Woven Tales, Woven Lives: A Look at Iloko-

Igorot Cultures through the Epic of Lam-ang

Rinarose B. Budeng1*, Farland D. Valera1

1
Don Mariano Marcos Memorial State University, Philippines

Abstract Folktales are a crucial gateway to understanding the soul of a

culture. In the Philippines, the Iloko and the Igorot are two distinct cultural
groups. It is widely held that the Iloko epic, Biag ni Lam-ang, relates
exclusively to Iloko culture. This study aimed to establish that the epic
also mirrors the cultural aspects of the Igorots and to provide a significant
scholarly contribution to the beliefs and practices of both cultures, em-
phasizing the urgent and crucial task of preserving indigenous knowledge
and culture. To explore and understand the meanings related to the beliefs
and practices of the Iloko and Igorot cultures, as seen in the epic, content
analysis combined with oral narrative was employed. Results revealed
striking similarities in courtship, marriage, and the supernatural between
the two cultures, underscoring the shared commonalities even among
seemingly disparate groups. This undertaking offers a revised perspective
on the epic as it uncovers the interconnections between the two cultures.
Keywords: Beliefs, Courtship, Marriage, Practices, Supernaturalism

1. Introduction

C
ulture is the interconnected pattern of human knowledge, belief, and
behavior, while literature is an expression of culture as it records
human knowledge, belief, and behavior (Eyong et al., 2011). The
pursuit of understanding the culture of a group of people could begin by
studying their literature (Patil, 2015). Literature arises from the everyday
undertakings of the people in a specific area (Moreira da Rocha, 2016). It is
*
also commonly recognized that literature is a profound reflection of society
Corresponding Author: (Roshni, 2015) and a key to understanding society and its people (Ramanathan,
Rinarose B. Budeng 2018) since it conveys the deep-seated meanings of a determinate culture
rbudeng@dmmmsu.edu.ph
(Azcona, 2011). In essence, literature originates from a culture and becomes
Received: July 2024 a vital source of understanding the culture of a particular group of people.
Revised: September 2024 One type of literature is the epic, grounded in customary traditions that
Accepted: September 2024 recount the exploits of old heroic characters (Bazimaziki, 2017). Baltazar
Published: October 2024 (1981) asserted that folk epics are among the remarkable pieces of literary
heritage revolving around heroic deeds and supernatural events, and they
© 2024 Budeng and Valera.
This is an open-access article
exemplify the people’s beliefs, life values, practices, and ideals. In the
distributed under the terms of Philippines, there is a dearth of collected folk epics in the library reflecting
the Creative Commons the diversity of languages representing a culture. Being an illustration of man’s
Attribution License (CC BY). bound ways of life, few folk epics were recorded, preserved, and explored.
https://doi.org/10.22034/ijscl.2024.2039005.3646
 Woven Tales, Woven Lives: A Look at Iloko-igorot Cultures through the Epic of Lam-ang

Eugenio (2007) refutes a need to delve deeper into folk epics from the tribes and communities in this
archipelagic region to unveil cultural practices and embodied beliefs.
Furthermore, literature represents the qualities of the culture of its origin (Patil, 2015). The first Filipino
epic documented during the Spanish Period was Biag ni Lam-ang (Life of Lam-ang), published serially
in El Ilocano from 1889 to 1890. The Ilocano Epic Biag ni Lam-ang and the Bicol Epic Handiong were
the only folk epics ever recorded during the Spanish period, indicating that undeniably, there was a lack Page | 138
of attention accorded to the study of Filipino culture during that time (Manuel, 1963). This historical
context underscores the importance of understanding and preserving cultural heritage. Contemporary
research has yet to give much attention to studying epics concerning culture.
The Iloko and Igorot are two discrete cultural communities within the Philippines. The widespread
opinion holds that the celebrated Ilocano epic Biag ni Lam-ang is solely concerned with Ilocano culture.
This investigation aims to establish that the epic is a reflection of Igorot culture as well. To date, very
limited research has focused on the connections between cultures (Schneider, 2018), and literature is
critical as it allows connecting people (Ahmed, 2017). Particularly, there is an absence of research on
the Iloko-Igorot cultures owing to the exploration of the beliefs and practices presented in the epic Biag
ni Lam-ang. To address this gap in research, this study aims to contribute to the repository of beliefs
and practices concerning the interconnection of Iloko-Igorot cultures within the Amburayan region
while preserving Filipino indigenous knowledge and culture. The perpetuation of indigenous
knowledge and culture has been accepted as a crucial component of the sustainability of indigenous
human societies, especially in this era of globalization (Nakashima & Bridgewater, 2000).
The main endeavor of the study is to concisely analyze the epic and its connection to the inter-
relationship of both cultures. Specifically, it seeks to explore how the epic of Lam-ang represents and
connects the cultures of the Ilocanos and Igorots through the following objectives:
1. Determine the practices of courtship and marriage and the beliefs on the supernatural presented
in the epic of Lam-ang.
2. Identify the practices of courtship and marriage and the beliefs on the supernatural of the Ilocanos
and Igorots related to the epic of Lam-ang.
3. Examine which beliefs and practices are similar among the Ilocanos and Igorots.
Lam-ang’s epic centers on his romance and marriage to Ines, as well as his exploits as a supernatural
being. When discussions about cultural beliefs and practices commence, courtship and marriage can
never be ignored since their importance has been a part of the Filipino tradition. Also, beliefs in
supernatural beings are widespread in the Philippines (Abad et al., 2014). Filipino indigenous beliefs
would describe their personal interactions with supernatural creatures and powers. Hence, this study
concentrated on the beliefs and practices surrounding courtship, marriage, and the supernatural.
2. Theoretical Framework
2.1. Culture in Relation to Beliefs and Practices
Loflin and Winogrond (1976) asserted that culture is the total of acts and experiences exemplified by
the shared beliefs of individuals in a social group, and every belief is possibly shareable. Weller (2005)
reinforced this assertion by stating that cultural beliefs are learned and shared across groups. Beliefs are
considered behavioral patterns associated with thoughts, actions, and manners shared by the people in
society and passed on to the succeeding generations (Hatah et al., 2015). Consequently, beliefs matter
(Farias et al., 2013), for they are considered core elements of culture (Yang et al., 2006). Since they are
shared, they connect us more closely to others (Heine et al., 2006).
Furthermore, culture does not only consist of shared beliefs but also shared practices (Eyong, 2011). In
support of this, Braff and Nelson (2020) contended that culture is a collection of beliefs, practices, and
symbols that are learned and shared. Thus, similar to beliefs, cultural practices are essential components
of culture and are also shared. Considering its definition, cultural practices are accepted ideas and shared
perceptions about how people in a culture behave in general (Frese, 2015). They encompass all forms
of behavior or manners of conduct that have cultural significance (Kashima et al., 2015).
 R. B. Budeng & F. D. Valera/ International Journal of Society, Culture, & Language, 12(3), 2024 ISSN 2329-2210

2.2. Iloko and Igorot Cultures

Studying different cultures often reveals historical connections that span regions and nations
(Schneider, 2018). A deeper understanding of the Philippines and the culture of its people is not realized
if the study of the culture of its towns, provinces, and regions is neglected (Foronda, 1993). Eder (2013)
asserted that Philippine indigenous peoples belong to an interrelated cultural identity. In fact, Florendo
Page | 139 (2006) treated the Ilocos Region as a host to Igorot settlements and a spatial setting for ethnic
reconstruction and the formation of Iloko-Igorot interaction. It became an area that defined ethnicities,
leading to exploring historical connections and geographically fluid spaces. Foronda (1993) substantiated
that the Ilocano regional culture was initially limited to the culture of the Ilocos region in the original
provinces of Ilocos Norte, Ilocos Sur, and La Union. Currently, however, the Ilocano culture has since
opened out to include the culture of Ilocano-speaking inhabitants living in the provinces of Abra,
Benguet, Bontok, Ifugao, and Kalinga-Apayao which some Ilocanos proudly call “Ilocanized” provinces
and where Igorot tribes can be found (Foronda, 1993). These provinces showcase a rich tapestry where
Ilocano traditions have intermingled with the customs of indigenous groups like the Igorot tribes.
The Igorots denote people from the mountains (Molintas, 2004). They are also referred to as highlanders
(Finin, 2005 as cited in Botangen et al., 2017) and belong to the ethnolinguistic groups or tribes of the
mountainous Cordillera Administrative Region (CAR) to be found in the northern part of Luzon in the
Philippines (Botangen et al., 2017). This term has explicitly been used by various local and international
researchers and historians (e.g., Finin, 2005; McKay, 1999). Conversely, Ilocano refers to people living
in the major Ilocano provinces of Ilocos Norte, Ilocos Sur, and La Union and their increase in population
headed to migration to the neighboring provinces (Ilocanos, 2017). Considered to be the third largest
ethnolinguistic group, Ilocanos were the most represented group in the population of CAR (Calimag,
2020). These depictions highlight the affinity between the two cultures.
Notwithstanding the differences between the ethnic groups, Filipinos share a common thread in their
traditional beliefs and practices (Clariza, 2019). The epic reflects the beliefs and practices of the
Ilocanos, the source of this fictitious literary piece. However, the series of adventures includes Lam-
ang’s exploits with the Igorots. The Ilocanos and Igorots are among the Filipino ethnic groups who live
near the legendary Amburayan River mentioned in the epic. Geographically, the river spans the
provinces of Benguet, Ilocos Sur, and La Union and crosses the municipalities of Atok, Tublay, Bakun,
Buguias, Kapangan, and Kibungan of Benguet, Santol, Bangar, and Sudipen of La Union and Suyo,
Sugpon, Alilem, and Tagudin of Ilocos Sur. For this research, Bangar, Sudipen, Alilem, Suyo, and
Tagudin were selected as the locale of the study since these towns are situated within the boundaries of
the legendary Amburayan River in the epic of Lam-ang.
3. Methodology
3.1. Participants
The study included 14 participants, with six females and eight males. The participants were between
the ages of 50 and 85. They were divided into two groups: seven Iloko key informants from Bangar and
Sudipen, La Union, as well as Tagudin, Ilocos Sur, and seven Igorot key informants from the Kankanaey
subgroup of the Igorot people from the towns of Suyo and Alilem, Ilocos Sur, and Sudipen, La Union.
The informants, regarded as culture bearers within their communities, were purposively selected using
the snowballing method or the referral technique for recruiting participants. Since the Iloko and Igorot
communities where the research was conducted are homogenous (Tri-Ethnic Center for Prevention
Research, 2014) and the key informants were identified by community leaders as culture bearers, the
researchers deemed the number of interviews sufficient to establish a general picture of the beliefs and
practices being studied.
3.2. Procedure
3.2.1. Data Collection
Prior to their participation, all key informants were provided with a comprehensive explanation of the
research’s nature and objectives. Subsequently, they willingly and knowingly gave their consent to
 Woven Tales, Woven Lives: A Look at Iloko-igorot Cultures through the Epic of Lam-ang

participate in accordance with the principle of Free, Prior, and Informed Consent (FPIC). In the context
of the Kankanaey Igorot communities, an FPIC dialogue was initially carried out in the towns of Alilem,
Sudipen, and Suyo. This dialogue aimed to obtain explicit permission from the Indigenous elders/
leaders to conduct the study. The National Commission on Indigenous Peoples (NCIP) provided
assistance in accordance with the Indigenous Peoples Rights Act (IPRA) and in recognition of the
indigenous peoples’ entitlement to safeguard their traditional knowledge and belief systems. The
research was authorized to be undertaken in indigenous communities by the elders/leaders through a Page | 140
resolution of consent. An unstructured interview guide, designed based on the research objectives, was
used to direct the informants’ discussions.
3.2.2. Data Analysis
The transcripts of the recorded spoken data were subjected to content analysis through reading and
rereading. Thereafter, these were subjected to open coding, where the topics on beliefs and practices
were identified and marked. The codes were organized into categories upon which the themes that
guided the discussion of results were based. The themes were based on the research objectives. The
beliefs and practices relating to the Iloko and Igorot cultures are presented separately first, and then,
after that, the convergence of the two cultures is discussed in the results.
The identification of beliefs and practices in the epic Biag ni Lam-ang was established by applying
linguistic analysis and content analysis, specifically focusing on the themes of courtship, marriage, and
supernaturalism. The beliefs and practices in the Iloko and Kankanaey Igorot cultures and their
meanings, yielded by the spoken narratives from the key informant interviews, were analyzed
thematically alongside the contents of the epic.
In order to maintain the credibility of the study, the findings were shared with the Iloko communities in
Bangar, Tagudin, and Sudipen for their validation. Likewise, the aforementioned process underwent
community validation in the Kankanaey Igorot communities of Alilem, Sudipen, and Suyo. All
community validation meetings in Iloko sites were coordinated with the Local Government Units
(LGU) of the respective communities. In the case of the Kankanaey Igorot communities, the community
validation meetings were overseen by the National Commission on Indigenous Peoples (NCIP) and the
Indigenous Peoples’ Mandatory Representative (IPMR) in the LGU.
4. Results and Discussion
4.1. Practices on Courtship and Marriage in the Epic of Lam-ang
Courtship began when Lam-ang decided to visit Doña Ines Kannoyan, who was characterized as a
beautiful and diligent young woman in Kalanutian. Ines’s residence was surrounded by many admirers
competing for her attention. Lam-ang was taken aback by the sight of several enthusiasts enjoying
themselves in the garden upon his arrival. He was surprised one could walk on the suitors’ heads without
touching the ground. To come close to the house and gain Ines’s attention, he strategically caused his
rooster to crow, knocking over a neighboring house. Upon commanding his dog to bark, the
collapsed house abruptly sprung upright. Ines’s parents observed this as well and were impressed.
They urged Ines to wear her finest dress and summoned him. When Ines’s parents asked Lam-ang about
the purpose of his visit, the rooster answered that they had come to offer homage to their daughter. The
rooster acted as Lam-ang’s spokesperson and communicated his intentions to Ines.
Giving sab-ong (dowry) to a woman’s parents by a man was a custom among the earliest Ilocanos.
Ines’s parents permitted Lam-ang to wed their daughter, depending on Lam-ang’s fulfillment of a
suitable dowry and his commitment to giving it to her parents. Her parents compiled an inventory of
their daughter’s wealth, predominantly of gold. This includes solid gold sculptures of a rooster, gold
paving stones, gold balls, and a clothesline crafted entirely from pure gold. According to Ines’s mother,
the dowry requirement was for Lam-ang to duplicate everything they had enumerated to him as a
condition for marrying their daughter. Lam-ang summoned the residents of his town to take part in their
wedding ceremony by using the longgangan or gong to announce his upcoming marriage. Lam-ang’s
family packed everything, even the gargaret (culinary utensils).
 R. B. Budeng & F. D. Valera/ International Journal of Society, Culture, & Language, 12(3), 2024 ISSN 2329-2210

The two affluent families participated in a gift-giving rivalry. Upon Lam-ang’s arrival in Sabangan,
Ines and her family generously distributed clothing to all the residents of Lam-ang’s town, likely as a
gesture of gratitude for the numerous gifts he had brought along with the dowry. During the wedding
banquet, which included meat from pigs and goats, they continued to provide additional gifts for the
guests, such as giving away the plates they used.

Page | 141 4.2. Beliefs in the Supernatural from the Epic of Lam-ang
The supernatural’s role and function in analyzing an epic is crucial (Deme, 2009). Lam-ang was born
with the ability to speak, and at just nine months, he was already capable of engaging in combat with
the Igorots. Concerning the supernatural forces around nature, the story also discusses animism, which,
according to Park (2020), is the notion that many spiritual creatures are involved in human events and
have the power to either help or harm human goals. These supernatural beings are occasionally offered
food in exchange for blessings and direction. During Lam-ang’s initial encounter with Ines, her mother
prepared rice in a pot described as small yet capable of accommodating food for them, as well as the
kaibaan (dwarf) and other invisible entities. In addition, when Lam-ang traveled to the territories of the
Igorots, he made sure to include food for the kaibaan in the hopes that they would be able to aid him
during his journey.
4.3. Ilocano Practices on Courtship and Marriage Related to the Epic
The traditional approach to courtship is for a man to make an effort rather than wait for the ideal woman
to find him. Ilocanos use a variety of strategies to pursue girls. Conventionally, a suitor should go to the
girl’s home and show respect to both the girl and her family. A series of informal conversations and
visits to the girl’s house are the first steps in the courtship process, during which the suitor learns to
know the girl and her family. The suitor is prohibited from seeing the girl without the parents’
permission. The parents are nearby, conversing with him. If a man wishes to be earnestly regarded by
a woman, he must visit her family and properly introduce himself.
To win the girl, the suitor must demonstrate a continuous succession of actions. The ultimate purpose
is to convey affection through words and deeds. During the suitor’s visit to the girl’s home, he may
bring a gift. This is because offering a gift is a tactic used to impress and gain the girl’s favor. The suitor
is also expected to present gifts to the girl’s parents. Occasionally, parents have a preference for a
potential partner who is capable of bestowing gifts on them. The epic proved that gifts had the potential
to capture a woman’s affection, as Lam-ang vowed to deliver gifts that may match Ines’s fortune. This
is evidence that men place importance on giving gifts (Braboy Jackson et al., 2011).
Moreover, the suitor must endeavor to gain the favor of the girl’s family and make a strong impression on
her. He may assist in household chores such as collecting water and firewood. Sometimes, he may also
do farm chores, such as helping with the harvest. In the epic, Lam-ang strived to impress Ines and her
parents. The selection of a life partner is determined by a combination of personal decisions and the
impact of parental guidance in choosing a mate (Apostolou, 2008). Parents are in an ideal position to
influence their children’s mating decisions since they are often close to their children and frequently
control resources on which children rely, giving them unique power to exercise influence (Perilloux et al.,
2008). For the Ilocanos, like in the epic, parents play a highly significant role in the courtship of their chil-
dren. Family is everything; therefore, a suitor does not simply court a woman; he woos her entire family.
Music can allure a potential partner, significantly affecting romantic relationships (Bamford et al.,
2024). One other way to convey love is through the tapat (serenade). During an enchanting evening,
the man can invite his friends to sing love songs to his cherished lady. If the suitor lacks the ability to
sing or play the guitar, he requires the assistance of his friends to substitute for him. Therefore, one can
successfully captivate a woman by skillfully playing the guitar and serenading her with romantic
melodies. Nevertheless, the suitor may have company. He can ask his friends to help him woo the girl.
In his quest to win over Ines, Lam-ang made a concerted effort, but he was not alone. He asked his dog
and his rooster to attract her attention.
Ilocanos engage in the practice of albasya, wherein a young man delegates the task of expressing his
love to a woman to an albasyador or rangtay (human bridge) if he cannot do it himself, possibly due to
 Woven Tales, Woven Lives: A Look at Iloko-igorot Cultures through the Epic of Lam-ang

his shyness. An elderly relative or a close acquaintance can operate as the albasyador, who will serve
as the couple’s intermediary and line of contact. The albasyador conveys the man’s affection to the
lady to elicit a reciprocal response. Using an albasyador, the man can initiate the courtship process
without the apprehension of experiencing embarrassment early on. Moreover, the suitor uses written
correspondence to express affection. If he cannot create such letters, he may delegate the task to
someone who delivers the letter to the woman. Using a human bridge can help build trust and credibility.
When a mutual acquaintance introduces someone, it can indicate that the person is trustworthy or Page | 142
possesses great attributes, perhaps making the courtship process easier. When Lam-ang was asked about
the purpose of his visit to Ines, he delegated his pet rooster, acting as a mediator, to respond and
communicate his intentions.
Once the lengthy and challenging process of courtship has unfolded, the couple may choose to enter
into matrimony. A specific date is selected for the gathering of both families. The boyfriend will notify
his parents that they will visit the woman’s residence. The gathering, known as the dumanon, takes
place when the man, his parents, and sometimes other family members and elders visit the woman’s
home to plan the wedding. The dumanon highlights the familial aspect of the wedding, as historically,
marriage entails establishing a bond between two clans. During this meeting, the participants will
discuss the sab-ong (dowry), arrangements for the wedding, and the specific dress the bride and groom
will wear on their wedding day. The sab-ong is mandated as a plot of farmland that can be a source of
livelihood. Others refer to sab-ong as panganan (source of sustenance) since it is typically a piece of
land the couple can work on to support their growing family. Land represents more than just a piece of
property; it also represents security and abundance. Sometimes, the sab-ong may also consist of gold
jewelry. The Ilocano people attribute profound cultural importance to gold since it symbolizes
affluence, distinction, and social standing. Moreover, Ilocanos practice pangubbaan, typically a gift of
money presented to the girl’s parents, particularly the mother, as a “tangdan na nga nangub-ubba”
(reward for raising her daughter well). Ilocano families frequently place the mother at the center of
childrearing and care. Mothers are frequently the principal caregivers and are held in the highest regard
for their selflessness in the upbringing of their children (Baron & Ragay, 2020).
The epic of Lam-ang affirms the Ilocano’s practice of sab-ong, which includes land as a source of
sustenance and gold jewelry as a symbol of wealth and prestige. Ines’s parents promised to give her
hands if Lam-ang could match their wealth, which included gold and lands. Dowry is an old ritual that
may have existed before records of it were kept; however, they are still anticipated and required as a
prerequisite for accepting a marriage proposal (Uddin et al., 2019). In certain cultures, the bride’s family
must provide a dowry to the groom’s family (Jahan, 2017). Nevertheless, the Ilocanos consider a dowry
as an obligatory gift that the groom’s family must present to the bride’s family. The sab-ong may have
been intended to reassure the bride’s family that her groom had enough resources to sustain her if he
could pay them a wedding gift. The sab-ong, although first sought by the bride’s family, will ultimately
be bestowed to the newlywed to support their expanding family in the long run.
As a display of gallantry, it is customary for the groom’s family to be responsible for covering all
wedding-related costs, such as the venue, catering, and bride’s gown, with its accessories. Nevertheless,
the bride’s family also has the opportunity to make a financial contribution towards the wedding. When
the bride’s family contributes to the wedding expenses, Ilocanos practice the tersia that assigns three-
fourths of the costs to the groom and one-fourth to the bride. Due to the Ilocanos’ patriarchal society,
the groom often assumes the majority of the expenses. While Lam-ang took care of most of the
wedding’s requirements, including culinary utensils, livestock for butchering, and bridal attire, Ines’s
family contributed by helping to set up the wedding venue. In addition, it is customary in Ilocano
culture, mainly when both families are affluent, to extend wedding invitations to the townspeople, not
only to the immediate family members. This is analogous to the epic narrative in which all the locals
were sent an invitation.
On the evening preceding the wedding, there is a festive occasion involving dancing, attended by the
bride, groom, and several single men and women. Due to the predominant Catholicism among Ilocanos,
weddings are customary to be solemnized at the church. The reception is typically hosted at the bride’s
residence following the church ceremony. After the food is served, the dancing commences. The
 R. B. Budeng & F. D. Valera/ International Journal of Society, Culture, & Language, 12(3), 2024 ISSN 2329-2210

newlywed couple initiates the inaugural dance and then invites all attendees to participate. The
newlywed’s first dance may symbolize their devotion and affection for each other and the beginning of
their shared life as a married couple. The wedding attendants use music and dancing to showcase their
cultural heritage and customs on this significant occasion. Dancing takes place in several forms at
weddings: initially, it is typically ceremonial, but it may also serve as entertainment or hold ritual
significance and purposes (Hoppu, 2003). The dance floor becomes a gathering place for families and
Page | 143 guests, reinforcing the newlyweds’ sense of belonging and support.
The ritual of parwad, which involves giving a monetary present to the newlywed by family members
and visitors, takes place during the dancing. The parwad entails the bride and groom sitting at a table
with twelve people who stand in for the twelve apostles. One will be in charge of compiling a list of the
financial gifts. Each donor will be rewarded with a shot of basi, a wine derived from sugarcane, in
return for their financial contribution. Dances can continue till nightfall. Before their departure, the
guests are given a wedding souvenir as a token of appreciation and gratitude for participating in their
momentous occasion. The church wedding and the parwad tradition exemplify the religious devotion
of the Ilocanos, which is also evident in the epic, as the Catholic church serves as the main location for
Lam-ang and Ines’s wedding ceremony. The marriage of Lam-ang is characterized by extravagant
banquets and continuous dancing. In addition, the residents of Lam-ang were given wedding mementos,
including garments from Ines’s relatives and the plates utilized during the celebration.
4.4. Ilocanos’ Beliefs on the Supernatural Related to the Epic of Lam-ang
People are surprisingly prone to supernatural beliefs, particularly the idea of invisible agents.
Individuals across all human civilizations believe that a range of unseen person-like beings, such as
spirits, ghosts, evils, and gods, are responsible for easing suffering from illness and misfortune (Pinker,
2005). The Ilocanos still hold on to the notion that there are tiny invisible beings known as kaibaan or
ansisit(dwarf). They hold the belief that both good and bad dwarfs exist. When these unseen entities
are unintentionally injured by a careless deed, such as when walking through their dwelling without
permission or accidentally spraying them with water, they can cause litteg (boils), gaddil (dermatitis),
and gagatil (itching). They do, however, have the belief that these invisible spirits can be placated by
giving them atang (offering) like “danum ken lana” (water and coconut oil) and occasionally istapoy
(rice with coconut) during an appeasement ritual.
The atang is an intangible cultural tradition of the Ilocanos (Corpuz, 2020). A mangngatang or
mangngagas (spiritual healer) frequently decides what is offered. There is no specific ritual while doing
the atang. It entails leaving a plate of food as an offering to the spirits. Similarly, the epic contains
invisible creatures like the kaibaan. Twice in the epic, it was said that when they cook rice, they also
include some for the kaibaan to appease or seek their aid. Ilocanos perform offerings to remedy an
ailment or obtain protection from it and solicit spiritual direction, protection, or assistance from unseen
entities in times of necessity or ambiguity.
At times, they encounter unexpected animal creatures that appear out of nowhere, such as “kabalyo nga
awan ti ulo na nga agtartaray” (a headless horse running) or “manok nga karkarna ti taraok na,
agtataguob nga aso, agim-immak nga baka” (a chicken, a dog and a cow making a strange sound). The
abrupt presence of these creatures could signify impending danger. They also believe in “an-anito ti
karayan, dagitay saan nga makitkita” (unseen spirits in the river). They can be appeased through
“maikanan wenno maiyatang nga istapoy ijay kileb” (istapoy placed on the fish net as an offering).
This is done not only to please the spirits but also in order to catch more fish. Likewise, within the epic,
creatures are endowed with supernatural abilities, such as the protagonist’s companions: a dog and a
rooster. In addition, supernatural entities inhabit bodies of water, such as the crocodile in the
Amburayan River, whom Lam-ang engaged in combat with his bare hands, and the water monster fish
berkakan, which swallowed him.
In Ilocano traditional belief systems, natural elements such as forests and rivers are commonly
considered to be inhabited by supernatural entities or spirits. These beliefs function as a means to
elucidate the natural world’s mysteries and warn against disrespect or causing disturbance to these
environments. The key Ilocano informants possess personal anecdotes or experiences that fortify their
 Woven Tales, Woven Lives: A Look at Iloko-igorot Cultures through the Epic of Lam-ang

convictions regarding supernatural beings. These experiences can reinforce their established beliefs,
including accounts of supernatural encounters, observations of inexplicable phenomena, or narratives
transmitted from family members and community members.
4.5. Igorot Practices on Courtship Related to the Epic of Lam-ang
Igorots typically visit the woman at home. It takes the admirer several visits with the girl before she
Page | 144
accepts their relationship. The man’s respect and honesty as a potential husband are expected during
these visits. The suitor can also pursue the woman through tumok, where a hesitant or shy suitor seeks
the assistance of an albasyador, usually a family member or an elder, to convey his affection for a
woman. When the woman’s family consents to the courtship, it is common for the man to be extended
an invitation to visit the woman’s residence. In the epic, Lam-ang visits Ines, and his pet rooster speaks
for him and expresses his love.
Another method of courtship is kaising (arranged marriage). An arranged marriage is a practice in which
older family relatives are responsible for finding suitable spouses and negotiating weddings for the
younger generation (Jennings et al., 2012). Hence, in kaising, parents play an active role in choosing
suitable spouses for their children. When organizing marriages, parents consider various aspects,
including social standing, family reputation, compatibility, and shared cultural beliefs. For instance, the
key informants argue that preserving riches within the family is necessary to uphold a superior social
standing. If both individuals possess substantial wealth, they will enter matrimony to safeguard their
fortunes from potential depletion. In addition, parents must select the spouse for their child as they
believe that if their child marries someone from a different culture, their cultural heritage may be at risk
of being diminished or lost. While the epic does not depict arranged weddings, Lam-ang and Ines’s
parents exerted considerable influence. The parents actively participated in the courting, organization
of the wedding, and the ceremonial proceedings. Ines and Lam-ang were obliged to adhere to their
parents’ instructions and desires.
Music possesses a unique power to elicit feelings that words alone find difficult to describe. An
additional courtship practice is suayan, a wooing ritual in which a man and a woman sing together
during courtship. This method allows the couple to make a strong impression on each other. In certain
cultures, both men and women have a preference for sexual partners who possess musical abilities
(Kaufman et al., 2016). In addition, they engage in the practice of tapat, which involves males
serenading beneath a woman’s window at night in order to court her. Following the tapat, the woman’s
parents may permit the suitor to enter their home to present himself to the woman and her parents
formally. Therefore, suayan and tapat are ways a man might successfully captivate a woman through
his singing. While Lam-ang did not serenade Ines to gain her affection, he attempted to astonish and
captivate her by showcasing his magical abilities. In the epic and Igorot culture, it is expected that a
man possesses the ability to impress and allure a woman’s interest.
Men should be able to persuade the woman’s parents as well. Engaging in household chores is another
strategy to impress a woman and gain her parents’ approval. For instance, the suitor offers help for a
brief period by engaging in tasks such as woodcutting or farm labor. Once the girl’s parents are
convinced, they approve of the suitor and permit him to pursue a romantic relationship with her.
Prospective suitors must impress the woman’s parents by exhibiting good conduct, maintaining a
positive reputation, and engaging in positive deeds. The impressions formed throughout the wooing
phase can have enduring consequences. Parental approval is highly esteemed as it might enhance a
relationship’s long-term harmony and fulfillment. Lam-ang also deliberately tried to create a positive
impression on Ines’s parents.
At marriage ceremonies, they engage in the practice of kaon, wherein a pig is slaughtered to signify the
union of a man and a woman. Following the kaon, they participate in the teteg ceremony, where they
sacrifice additional pigs. However, they emphasize that these pigs must have clean nails, as they believe
that anything offered as a sacrifice to the Lord should be untainted. All family from both sides, as well
as other guests, are welcome. Next to the teteg, the cañao ceremony is conducted, commencing with
the slaughter of three pigs as an expression of thanksgiving. After the initial cañao ritual, the couple
will continue to perform additional rituals until they have slaughtered twelve pigs. However, the couple’s
 R. B. Budeng & F. D. Valera/ International Journal of Society, Culture, & Language, 12(3), 2024 ISSN 2329-2210

financial capabilities are also considered since there are instances when the couple cannot afford to go
any further. During food distribution to the visitors, the watwat technique, where big chunks of meat,
whether cooked or raw, are fairly distributed, ensures that each individual receives an equitable portion.
The cañao represents the concept of collective solidarity and harmony among community members.
Wedding guests enhance their sense of unity by participating in activities such as feasting and dancing.
Page | 145 The couple’s act of sharing the meat with guests displays their eagerness to distribute their blessings
and riches to others. The slaughter of pigs for the guests was a customary practice during Lam-ang’s
wedding feast, similar to the one observed by the Igorots. In the epic, the townspeople and family from
both parties were extended invitations. Visitors are likewise provided with excellent treatment and
receive their equitable portion.
The man’s family frequently brings all the necessary items for the wedding feast. However, the extent
of assistance provided relies on the willingness of both sides, as there are instances where the woman’s
family is also enthusiastic about offering support. Typically, tending to the rice falls upon the woman’s
family while the man’s family prepares the animals for slaughter. The female is called aklo, a ladle used
for serving rice, while the male is called tawing, a ladle used for serving pork, beef, or carabao meat.
Hence, the man will share a more significant amount. Under certain circumstances, the man will assume
full responsibility if the woman lacks any contribution. There are situations where the woman’s family
may ask the man’s family to bear the entire cost of the wedding, including the bride’s dress and all its
adornments. Assuming a substantial share of the wedding expenses is commonly seen as a symbolic act
of kindness and dedication from the groom’s family towards the bride’s family and the broader
community. It showcases the groom’s family's readiness to assist and sustain the newly married pair as
they begin their life together. Like the Igorot culture, Lam-ang’s family provided all the necessary items
for the wedding feast, but Ines's family also contributed to the wedding.
There is dancing on the eve of the wedding and again on the wedding day until all the gifts are given.
Among the Igorots, dancing is a vital component of wedding festivities. It symbolizes joy, contentment,
and the celebratory ambiance encompassing the joining of two persons and their families. Dance unites
the community to celebrate the newlyweds and offers them well wishes for their shared path. Also,
dancing during weddings is thought to elicit blessings and bring the recently wedded pair good fortune.
The synchronized motions and melodic sounds are believed to draw in favorable energy and divine
blessings, guaranteeing a fruitful and harmonious union. Regarding the epic, there were also ritualistic
dances, and the people engaged in continuous dancing.
The Igorots are not involved in giving sab-ong (dowry), although they are acquainted with the tradition.
They encounter the tradition of sab-ong when one of them enters into marriage with an Ilocano. In
addition, they partake in the tradition of parwad, which involves presenting monetary gifts to newly
married couples. During the parwad rite, the bride and groom are seated at a single table, where guests
and relatives are invited to make monetary donations as designated by the person in charge of these
contributions. Although they do not provide dowries to brides in the same way as in the epic, they do
present parwad gifts to the newlyweds. As a token of appreciation for each monetary donation during
the parwad, the donor is given tapuey, a rice-based wine, to drink. They also give away wedding
souvenirs to the attendees. Tokens are a significant means for couples to express their happiness and
gratitude to their guests, fostering enduring connections and memories from their wedding day. In the
epic, giving gifts and souvenirs was also evident.
4.6. Igorots’ Beliefs on the Supernatural Related to the Epic of Lam-ang
Indigenous cultures are characterized by significant interconnection between their environment,
metaphysical entities, supernatural powers, and rituals (Armstrong, 2006; Kemmerer, 2012). The
concept of the supernatural includes animism, which holds that supernatural forces control the physical
reality (McKay, 2015). Animism is the idea that natural events have supernatural or magical powers
and that nonliving objects have souls or lives of their own (Sitton, 1998). In addition, animism is the
concept that all living things, including plants, animals, and even rocks, have souls (Eldridge, 1996).
The Igorots hold beliefs in spirits that are connected to natural elements. It is thought that these spirits
 Woven Tales, Woven Lives: A Look at Iloko-igorot Cultures through the Epic of Lam-ang

have the power to influence the natural world. Offerings and rituals are frequently performed to solicit
these spirits’ goodwill and establish a balance between humans and nature.
Specifically, they believe in sacred water sites and unseen spirits. Springs and wells are perceived as
the dwelling place of supernatural beings or spirits. Sacred animals could also live in sacred water sites,
and among them is “datdatlag nga igat” (mysterious eel), which, when captured, can make someone
sick. These spirits are considered protectors of the water and its surrounding ecosystem, protecting its Page | 146
abundance, equilibrium, and purity. Disturbing or causing harm to them may provoke their anger or
result in disaster for the perpetrator. Moreover, these beliefs frequently carry a moral message,
cautioning against disrespecting the natural world or entities that surpass human comprehension. The
epic of Lam-ang mentioned a body of water, specifically the Amburayan River, where he easily defeated
a crocodile face-to-face. A monstrous fish also swallowed him up. It simply indicates that water sites
and the supernatural creatures that inhabit them play a key role in the epic and Igorots’ culture.
There is also a belief in the existence of both good and evil entities. Among the spirits that can cause
sickness and disease are antipapakkaw, liblibayan, temengaw and kaibaan. Antipapakkaw is a worm
that can bring about skin ailments like itchy skin and red spots. Liblibayan is a spirit that can hurt by
pinching a part of someone’s body, which can cause stomach pain in the person who has desecrated its
dwelling. Temengaw is a spirit from the trees that can also bring about illness. Kaibaan is an unseen
spirit that can cause skin conditions. However, they believe these spirits can heal whatever ailments
they have instigated if presented atang to appease them. For example, a temengaw can be placated by
butchering a pig as a sacrificial animal and offering a food recipe with a coconut. For most of these
spirits, offering boiled eggs and istapoy can appease them. Through presenting offerings, Igorots
express their recognition of the importance and influence of these supernatural entities in their lives and
aim to cultivate and sustain peaceful relationships with them. In the epic, an unseen spirit called kaibaan
is explicitly mentioned, and to placate this spirit, they have to offer something that involves rice.
4.7. Beliefs and Practices Shared Among the Ilocanos and Igorots
Both cultures’ traditional courtship rituals involve a subtle and indirect approach. It encompasses stages
that are intrinsic to the culture and society of the Philippines. Singing love songs, giving gifts, and
writing letters are all hallmarks of the courtship ritual. They have a long-standing practice that states a
prospective suitor should personally visit the girl’s family to introduce himself. The suitor also makes
attempts to win over the girl’s family. If the suitor needs help expressing his feelings, he can ask an
albasyador to do it for him. During the night, young males would play music under the bedroom
windows of ladies as part of the tapat ritual, hoping to get their attention and have them return the favor.
Also, the suitor may be asked or even obliged to work for the woman’s family.
The beautiful and intricate process of traditional courting for both cultures involves gestures designed
to attract a potential romantic partner while demonstrating respect and decency towards the woman and
her family. Courtship is an unstructured process that allows individuals to explore their norms and
expectations in a romantic relationship (Gomez, 2019). Throughout history, courtship has expressed
passion and intention through actions, tangible gifts, and words.
A wedding is a public demonstration of happiness and a traditional ceremony recognizing the couple’s
commitment to each other. During the wedding, the groom takes care of all the arrangements. While
the woman’s family provides occasional help, the man bears greater expenses. Delight, dancing, and
feasting abound. Attending are relatives and residents. The custom of bestowing presents upon
newlyweds is a prevalent aspect of the parwad tradition. Each donor during the parwad is given a shot
of wine - a shot of basi for the Ilocanos, and a shot of tapuey for the Igorots. Guests are occasionally
bestowed with mementos as an additional act of reciprocity. Weddings are celebratory ceremonies
observed in both cultures to pay homage to the unity and harmony between two individuals. Dancing
amplifies the capacity of the couple and their guests to convey happiness and excitement, leading to a
vibrant and festive atmosphere.
Both cultures also hold supernatural beliefs. Unseen spirits are among these supernatural beings. There
are two categories for the spirits: good and evil. While the bad spirits can cause sickness or death, the
 R. B. Budeng & F. D. Valera/ International Journal of Society, Culture, & Language, 12(3), 2024 ISSN 2329-2210

benevolent spirits can bring good fortune. The specific shared belief is that kaibaan has the potential to
induce skin diseases. Accidental damage to these supernatural beings can be rectified by performing an
atang ritual that often involves istapoy or rice with coconut. Rice is a fundamental food for both
cultures and vital to human existence, and offering rice is a way to show gratitude for the food that
nature provides. The multipurpose nature of coconut in Filipino cuisine may symbolize the abundance
of the land and the favors of the natural world. Providing rice accompanied by coconut as an offering
Page | 147 represents a desire for prosperity and a willingness to share the blessings of life with these supernatural
entities. Moreover, offerings to invisible beings hold great importance as they signify a vital element of
their spirituality, cultural identity, and connection to the world.
Additionally, both cultures also share a common belief in the existence of animals that can be seen as
supernatural beings due to their sacred nature, extraordinary skills, or the ability to appear and vanish
abruptly. Humans are inclined to attribute occurrences to metaphysical or supernatural beings and
powers (Johnson, 2021). Various supernatural creatures are said to dwell in natural environments as
they are seen as mediators between the human realm and the spiritual domain. These entities link the
tangible and intangible realms, promoting a stronger bond with the natural world and spirituality.
5. Concluding Remarks
The Epic of Lam-ang functions as a cultural reflection, portraying the Ilocanos’ values, beliefs,
practices, and, to a certain degree, the Igorots. Although the epic is mainly centered around the Ilocano
narrative, it encompasses broader cultural themes like courtship, marriage, and reverence for the
supernatural, which are significant in the cultural fabric of the Amburayan Region, where both the
Ilocanos and Igorots have flourished. The epic highlights the same cultural elements that unite
communities despite their unique personalities. By welcoming and sharing stories such as the epic of
Lam-ang, Igorot communities can establish mutual understanding with their Ilocano counterparts,
strengthening a collective sense of cultural heritage and identity.
Folk literature, such as epics, is a fundamental aspect of the culture, traditions, and rituals of the northern
Philippines, specifically in the Amburayan region, where one can observe the interconnections between
the Ilocanos and Igorots. As a result of industrialization, cultural diffusion, and intermarriage, there may
be a future where the traditional cultural practices of different tribes, especially the Ilokanos and Igorots
in the Philippines, disappear and are no longer remembered. Biag ni Lam-ang, a work of Ilokano
folklore, may speak to the Ilocanos and Igorots’ beliefs and practices. This epic can potentially advance
cultural preservation, enrichment, and conservation. As a result, this little endeavor can address the
challenges of cultural preservation of the beliefs and practices embodied in Biag in Lam-ang, leaving
the Amburayan communities with a priceless legacy and a record of their folk art. This study focused
solely on the epic’s beliefs and practices regarding courtship, marriage, and the supernatural. Future
studies may examine the rituals, beliefs, and practices about birth and death, which are also evident in
the epic. Future academics can also investigate how the epic deals with filial piety, rivalry, and survival.
Disclosure Statement
The authors claim no conflict of interest.
Funding
The research received funding from the Philippine Commission on Higher Education (CHED). The
authors recognize the contribution of the Kankanaey indigenous communities in Alilem and Suyo,
Ilocos Sur, and Sudipen, La Union, Philippines.
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