R

Ethnomusicology Forum
Routledge
Vol 16, No. I, June 2007, pp. 1-17 Taylor & Francis Croup

Musical Performance in the Diaspora:

Introduction
Tina K. Ramnarine

This article outlines some key issues in the study of musical performance in diasporic
contexts and introduces the case studies in this volume. It explores contrasting
approaches to 'difference' and representations of 'otherness' in the multicultural society
to question the relevance of an ethnomusicological commitment to musical ethnicity in
studying diasporic music-making. It points out some of the ways in which ethnomu
sicologists have negotiated the contradictions between asserting the historical specificities
of diaspora and avoiding the rigidities of diasporic essentialisms. Queysor?s notion of
'calibration (concerned with the disjunctures between representations and social
realities) is considered in relation to ethnographic details on Carnival performances in
a museum space as a way of theorizing contradiction.

Keywords: Diaspora; History; Representation; Multiculturalism; Calibration;

Hyphenated Identities; Otherness; Cultural Display; Interculturalism; Post-Ethnicity;
Postcolonialism; Carnival Performances

'Is a lie so big even history believe it.' This is a line repeated twice in Goodbye
Columbus, referring to the lie that 'Columbus could die'. In this rapso, Brother
Resistance sings about the continuing effects of the development of plantation
economies, importation of labour forces from around the world and modification of
insular ecosystems that have characterized the Caribbean since 1492. It is part of a
huge song repertoire dealing with themes of diaspora and postcolonial politics and
reflecting the Caribbean as a site of diasporic encounter.
Attention to human mobility has expanded traditional frames of reference, which
study music in a specific cultural and geographic location. Diaspora has been

Tina K. Ramnarine is Reader in Music at Royal Holloway University of London. She is author of Creating their
own space: The development of an Indian-Caribbean musical tradition (University of West Indies Press, 2001),
Ilmatar's inspirations: Nationalism, globalization, and the changing soundscapes of Finnish folk music (University
of Chicago Press, 2003), and Beautiful cosmos: Performance and belonging in the Caribbean Diaspora (Pluto Press,
in press). Email: tina.ramnarine@rhul.ac.uk

ISSN 1741-1912 (print)/ISSN 1741-1920 (online)/07/010001-17

? 2007 Taylor & Francis
DOI: 10.1080/17411910701276310
 2 T. K. Ramnarine

highlighted in attempts to analyse musical performances in contemporary global

processes and human migrations. Diaspora often articulates with historical
sensibilities and postcolonial politics, offering perspectives on the legacies of empires,
historiographies and modes of cultural representation. Diaspora, then, is something
more than simply migration. A classical concern in diaspora studies has been the
relationship between diasporic context and a homeland elsewhere, with displacement,
transnationalism and nationalism appearing as central analytical tropes. Among the
research methods ethnographers have developed to investigate diasporic networks are
multi-sited fieldwork and virtual (Internet) searches. Today, conceptual under
standings of 'diaspora are becoming increasingly eclectic, with the term achieving
greater applications in ways that risk overlooking memories of violence in the shaping
of many diasporic sensibilities.
While diaspora has something to do with 'history' it is also about 'newness'.
Ethnographic research has encompassed both modes, from analysis of historical
specificity, musical memory and the preservation of tradition to the musical
creativities, new performance spaces and new musical sounds of diasporic practices.
The former mode reminds us that diasporas are historically specific and that the past
shapes a sense of diasporic identity while the latter prompts us to question the
rigidities and essentialisms of 'diasporic identity'. The politics of diasporic identities
often articulate with the politics of national, postcolonial and/or minority identities,
leading to fresh sets of specificity and rigidity in thinking about diaspora. As Eric
Williams wrote in his famous formulation at the outset of postcolonial national
sovereignty in Trinidad and Tobago, 'There can be no Mother India ... There can be
no Mother Africa ... There can be no Mother England ... There can be no Mother
China ... There can be no Mother Syria or no Mother Lebanon ... The only Mother
we recognise is Mother Trinidad and Tobago' (1964, 279). If the contradictions
between asserting specificity and avoiding rigidity make sense to ethnographers, how
might we theorize the contradictions themselves?
One way of responding to this question is to plunge into the problematics of
otherness. We can begin with diasporic groups becoming settled in new homelands
in societies that often come to be described as 'multicultural'. The multicultural
society places the diasporic subject in a category of difference. Embedded in the
ideology of the 'multi' is the contradiction of all living together, all different. Thus
Agawu refers to multiculturalism in his essay, 'Contesting difference', to ask how
one might decide (say an ethnomusicologist) if a culture is 'sufficiently different'
for study, a judgement which must be made in relation to 'a prior set of analytical
acts' since differences are 'not simply there for the perceiving subject' (2003, 232
3). It is instructive to bear in mind the contradiction of the 'multi' and Agawu's
point about the presumptions that shape ethnographic research when thinking
about diasporic musical practice. In Slobin's (2003) overview of the study of
diaspora in ethnomusicology, we see the perpetuation of the model of 'a society
with a music' that has been one of the discipline's cornerstones. This model is
tenacious, even as it becomes complicated when applied to music in contexts of
 Ethnomusicology Forum 3

migration, diasporas, multicultural societies and transnational circulations. Thus

Slobin writes about 'diasporic neighbourhoods' (where cultural borders might still
be contained within geographically defined parameters in a multicultural society)
and cites Averill on Haitians in New York living in diaspora, 'posed between
cultures' (1998, 146). More importantly, Slobin alerts the reader to how little has
changed in ethnomusicological perception despite the emergence of diaspora
discourse in this academic field in the 1990s. 'Traditionally', he notes, 'we talked
about immigrants, or minorities, or ethnic groups, and much effort went toward
figuring out "acculturation"' (2003, 285). If the more recent discourses on diaspora
and diasporic cultural production in terms of 'hybridity' do not seem so far
removed from earlier analytical formulations and ethnographic representations,
Slobin rightly points out that the subtleties of diaspora discourse as being more
than just about demographics have also been embraced by ethnomusicologists.
Diasporas have been understood as non-uniform, historical and political formula
tions. As such, they encourage us to look beyond music and people on the move as
merely complicating our cherished conceptual presumptions about music mapped
onto geographies and societies. Diaspora as something more than a question of
demographics challenges us to rethink some of our paradigms.
Identity, of course, provides a stumbling block to rather more radical
reconceptualizations that might be fostered by the diasporic turn within
ethnomusicology, for the people we work with also assert, celebrate and maintain
'diasporic identities'. The diasporic subject is thus constructed as different from all
sides. For the diasporic subject, questions of identity are inextricable from the past
and from his/her relationship to a former homeland, whether or not that home is
several times removed through generations. Where the diaspora has formed as the
result of violent encounter in which the past has been ruptured, as has been
the case in many colonial projects, a sense of diasporic identity has enabled the
diasporic subject to feel connected to a precolonial history. Holding onto a sense of
'the loss of not having had that loss to lose' as the character Alford George does in
the novel Salt (Earl Lovelace 1996, 256) plays a crucial role in adherence to specific
identities and resurfaces in postcolonial projects. Music is central to these projects.
Hall argues that difference matters and the challenge is to capture a 'sense of
difference which is not pure "otherness"' (1996 [1990], 115). He refers to the
discovery of 'blackness' and the legacies of 'slavery' in Jamaica of the 1970s, a
discovery which:

could only be made through the impact on popular life of the post-colonial
revolution, the civil rights struggles, the culture of Rastafarianism and the music of
reggae?the metaphors, the figures or signifiers of a new construction of
'Jamaican-ness'. These signified a 'new' Africa of the New World, grounded in an
'old' Africa:?a spiritual journey of discovery that led, in the Caribbean, to an
indigenous cultural revolution; this is Africa, as we might say, necessarily
'deferred'?as a spiritual, cultural and political metaphor. (Hall 1996 [1990], 116)
4 T. K Ramnarine

Deferral alerts us that sometimes the point is not the extent to which the past can be
reconstructed in the diaspora, but that its traces are felt at all. As Gilroy writes,
'contemporary musical forms of the African diaspora work within an aesthetic and
political framework which demands that they ceaselessly reconstruct their own
histories, folding back on themselves time and again to celebrate and validate the
simple, unassailable fact of their survival7 (1993, 37, emphasis added). While the
diasporic subject's desire to reclaim a past that extends into the precolonial era
reinforces diasporic difference, the relocation of that same subject (often in former
colonial Metropolitan centres) has also challenged notions of culture, particularly of
national culture, as Gilroy (1987) has theorised extensively. Multicultural discourses
(which embrace diasporic communities as a part of multicultural societies) also
become implicated in the promotion of revisions to nationalist ones. But how
successful are these revisions? Gilroy notes that diaspora 'allows for a complex
conception of sameness and for versions of solidarity that do not need to repress the
differences within a dispersed group in order to maximize the differences between
one 'essential' community and others' (2000, 252). The essentialisms of both diaspora
and multiculturalism raise problematic issues about 'ethnicity', a site of difference to
which I shall return, but the distinctions between 'difference' articulated above reveal
contrasting approaches to the politics of otherness.

Musical 'Calibrations'

Drawing on my own ethnographic research on the Caribbean Diaspora in Britain,

I would like to offer a few thoughts on how history, difference, identity and
multiculturalism are calibrated in musical performance and cultural display. From a
steelband concert given in 1951 in a hall newly constructed in the tide of post-war
optimism (the Royal Festival Hall) to contemporary post-Notting Hill Carnival
celebrations as part of'Black History Month' in the institutional setting of the Victoria
and Albert Museum, contrasting interpretative moves regarding these performances
lead us into different routes through the diasporic and multicultural maze. Previously,
I have been exploring Carnival performance events in urban public spaces in thinking
through a series of questions about the politics of ethnicity, multiculturalisms, and the
ways in which minority and/or diasporic status are embedded in, challenge and
transform national life (Ramnarine 2004a, in press). In re-reading some of these
performances here I turn to Ato Queyson's literary theory of reading for the social,
drawing on the idea of'calibrations' by way of testing its application to the analysis of
musical performance in multicultural contexts and drawing attention to an ongoing
ethnomusicological commitment to musical ethnicities.
Queyson relates an anecdote about a reading primer that was used in schools in
Nigeria in the 1960s, and which was studied by Anthonia Kalu as a schoolchild. The
primer featured the following lines:
 Ethnomusicology Forum 5
This is a man.
This is a pan.
A man.
A pan.
A man and a pan.

In Trinidad and Tobago such a reading primer would not have caused any bafflement,
for it might have been read as referring to the steelpan, a musical rather than a
cooking instrument and, indeed, one dominated by male practitioners in the 1960s.
But, for Kalu, the baffling question was why a man and a pan? Eventually Kalu
suggested that the man and a pan had nothing to do with African general experience
which would have placed women in cooking roles, but referenced the domestic
arrangements of colonial households in which cooks were often male. As such, a
seemingly 'innocent' reading primer becomes a tool for naturalizing colonial
domination in the minds of children and leads them to forms of cultural comparison
later on in life. The man and a pan anecdote is a good illustration of what is meant by
calibrations as used by Ato Queyson, who calls for calibration as 'a form of close
reading of literature with what lies beyond it as a way of understanding structures of
transformation, process, and contradiction that inform both literature and society'
(2003, xi). While the term is used in engineering to refer to the processes of fine
tuning instruments, Queyson writes that he intends 'calibration' to mean 'that
situated procedure of attempting to wrest something from the aesthetic domain for
the analysis and better understanding of the social' (2003, xv). In this enterprise, he
presents calibrated readings that confront us with issues of comparison, and with the
disjunctures between social reality, representation and translation?themes with
which ethnomusicologists are all too familiar as they correspond to much debated
ethnographic problems highlighted in critiques about the production of ethnographic
texts.
Given the profound debates over these issues within the ethnographic disciplines,
why turn to this notion of calibration? What insights can it provide into diasporic
musical practice, the politics of multiculturalism or questions about the 'adminis
tering' of musical ethnicities? One of the themes for the 2006 meeting of the
European Seminar in Ethnomusicology was 'administering musical ethnicity?to
whom, by whom, with what consequences?' I thought there was something very
interesting about the choice of verb in this theme. 'Administering' implies some kind
of imposition or at least some process of enabling. Administering involves more than
one actor?someone administering to someone else. It highlights agents and agency
in the politics and performance of diaspora and in establishing power relations.
Administering fits well with anthropological debates about the display of others in
museum spaces, with the idea of cultural comparison and with state policies on
multiculturalism. Contemporary diaspora discourse can also be understood in terms
of 'administering', for 'diaspora' is a term that often seems to be presented as
synonymous with 'ethnic group' or is defined in terms of 'ethnicity'. Of course, in the
anthropological sense of group construction and relationship (cf. Eriksen 1993) a
 6 T. K Ramnarine

diasporic group is an ethnie group. But there are confusions over ethnicity, which
involve 'race' discourse and minority status (see Eriksen 1993, 4). Analysis
of diasporas cannot be limited to these issues, even if they are pressing ones for
various diasporas, including the Caribbean Diaspora in Britain. The confusions over
diaspora and ethnicity nevertheless provide a good example of the possible
applications of calibration, in the sense of conceptual fine-tuning. Is the turn to
diaspora within academic debate simply another approach to 'new' ethnicities? More
important than terminology and categorization, what appeals to me in
the metaphor of calibration is the emphasis on things not fitting, on adjustments
in the musical and social worlds, and on the contradictions between discourses. With
calibration we do not necessarily reach a resolution. We are left with chipping away at
pieces that do not match. In contrast to musical metaphors that highlight processes of
flow, accommodation and harmony, calibration grates and therefore seems to reflect
the social world (and academic debate) more truthfully. The metaphor of calibration
leaves a space for confronting the discomforts of diaspora as it converges with racism,
discrimination, violence and inequality.
Calibration is not about homologies between the aesthetic and the social. A
significant dimension of a calibrated reading is that it highlights the disjunctures
between representations and realities. Queyson notes the problem of this disjuncture
as persisting in:

the difficulty in ascertaining the minimum requirements for a representation to be

actually perceived as invoking a reality beyond it.. .we can gauge that what persists
unanswered in many theories of [representation] is what it is that allows a spectator
or reader to recognize something as representing something else when the
representational nexus relies on forms of conceptual translation of phenomena
of apparently startling incommensurability.. .in other words how do we psycho
logically grasp the representation as relevant to anything beyond it? (Queyson 2003,
xxiv)

This emphasis on representations being divorced from the realities beyond might
be applied to models of the 'multicultural society', for models are representations,
tools to make sense of the social world. Two contradictory models of the
multicultural society are either to emphasize cultural exchanges resulting in various
'fusions' that characterize global cities like London or to foster a view of various
cultural groupings maintaining distinct traditions. The former model contains an
aspiration to inclusiveness but can also be linked to ideas about integration,
homogeneity and the potential loss of cultural distinctiveness. The second model,
by contrast, promotes 'cultural diversity' and a view of culturally separate groups
inhabiting the same (usually urban) spaces. Both models rest on assumptions of
difference. Both models invite cultural comparisons. In fact, much multicultural
discourse favours the second model. As Lundberg, Malm and Ronstr?m note, the
concept of multiculturalism stems from discourses in the USA in the 1960s which
focused on ethnic groupings that were seen as being part of a 'mosaic'?and
 Ethnomusicology Forum 7

therein lies the contradiction of multiculturalism: 'Society and cultural life is seen
as divided into clearly defined groups. The ideal is inclusivity at society level and
exclusivity at group level. Ethnic activists, purists and the various groups'
politicians guard the borders of the mosaic tiles' (2003, 42). Strategies for inclusion
and exclusion thus compete with each other, nevertheless having to coexist.
Lundberg, Malm and Ronstr?m observe the effects of multicultural ideologies with
reference to the Swedish case, but their observations can be usefully applied to
other contexts too. There are 'troublesome' consequences to linking multi
culturalism with ethnic groups. Diversity becomes both a 'diversity of expression'
and a 'diversity of cultures', to the extent that differences between groups are
over-emphasized, groups are rendered homogeneous, and the contributions
made by members of one group to the cultural expressions of other groups are
rendered invisible (see Lundberg, Malm and Ronstr?m 2003, 43). Borders
between groups in the multicultural society come into focus together with the
emergent creative expressions, often described in terms of 'hybridity', that
mark crossings over them. The paradox is that borders come into focus precisely
because 'hybridity' blurs their clear demarcations, shifting attention from the
multicultural to national and transnational networks, bringing into tension the
political urges of ethnic transnationalism and regionalism, and foregrounding
creative exchanges in transnational arenas. The border is a metaphoric and literal
marker that simultaneously affirms and challenges people's sense of identity
and difference.
A purely celebratory approach to multiculturalism or to hybridity that continues to
understand cultures as essentially discrete, defining their borders and attaching equal
value to them (and we might note that ethnomusicologists have tended towards
'happy hybridity' in these ways: see Lo 2000), obscures everyday interaction that
moves beyond borders on one hand and political inequity, racism and social
disadvantage on the other. If we change the paradigms how do we understand
musical life in a multicultural society? Diasporic music-making should not be
understood as merely the result of population movements, the settlements of
diasporic groups and cultural contact in the multicultural society. Rather, diasporic
music-making can be understood in the ordinariness of creative production,
as musicians working as individual agents in their everyday environments, making
musical choices that suit them and their audiences. In moving beyond simple
understandings of hybridity as musical cultures in contact that result in 'new' musical
expressions we move towards politically articulated readings of social relations and
creative processes. Blacking, for example, argued not for the multicultural but for the
multi-musical in which the aesthetic dimensions of music might transcend its social
and cultural ones. Writing about the teaching of music in schools, he suggested that
the aim 'must not be to reinforce tribal boundaries or to encourage tokenism.. .music
education should not be used to emphasize culture, because as soon as that happens
there arise arguments about cultural hegemony, as well as false notions of what
culture is' (1987, 149). Current theorization of musical hybridity might lead us to
S T. K. Ramnarine

question where the boundaries of the multi-musical lie in terms similar to the
vagaries of the multicultural. Blacking, nevertheless, points to a critique of the culture
concept that has gained theoretical ground in the past decade. Music in the diaspora
likewise suggests we radically rethink the 'place' of 'culture', and, if we also discard
'ethnicity', we can take another look at knowledge of peoples, places and reified
domains of cultures (cf. Ramnarine 2004b).
Museums, however, are spaces in which cultures are made visible. Things are put
on display. But how are those things represented in museums and how do spectators
understand them? Following the Carnival arts in museum spaces in London gives
visibility to the ways in which musical and cultural expressions are forged through
interaction, through movements 'between' groups and through shared experiences of
musical practice. Such shared experiences compel us to critically assess the
contradictions of 'multiculturalism' and rethink the epistemological ideologies?
particularly the emphasis on discrete cultures?that underscore the 'multicultural'.
As part of 'Black History Month', post-Carnival performances were clearly mapped
onto a particular ethnic group and framed by an understanding of the multicultural
society that highlights discrete cultures. But, as Queyson emphasizes, there is a
disjuncture between the representation (of a particular ethnic group performing
Carnival in the museum in Black History Month) and the reality of what we actually
observe (which is open participation in the Carnival performances). The visibility
and audibility of Carnival museum performances might challenge some of our
representations of the multicultural society.
The challenge has been accepted by theorists who have turned to models like
interculturalism in exploring, as Bharucha puts it, 'different modes of citizenship
across different national contexts, through subjectivities that are less mediated by the
agencies of the state' (2001, 42). Yet, interculturalism does not provide ready
solutions to the problems of otherness. Bharucha notes that the desire for creative
interaction in intercultural encounter 'is fraught with tensions, compulsions, hidden
agendas, and funding realities' and that the exchange is 'extremely fragile, based more
on intuition and good faith than on any real cognizance of the Other' (2001, 46).
The museum space itself returns us to issues about cultural comparison and
dominating powers that were raised in the man and a pan story earlier on. In
Objects and others, Stocking notes that museums are the 'archives of material
culture' involving 'relations of power' in that 'objects thrown in the way of
observers in the museums were once those of others'. Market processes also
influence museums such that its objects come to be regarded as 'fine art' and
thereby undergo 'processes of aestheticization' (1985). Many of the activities offered
in the Carnival performances at the Victoria and Albert Museum, such as face
painting and costume design, could be read as instructing the spectator in the
aesthetic dimensions of Carnival arts. The costumes are objects that can be
regarded as examples of material culture and fine arts. To what extent are we
viewing the objects of others when viewing Carnival arts in the museum? Reading
the museum spaces in terms of the issues that distanced anthropology from
 Ethnomusicology Forum 9

museum collections?the repatriation of cultural property, rightful ownership, the

circumstances of acquisition, control over the representation of the meaning of
objects?conforms to and confirms tropes of cultural diversity and cultural
comparison. The post-Carnival performances at the Victoria and Albert Museum
could be viewed as a cultural display of an 'Other', of museum space temporarily
given to highlighting one of Britain's multicultural groupings, as an institutional
facilitation of cultural comparison. This representation is at odds with my earlier
observations on performance participation. For a calibrated reading, therefore, a
key question might be about the terms of comparison. Who sets them? Goulbourne
writes that 'it is hardly necessary to detail the obvious cultural presence of
Caribbean people in Britain, but it is important to note that this presence continues
to have a significant impact in various areas of British national life' (2001, 16). The
'visibility' and 'audibility' of Carnival arts (to use Goulbourne's descriptors of DJs
and loud music in clubs) also transformed the museum space by overturning
expectations about objects on display?after all, these were performances not only
objects?by questioning the representation of musical ethnicities, and by reversing
relations of power invested in museum collections. Entering this institutional space
as a Carnival practitioner might be a gesture in harnessing institutional power in
the struggles over representation, following Lidchi's comment that the processes of
organizing displays 'require both symbolic and institutional power' (1997, 205).
Asserting rights to space have been part of establishing Caribbean Carnival
performance in Britain and debates about Carnival urban routes remain current.
A museum display is only a temporary claim to urban institutional spaces. Thus
Riggio describes such a claim as a 'transgressive appropriation' of spaces, which
emphasizes that masqueraders are 'cultural intruders in territory not their own'
(2004, 25). Such a view is in contrast to one Carnival practitioner's statement that
the Victoria and Albert museum with its display of culture was an appropriate place
for Carnival also 'rich in culture and heritage' (a comment by Roy McEwen,
representative of the Caribbean Music Association). Ownership over spaces, and
ownership of culture and heritage reinforce cultural comparison, the mosaics of
multicultural understandings of society and diasporic sensibilities. But histories and
geographies are much more intertwined than that. Thus, the study of diaspora
often requires postcolonial analysis too.
The 1951 steelband performance to which I referred earlier was given by the
Trinidad All Steel Percussion Orchestra (TASPO) at the Festival of Britain celebrations
on the South Bank in London. Contemporary steelband projects all over Europe can
be traced to this debut performance. The festival was one way of displaying other
parts of Britain, through its empire, and thereby also putting the world on display. In
the postcolonial present, the debates at the level of local government around Notting
Hill Carnival are about how to market what has become Europe's largest street festival
as a tourist industry, thereby revealing the extent to which diasporic and postcolonial
sensibilities have changed over the past half century. Postcolonial re-readings of
cultures performed, histories and otherness together with postcolonial political
 10 T. K Ramnarine

movements have contributed to changing representations and realities. I hope that

what might be indicated by these few ethnographic details on Carnival performance is
the scope of ethnographic enquiry once we ask the kinds of questions that take us
beyond the comforts of familiar conceptual models. What does non-Caribbean
participation in Carnival performance events tell us about the restrictions of
multicultural models? How can you tell who is Caribbean and who is not? A belief
in musical ethnicity is allied with a commitment to the idea of multicultural society
as a mosaic of clearly defined groups, rendering some participants in Carnival
performances visible, and others, invisible (see Figure 1). The study of musical
performance in diasporic contexts should have the potential to offer more than a
variation on familiar models in which musical and social worlds are carved up all too
neatly.
But here I must pause. The challenge to invisibility we note in diasporic musical
production and identity construction is also met in 'hyphenated identities' (e.g. Black
British, Asian American) that highlight multiplicity. Here diaspora becomes a trope
that takes on some of the analytical characteristics of hybridity (somewhat ironic
given the latter's roots in the obsessions with categorization), similarly obscuring
singular sensibilities. Yet the multiplicity, like the 'multi' of the multicultural, is
subject to unceasing division. As Radhakrishnan (2003) asks in writing about his
children's experiences of life through the frames of hyphenated identity, what are the
relations between 'ethnic self and 'national status'? I do not like the question with its
assumed rigidities on the construction of identities even as I reproduce it here. But it
is a question that points to some of the dilemmas in hyphenated diasporic
sensibilities. Asking questions about hyphenated identities leads to an examination
of the very concept of ethnicity:

If ethnic identity is a strategic response to a shifting sense of time and place, how is
it possible to have a theory of ethnic identity posited on the principle of a natural
and native self?... Is ethnic selfhood an end in itself, or is it a necessary but
determinate phase to be left behind when the time is right to inaugurate the 'post
ethnic'? (Radhakrishnan 2003, 121-2)

Will the post-ethnic result in the triumph of the national? Or would the post-ethnic
have to be allied with the post-national too? The alliances and/or non-alliances
between ethnic sensibility and national status remind us of the terminological
slippages between 'ethnicity' in its anthropological sense of group boundary
constructions and its popular conflations with 'race' discourse, where the borders
of ethnic belonging are mapped onto images of the body.
In reflecting on some of the routes through which the construction of diasporic
hyphenated identities might take us, my point is not that diaspora results in binary
categorizations (the hyphen) but that we should question the models that might lead
us into thinking that it does. The polarities of hyphenated identities reduce the tangle
of experiences to the straitjackets of ethnicity and nationalism. The social world is
more complex than any of the models through which we seek to understand it. In
 Ethnomusicology Forum il

Figure 1 Carnival at the Victoria and Albert Museum (photographs taken by Tina K.
Ramnarine, 2001).

between the mosaics of the multicultural, the polarities of hyphenated diasporic

identities, the questioning of culture and ethnicity, and the incommensurabilities of
representations and realities, is it any wonder that we might struggle to conceptualize
musical performance in the diaspora such that we may be able to 'identify the
complexity but not... let it overwhelm the account' (Slobin 2003, 290)?
Study of musical performance in the diaspora does not allow us to capitulate to
the dangers of 'unchanging difference' (Gilroy 2000, 253). The analytical
vocabulary, despite its shortcomings, reveals the attempt to understand diasporic
musical production as a process with commonly used terms, including inter
cultural, collaborations, hybridities and 'in-betweeness'. I have found the notion of
calibration useful in asking what it is that we look at when we study musical
performance in the diaspora and when we observe cultural displays of the
 12 T. K. Ramnarine

diasporic community and the multicultural society. Calibration points to the

disjunctures between representations and realities, between the visible and the
invisible. It moves away from bipolar models. Instead of trying to work through
the complexities of creative 'mixes', it shifts attention to competing claims,
theoretical disagreements, and even social and musical realities that might not have
much to do with our conceptual models. It resonates with 'the feeling that the
many kinds of borders first proposed by the Renaissance, reinforced by the
Enlightenment, and institutionalised in the nineteenth century have become
increasingly difficult to reconcile with the reality we perceive' (Trouillot 2003,
4). I have turned to calibration to argue against using the diasporic turn as merely
another way of labelling and mapping the musical world even as we take into
account the specificities of diaspora. Metaphors change. While I have temporarily
replaced the resolutions of musical flow (the metaphor that I have turned to most
often in trying to portray the social entanglements evoked by musical sounds) for
the frictions of calibration, I remain persuaded that ethnographic work, its
problems notwithstanding, provides a method for close scrutiny of both flow and
contradiction. Ethnographic work reveals how we position ourselves in the political
realms of diaspora, postcolonialism, nationalism, ethnicity or multiculturalism to
which the study of music takes us. This is why the representation matters and why
Brother Resistance questions the truths of scholarship ('even history believe it').
Brother Resistance also offers a new reading: 'I have a duty to tell the true story',
paralleling trends in various disciplines (e.g. history, postcolonial studies and
ethnomusicology) in re-reading colonial documents and attending to oral histories
to hear other accounts of the past. Similarly, performance takes us into unexpected
ways of looking at the disjunctures between representation and reality. Gosden and
Knowles, writing about New Gui?ean colonial culture, suggest that a wide range of
performances 'were attempting to make real something no one was sure existed'
(2001: 15). Contradictions can be as illuminating as they are frustrating. In their
wake, the ethical demands and political work of ethnography are foregrounded.
Ato Queyson invites us to 'read for the social'. In the spaces of engaged
ethnomusicology and political conscience within the academy, we can also write
for the social.

The Articles in this Volume

This volume focuses on the insights into diaspora that might be offered by
ethnographic approaches to musical performance and postcolonial readings of
diasporic musical production. The reflections above, drawing on my own most recent
ethnographic work on music and diaspora, have been offered by way of presenting
various themes explored in this collection (history, homeland, belonging, creativity,
multiculturalism, identity, postcolonial politics). The articles that follow present
diverse case studies, theoretical approaches and calibrated analyses resulting from the
different historical circumstances of various diasporas. Together they emphasize the
 Ethnomusicology Forum 13

specificity of diaspora, reveal different contexts in which the term has been applied or
claimed, and respond to questions concerning the expression and shaping of
diasporic identities through performance. The volume contributes to a growing
literature that includes the study of music in relation to particular diasporas, for
example the Caribbean Diaspora (Allen and Wilcken 1998), Jewish Diaspora
(Kartomi and Dreyfus 2004) and Indian Diaspora (Chaudhuri and Seeger 2007),
as well as other cross-cultural collections (Slobin 1994; Turino and Lea 2004). The
idea for this volume was formulated in conjunction with co-organizing a one-day
conference for the British Forum for Ethnomusicology on 'Diaspora, Postcolonialism
and Performance'. The conference focused on how performance contributes to
diaspora studies and postcolonial theorization, and aimed to broaden and challenge
current analytic models that focus on cultural interactions. Ideas from that
conference, particularly with regard to the politics of identity and the body, have
found their way into this volume. Contributors focus on music festivals, individual
biographies, song texts, musical instruments, intellectual movements, state processes,
and the gendered dimensions of diasporic experiences. From economies of desire in
colonial encounters (Hill) and performances of mourning that remember ancestors
(Breyley) to intercultural borrowings in African Peruvian theatre (Le?n), or from
state interventions in creating wider diasporic groups (Johnson) to the connections
between musical instruments, their makers, players and places (Post), all of the
articles include discussion on relationality. They provide ethnographic and textual
details on the production, maintenance and transformation of social relations.
Recurring themes include musical memory, the impact of state policies on diasporic
performance, social relations and references to home.
Edwin Hill takes up representations of the 'Other' in French imperial mythologies
and unpacks complex narratives around the figure of the doudou (the black or
m?tisse Creole woman). A close reading of her song, 'Adieu madras', takes us from a
standard item in the biguine repertoire to moments of colonial encounter, desire and
exchange. Through critical engagement with French Enlightenment thought
(referring to Rousseau), 20th-century black liberationist writing (drawing on Fanon)
and Josephine Baker's film roles, Hill explores the musical, political and social
nuances of 'Adieu madras', the constructs of racial thought that place the burdens of
colonial differences and hierarchies on the shoulders of the doudou, and the doudou's
ability to sing through moral ambivalences and social ruptures. By pointing to their
colonial equivalents, Hill shows us that there is nothing new in people living through
the labels of hyphenated diasporic identities and that colonial and postcolonial
representations of them are mutually informative. The song 'Adieu madras' shows
how music illuminates some of the complexities around colonial desire and power
that have been highlighted in postcolonial critiques (for example, Young 1995). The
analysis is an exercise in postcolonial musicological thinking that focuses on the
doudou s lament to emphasize attachments between colonial island and imperial
metropolis and that might lead into further debate on social relations and colonial
legacies to finally free the doudou from her cage of 'geography, culture and colour'.
 14 T. K Ramnarine

Jennifer Post explores the classic concept of 'homeland' in diaspora studies and
points to ideas gaining greater theoretical ground about the making of homes in
diasporic contexts. In resonance with the project of rethinking national belonging as
argued in Gilroy's key text There aint no black in the Union Jack (1987), she suggests
that the homeland is no longer the geographic locations from which Kazakhs in
Mongolia were displaced generations ago, but is now in the places they inhabit.
Kazakhs in Mongolia are part of a transnational community, but it is significant that,
following repatriation to Kazakhstan from the early 1990s onwards, there has been a
pattern of Kazakh populations re-migrating to Mongolia. Drawing on the notion of
ethnoscape and pointing to the ancestral histories of Kazakhs in Mongolia, a musical
instrument, the dombra, provides a way into looking at the maintenance of a sense of
Kazakh national identity in the homeland of Mongolia. Though Post refers to
'Kazakhs in Mongolia' for narrative clarity, a crucial theoretical point about the
relation between home and diaspora emerged in our virtual discussions. The
designation Mongolian-Kazakh is common in the literature and, in fact, the Kazakhs
in Mongolia with whom she has interacted in pursuing fieldwork identify themselves
as Mongolian.
Henry Johnson explores Diwali as a public festival in New Zealand, charting how
state bodies as well as participants have shaped diasporic identities in a multicultural
context. In this case, a South Asian homogeneity is promoted through cultural
display. Explicitly drawing on Gilroy's 1987 text, Johnson emphasizes the continuing
importance of narratives of origin, such that public Diwali festivals can be regarded as
occupying a 'space between cultures'. State policies celebrate multiculturalism
through such festivals but package them as belonging to 'Others' in a 'contradictory
and hegemonic relationship between cultural celebration and ethnic consumption.
His article highlights the relations between ethnoscapes and soundscapes as they are
shaped by multicultural policies in New Zealand.
Gay Breyley considers the processes of decolonization and the continuing effect of
colonization in 20th-century Australia, bringing into conversation the testimonies of
three women to show how experiences of displacement have been refracted through
state policies and how cultural knowledge has been reproduced in contexts of loss.
The life stories of these women give us insights into cultural memory. They show how
biographies and personal narratives illuminate reverberations from the past within
dispersed communities. The biographies highlight the geographic and historical
complexities of diaspora and lead to unresolved questions about diasporized subjects.
So indigenous people are described as 'diasporic' having been dispersed forcibly from
homelands by state authorities. Their displacement and identification as diasporic
only makes sense in that it raises questions about the modern nation state as
"homeland". Similarly, ongoing colonial effects result in the political displacement of
indigenous people. By contrast, state narratives of Australian 'whiteness' have
absorbed the Jewish Diaspora such that a subsequent migration can be described
in terms of joining an 'Australian Diaspora' in the USA. What remains to be seen is
whether further migrations like this might result in a reclamation of Jewish identity
 Ethnomusicology Forum 15

such that the marker of Australian identity becomes subsumed in another geographic
context.
Javier Le?n explores how performers of the Grupo Teatro del Milenio have
developed strategies for engaging critically with their identities as African Peruvians.
He draws on notions of cultural reclamation, cosmopolitanism and intercultural
collaboration to show how their theatre practice as a revival movement is in fact
a modern project situated in an urban professional environment, which also creates 'a
new space for the mass consumption and dissemination of their music among non
Afroperuvian audiences'. In an example of intercultural borrowing, Filipino musical
instruments and dances are used 'to create an Afroperuvian reading of an African
dance that never existed'. In exploring the relations between theatre representations
and Peruvian realities, we are brought back to Ato Queyson's arguments about the
transformations, processes and contradictions that inform society. Although 'reading
for the social' was not part of my original call for this volume on musical
performance in the diaspora, the articles can be read through this frame. They all
point to both musical performance and the study of music as mediums through
which intertwining, contrapuntal, (dis)connected and startling histories can be
represented. In highlighting different kinds of diasporic political agencies (in which
ethnomusicologists might be implicated through study of music in the diaspora), we
see these histories as being not just about understanding the past but also about
shaping the future.

Acknowledgements

I wish to express thanks to Mine Dogantan, co-organizer of the one-day British

Forum for Ethnomusicology conference (November 2005) and to Middlesex
University for hosting the conference. Thanks are also due to fellow members of
the Royal Holloway Postcolonial Research Group with whom I discussed Ato
Queyson's book in one of our reading sessions (January 2006), to participants at the
European Seminar in Ethnomusicology for allowing me to test the application of
calibration at this seminar (September 2006), and to Rachel Harris who kindly read
through this volume before publication.

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