw Mohr‟s circle from axial stresses and shear stress. The centre of the
Mohr‟s circle bisects the line between (ζx, ηxy) and (ζy, ηxy).

10. Angle of inclination is to be drawn from point (ζy, ηxy) at centre of Mohr‟s to angle 2θ in
clockwise direction.

11. Normal stress, and maximum and minimum principal stresses are taken from the origin along the
x-axis of the Mohr‟s circle.

12. Maximum shear stress is the radius of the Mohr‟s circle, and shear stresses are taken along the y-
axis of the Mohr‟s circle.

13.The angle between the resultant stress and normal stress in angle of oblique.

For a given loading conditions the state of stress in the wall of a cylinder is expressed as follows:

(a) 85 MN/m2 tensile (b) 25 MN/m2 tensile at right angles to (a) (c) Shear stresses of 60 MN/m2 on
the planes on which the stresses (a) and (b) act; the sheer couple acting on planes carrying the 25
MN/m2 stress is clockwise in effect. Calculate the principal stresses and the planes on which they act.
What would be the effect on these results if owing to a change of loading (a) becomes compressive
while stresses (b) and (c) remain unchanged Solution: The problem may be attempted both
analytically as well as graphically. Let us first obtain the analytical solution
GRAPHICAL SOLUTION:
 Thin cylindrical and spherical shell

Thin Cylinder:

Closed vessels are used for storing fluids under pressure. If the ratio of thickness of shell to internal
radius is less than 1/10, then the cylindrical vessel is known as thin cylinder. In this cylinder,
distribution of stress is assumed to be uniform over the thickness of wall.

1.1 Stresses in a thin cylindrical shell when a thin cylinder is subjected to internal pressure, its wall is
subjected to two types of tensile stresses.

I. Circumferential stress or Hoop stress

II. Longitudinal stress

 UNIT II BENDING OF BEAMS

Types of beams and transverse loadings– Shear force and bending moment for simply
supported, cantilever and over-hanging beams - Theory of simple bending – Bending stress
distribution – Shear stress distribution.

Introduction Beam:

Beam is a structural member on which a system of external loads acts at right angles to its
longitudinal axis. Due to these external loads, bending moments and shear forces are set-up at any
point alongthelengthofbeam.Hencethebeamhastoresisttheactionofbendingmomentand shear force.
The longitudinal stress produced at any section to resist the bending is known as the bending stress or
flexure.
Shear Force and Bending Moment:

Any sign convention can be followed but it should be uniform throughout the problem. We have
chosen upward load or shear force as positive and downward load or shear force as negative.
Similarly take clockwise moment as negative and anticlockwise moment as positive.

Cantilever Beam: 1. simply add the load from right to find the shear force at various points. Upward
SF minus downward SF will give SF at a point it may be +ve or –ve SF.

2. Multiply the load with distance to find the moment at various points. Anti-clockwise BM minus
clockwise BM will BM at a point it may be +ve or –ve SF.
3. Shear force maximum at the support. 4. Moment maximum at the support and zero at free end.

Simply supported Beam:

1. Find the reactions at the supports.

2. When taking moment to find the reactions consider even the pure moment in the beam, be careful
with the direction of the moment. Then follow the SF and BM diagram procedure to complete the
figure.

3. Simply add the load from right to find the shear force at various points. Upward SF minus
downward SF will give SF at a point it may be +ve or –ve SF.

4. Multiply the load with distance to find the moment at various points. Anti clockwise BM minus
clockwise BM will BM at a point it may be +ve or –ve SF. 5. Moment is maximum where SF is zero
for pure load only

. 6. To find the maximum moment, find section where SF is zero equate upward load to downward
load to distance x from a support. Take that distance to find the maximum moment.

7. Moments are zero at the supports.

Over hanging Beam:

1. Find the reactions at the supports.

2. When taking moment to find the reactions consider even the pure moment in the beam, be careful
with the direction of the moment. Then follow the SF and BM diagram procedure to complete the
figure.

3. Simply add the load from right to find the shear force at various points. Upward SF minus
downward SF will give SF at a point it may be +ve or –ve SF.

4. Multiply the load with distance to find the moment at various points. Anti-clockwise BM minus
clockwise BM will BM at a point it may be +ve or –ve SF.

5. The moment changes the sign from positive to negative such point is known as point of contra
flexure. To find the point of contra flexure find the section where MB is zero equate clockwise
moments to anti clockwise moment to distance x from a support.

6. Moments are zero at the supports where there is no overhanging, and at the over hanging end.

Drawing Shear force diagram:

1. Draw a reference line equal to length of the beam to scale.

2. Move the line up if SF is pointing upward or move the line down if SF is pointing downward.

3. When there is no load between loads draw horizontal line parallel to reference line.

4. Point load is represented by vertical line.

5. udl is represented by inclined line.

6. Uniformly varying load is represented by parabola line.

7. Ignore moment for shear force diagram.

Drawing Bending Moment diagram:

1. Draw a reference line equal to length of the beam to scale.

2. Locate a point to find BM, clockwise is taken as negative and anti-clockwise is taken as positive.

3. Draw an inclined line to the point if the moment is due to point load only between sections.

4. Draw a parabolic line to the point if the moment is due to udl load between sections.

5. Draw a vertical line for pure moment on the beam, downward if it is clockwise moment and
upward if it is anti-clockwise moment. SF Diagram

Theory of Simple Bending State the theory and terms of simple bending.

List the assumptions in theory of simple bending.

Derive the bending equation M / I = ζ / y = E / R.

Calculate Bending stress, Modulus of section and Moment of resistance. Calculate the safe load, safe
span and dimensions of cross section.

FLEXURAL STRESSES:

Pure bending or simple bending:

If a length of beam is subjected to constant bending moment and no shear

force, then stresses will be set-up in that length of the beam due to Bending
Momentonlyandthatlengthofbeamissaidtobepurebendingorsimplebending. Stresses are set-up in that
length of the beam is known as Bending Stresses. When a beam is bent due to application of constant
bending moment, without being subjected to shear, it is said to be in a state of simple bending or pure
bending.

Theory of Simple Bending

 Consider a small length of simply supported beam subjected to bending moment.

 Consider two sections AB and CD, which are normal to axis of N-N.

 Due to action of bending moment, small length dx will deform.

 Layer of beam, which were originally of same length do not remain of same length.

 Top layer (layer above N-N) deformed from AC to A‟C‟. This top layer of beam has suffered
compression and reduced to A‟C‟.

 Bottom layer (layer below N-N) deformed from BD to B‟D‟. This Bottom layer of beam has
suffered Tension and elongated to B‟D‟.

 Between top and bottom of the beam, there will be longer which is neither shortened nor elongated.
This layer is known as neutral layer or neutral surface.

 The line of intersection of neutral layer on a cross section (or with transverse section) of the beam is
known as neutral axis (N.A.)

 Top layer has been shortened maximum, that means compressive will be maximum at the top layer.

 The amount by which layer is compressed or stretched, depending upon the position of layer with
respect to N-N.

 This theory is called theory of simple bending.

Assumptions in the theory of simple of bending

1. Material of beam is perfectly homogeneous (same material throughout) and isotropic (equal elastic
property in all direction).

2. The beam material is stressed within its elastic limit and thus obeys Hooke‟s law.
3. The value of young‟s modulus (E) is same in tension and compression.

4. The transverse sections, which were plane before bending, remain plane after bending also.(i.e.
Entire beam cross-section is assumed to rotate about neutral axis.)

5. Each layer of beam is free to expand or contract independently of the layer, above or below it.

6. The radius of curvature of the beam is very large in comparison to cross-sectional dimension of the
beam.

7. The beam is initially straight and all longitudinal filaments bend into circular arcs with a common
centre of curvature.

Derivation of bending equation and bending stress:

Consider a portion of uniform beam subjected to pure bending. Due to action of bending, part of
length dx will be deformed.

Let, R = Radius of curvature of beam or Radius of neutral layer N‟N‟ θ = Angle subtended at o by
A‟B‟ and C‟D‟ .

Now consider a layer EF at a distance of y below the neutral layer NN, after the bending this layer
will be elongated to E‟F‟.

After bending, the length of neutral layer N‟N‟ will remain unchanged. But length of layer E‟F‟ will
increase
Neutral Axis: The neutral axis of any transverse section of beam is defined as the line of intersection
of the neutral layer with transverse.

We know that moment of any area about an axis passing through its centroid, is also equal to zero.
Hence neutral axis coincides with centroid axis.
 Centroid axis of a section gives the position of N.A.

Moment of Resistance

 Due to pure bending, the layers above the N.A. are subjected to compressive stresses whereas layer
below the N.A. are subjected to tensile stresses.

 These stresses forma couple (forces will act on these layers) whose moment must be equal to
external moment (M).

The moment of this couple, which resist the external bending moment, is known as moment of
resistance
Shear Force Diagrams and Bending Moment Diagrams:

Before taking up the design of any structural element the structure is to be analysed and magnitude of
bending moments and shear force should be determined. The structural element is designed for
maximum bending moment and for maximum shear force. The BMD help to a great extent in
identifying the tensile zones in reinforced concrete structure for providing steel reinforcement at
appropriate place.
Q2. A cantilever of length 2m carries a UDL of 1.5kN/m run over the whole length and a point load of
2kN at a distanceof 0.5m from the free end. Draw SF and BM diagram.
Point of Contra flexure (or Point of Inflexion):

Bending moment in cantilever was negative, whereas that in a simply supported beam is positive. It is
thus obvious that in an overhanging beam, there will be a point where Bending moment will change
sign from negative to positive or vice-versa, such a point, where the bending moment changes sign is
known as Point of contra flexure OR point of inflexion.

• The point of contra flexure is the point where the bending moment changes its sign from positive to
negative or bending moment from sagging to Hogging and vice versa.

• At point of contra flexure bending moment is zero.

• It is to be noted that all the points where BM is zero are not necessary point of contra flexure.

Shear Force and Bending Moment Diagram for overhanging beams:

If the end portion of the beam is extended beyond the support, such beam is known as overhanging
beam. Overhanging can be assumed as a combination of simply supported beam and cantilever beam.
Due to this, overhanging beam experienced point of contra flexure.

Problem: A simply supported beam with a span of 4 meters is subjected to a central point load of 10
kN. The beam has a rectangular cross-section with a width of 100 mm and a height of 200 mm.
Determine the maximum bending stress in the beam.
So, the maximum bending stress in the beam is 150150150 MPa.
Shear stress distribution:

Shear stress distribution in a beam is crucial for understanding how forces are transmitted across the
material when subjected to shear forces. Unlike bending stress, which varies linearly, shear stress
distribution can be more complex
Where:

 V = shear force
 A = cross-sectional area
 c = distance from the neutral axis to the top or bottom surface (half the height for a
rectangular section)
 y = distance from the neutral axis


Consider a rectangular beam with the following properties:

 Width (b) = 10 cm
 Height (h) = 20 cm
 Shear force (V) = 500 N
 UNIT III

DEFLECTION OF BEAMS

Methods to compute deflections in beam :

• Double integration method (without the use of singularity functions)

• Macaulay‟s Method (with the use of singularity functions)

• Moment area method

Assumptions in Simple Bending Theory:

• Beams are initially straight

• The material is homogenous and isotropic i.e. it has a uniform composition and its mechanical
properties are the same in all directions

• The stress-strain relationship is linear and elastic

• Young‟s Modulus is the same in tension as in compression

• Sections are symmetrical about the plane of bending

• Sections which are plane before bending remain plane after bending Non-Uniform Bending

• In the case of non-uniform bending of a beam, where bending moment varies from section to
section, there will be shear force at each cross section which will induce shearing stresses

• Also these shearing stresses cause warping (or out-of plane distortion) of the cross section so that
plane cross sections do not remain plane even after bending

Non-Uniform Bending:

• In the case of non-uniform bending of a beam, where bending moment varies from section
to section, there will be shear force at each cross section which will induce shearing stresses

• Also these shearing stresses cause warping (or out-of plane distortion) of the cross section
so that plane cross sections do not remain plane even after bending.
Introduction :

Macaulay's method (the double integration method) is a technique used in structural

analysis to determine the deflection of Euler-Bernoulli beams.

1. Use of Macaulay's technique is very convenient for cases of discontinuous

and/or discrete loading.

2. Typically partial uniformly distributed loads (u.d.l.) and uniformly varying

loads (u.v.l.) over the span and a number of concentrated loads are conveniently
handled using this technique.

3. Macaulay enables one continuous expression for bending moment to be

obtained, and provided that certain rules are followed the constants of integration
will be the same for all sections of the beam.

4. It is advisable to deal with each different type of load separately.

 UNIT IV

INDETERMINATE BEAMS

Propped Cantilever and Fixed Beams – Fixed end moments reactions, slope
and deflection for standard cases of loading –– Continuous beams – support
reactions and moments – Theorem of three moments – Shear Force and Bending
Moment Diagrams.

Propped Cantilever and Fixed Beams:

Propped cantilever:

A propped cantilever is a structural element that is fixed at one end and simply
supported or propped at some point along its length. This type of beam is used
to reduce deflection and bending moments compared to a simple cantilever.
Fixed beam and continuous beam:
 UNIT – V

ADVANCED TOPICS

Unsymmetrical bending of beams - shear centre applied - Thick cylinders - Theories of

failure – Principal stress, principal strain, shear stress, strain energy and distortion
energy theories – application problems.

Unsymmetrical bending of beams

Unsymmetrical bending, also known as non-uniform or non-symmetric bending, occurs when

a beam is subjected to bending moments that do not act about one of the principal axes of the
cross-section. This type of bending can lead to more complex stress distributions and
deflections compared to symmetric bending.

 Principal Axes and Principal Moments of Inertia:

For any cross-section, there are two principal axes (usually denoted as the x and y
axes) where the moments of inertia (I_xx and I_yy) are maximized and minimized.
These axes are perpendicular to each other.

 Centroid and Neutral Axis:

The centroid of the cross-section is the point where the area is evenly distributed. The
neutral axis is the axis along which there is no longitudinal stress when the beam is
subjected to bending. In unsymmetrical bending, the neutral axis does not align with
the principal axes.

 Bending Stress Distribution:

The bending stress at any point in the cross-section can be determined using the flexure
formula. However, in unsymmetrical bending, the stress distribution is more complex
because the bending moment components must be resolved along the principal axes.

 Deflection and Rotation:

The deflection of the beam due to unsymmetrical bending involves both bending and
twisting. The deflection components can be calculated using principles from the
theory of elasticity and superposition.

Analysis of Unsymmetrical Bending:

To analyze unsymmetrical bending, the following steps are typically followed:

1. Determine the Principal Axes:

o Identify the principal axes of the cross-section and calculate the moments of
inertia (I_xx and I_yy).
2. Resolve Moments:
o Resolve the applied moments into components along the principal axes.
3. Neutral Axis Location:
o Find the location of the neutral axis by solving the equilibrium equations
considering the moments about the principal axes.
4. Stress Calculation:
o Calculate the bending stresses using the resolved moments and the flexure
formula:

Where Mx and My are the resolved moments, and Ix and Iy are the moments of
inertia about the principal axes.

5. Deflection Analysis:
o Use methods such as the superposition principle, energy methods, or
numerical methods (e.g., finite element analysis) to determine the deflections
and rotations.
Thick cylinders:
Assumptions:
STRESSES:
THEORIES OF FAILURE: