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Satya Sheel
Alpha Science International Ltd.

Oxford, U.K.
Instrumentation
Theory and Applications
496 pgs. | 278 figs. | 48 tbls.
402 pgs. | 168 figs. | 10 tbls.
Ph.D. (Systems Engg.), M. Engg. (ECS), B. Engg. (EE)

Fellow I.E.(I), Senior Member I.E.E.E., M.A.M.S.E., L. M.I.S.T.E.
Satya Sheel
Department of Electrical, Electronics & Instrumentation Engineering
University of Petroleum & Energy Studies
Dehradun
Formerly, Professor of Electrical Engineering
Motilal Nehru National Institute of Technology
Allahabad
Copyright © 2014
ALPHA SCIENCE INTERNATIONAL LTD.
7200 The Quorum, Oxford Business Park North
Garsington Road, Oxford OX4 2JZ, U.K.
www.alphasci.com
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in

a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic,
mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without prior written
permission of the publisher.
ISBN 978-1-84265-768-3
E-ISBN 978-1-78332-061-5
Printed in India
THIS CREATION IS DEDICATED TO
THE MEMORY OF
MY PARENTS
Preface
Instrumentation and measurement are part of all scientific and

industrial activities. The theory of measurement involves sensing the
phenomenon, obtaining electrical signals, their processing, and
interpreting the information to make meaningful deductions about the
system. The activity involves use of principles and information from
several disciplines, and interestingly useful to all engineering/
scientific endeavors. The most important application of the signals is
for monitoring the system/process and using this information to
implement control actions. In industrial situation (and in many others)
the measurement related activities are to be conducted perpetually in
a pre-defined sequential manner. Such a group of activities performed
with the dedicated hardware (and sometimes software too) is called
an instrumentation (system). Instrumentation is an ever growing
discipline with importance in all types of industries and scientific
research. Its complexity has grown steadily with increasing
importance of accuracy, precision, faster data acquisition & faithful
transmission to ensure high product quality. This is evident from the
glance at the major industries viz. Chemical units; Steel plants; Oil
refineries; Cement factories; Sugar mills; Food processing &
Beverages (both soft and hard) production centers; Pharmaceutical
industry; Paper and pulp industry; Audio, radio, video
communication; Consumer, entertainment, industrial, defense and
medical electronics.
A large number of books related to various aspects of
instrumentation, needs of different industries are available, but there
has been shortage of a textbook which provides sound theoretical
basis, followed by application and information of design/selection
aspects involved, simple enough for students to understand and yet
invoke minimum mathematics and electronics, so as to stress on
applications, and be easily followed by practicing engineers from
various disciplines and scientists. Normally to cover the necessary
theory and the elements of instrumentation system architecture four
to five textbooks are required. The need to reduce this problem has
been felt for a long time. Also, the details required for students of
viii PREFACE
different branches/groups of engineering professionals vary largely.

Looking at the developments in instrumentation, it is to be noticed
that mechanical, hydraulic and pneumatic instrumentation have been
in use for a long period with high success rate and also have common
industry standard. However, over the last 20 years the electrical and
electronic instrumentation have developed so much that all earlier
techniques have become outdated and might be obsolete very soon.
Therefore, in this text earlier technologies have not been discussed in
this text, except for cursory reference at a few places. Biomedical
instrumentation is related but very specialized on its own, and not
considered. However for the first course the students and fellow
teachers will find useful information.
The developments in electronic instrumentation have been very
rapid and wide spread, as these involve several aspects, the choice of a
single text been difficult. With this in view, this text has been designed
with a flexible approach, so that the main text provides the necessary
theory, yet assumes little mathematical background, with necessary
knowledge presented and other details are included in appendices, so
that depending upon the details actually needed by the reader, the
appendices and bibliography may be appropriately referred.
The book is considered useful for the following type of users:
(i) Students having their first course in instrumentation in any
branch of engineering and needing a text complete in itself.
(ii) Scientists needing background of various aspects – theory,
mathematical formulations and approach for development of
typical need based of instrumentation systems.
(iii) Professors conducting course in this subject and wish to adopt
a single text for one semester course at UG or at graduate
level with appropriate choice of chapters compatible to the
background and composition of the class of students.
(iv) Practicing engineers who wish to undergo self-study and
update their knowledge.
The material has been organized into nine chapters and ten
appendices. Author has aimed to provide concise and reliable
information about the basics, technique available with emphasis on
the modern ones. The principles are stressed more and applications
are included as the logical use of theory, as he feels required in a first
course on the subject. The details have been included considering the
fact that such courses are offered at senior level in sixth or seventh
semester in most universities almost, in all disciplines.
PREFACE ix
The first chapter includes the basics and scope of the subject while
the second chapter on system specifications and tools provides
background material for understanding analysis methods and tools.
This may be omitted if the students have already undergone a course
in measurements and control.
The third chapter provides background of measurement
principles, errors and their analysis relevant to instrumentation
systems and techniques to achieve desired quality. This may be gone
through briefly for students who have undergone a course in
electrical measurements. Chapter 4, 5, 6 detail the principles of sensors
and transducers in detail, to be utilized for application to common
physical variables later. The transducers constitute the interface
between the real system and process with the electrical signal domain.
Their application to common physical variables will be the subject
matter of chapter 7.
Chapter 8 includes signal conditioning which is one of the most
important activities responsible for improving accuracy, sensitivity,
linearity and convenience of use by adding processing capability.
Developments in electronics have contributed very significantly in
modernizing the instrumentation systems. Selected topics from this
chapter should be used depending upon the background of students
i.e., very little for electronics engineering to almost whole for
mechanical and chemical engineering students.
Last chapter on telemetry and networked systems includes the
content matter to complete the flow of information i.e., from field to
control room. This includes various data transmission schemes in
practice along with current trend towards computer-based data
transfer network systems and the standards. These topics are most
often not included in the undergraduate text books and discussed
only in brief to provide a complete scenario. At the end data
acquisition systems (DAS) are included in brief.
It is strongly felt that data acquisition aspects should be covered in
detail but if it is difficult to cover in one semester then it must be
recommended for self-study as an assignment.
Also included in each chapter are solved examples to illustrates
the application/computational aspects and problems for exercise are
provided in all chapters with answers to selected problems included
toward the end. At the end of each chapter, a list of references has
been included for more detailed study by interested readers, along
with a bibliography at the end. Glossary of the important terms has
been provided to assist the first time reader of the subject to avoid
x PREFACE
cross referencing and make continuous reading possible without the

distraction, to refer to some other book or material.
It is hoped that this text shall be able to meet the long felt need of
the user community to have all aspects of industrial instrumentation
from the point of view of learning the subject. The feedback for improve-
ment and any queries are welcome at the e-mail address of the author.
I am thankful to my wife Kumud for patience and encouragement,
graduate students Tarun Varshney, Omhari Gupta, Alok Kumar, Shivam
Bhardwaj, Madhulika Phatak, Gunjan verma, Neha Srivastava, Honey
Joshi, Mayank and Vipul Agrawal for assistance at various stages of
preparation and many UG students who provided the feedback to
improve upon the explanations.
Satya Sheel
drsatyasheel@yahoo.com
Contents
Preface vii
A: FUNDAMENTALS OF MEASUREMENTS AND

INSTRUMENTATION
1. Instrumentation Systems 1.1—1.13

1.1 Role of Instrumentation 1.2
1.2 Elements of Instrumentation System 1.3
1.3 Use of Monitored Information 1.4
1.4 Types of Instrumentation System 1.5
1.5 Standards of Instrumentation Design and Technology 1.7
1.6 Calibration 1.11
1.7 Recent Trends 1.12
Problems for Exercise 1.13
2. System Specifications and Tools for Analysis 2.1—2.36
2.1 Performance Characteristics 2.1
2.2 Static Characteristics 2.2
2.3 Dynamic Inputs 2.7
2.4 Dynamic Systems 2.10
2.5 Analytical Techniques for Dynamical System 2.14
2.6 Stability of Systems 2.31
2.7 System Representation and Variables 2.32
3. Measurement Principles 3.1—3.30
3.1 Deflection Methods 3.1
3.2 Null Deflection Methods 3.3
3.3 Special Methods 3.9
xii CONTENTS
3.4 Errors in Measurements 3.12

3.5 Statistical Considerations of Errors 3.13
3.6 Combination of Errors 3.19
B: TRANSDUCER INSTRUMENTATION
4. Sensors and Transducers 4.1—4.24

4.1 Primary Element 4.1
4.2 Advantages of Electrical Transducers 4.4
4.3 Primary Sensors 4.4
4.4 Primary Sensors for Flow 4.12
4.5 Selection of Transducers 4.22
5. Passive Transducers 5.1—5.62
5.1 Resistive Transducers 5.2
5.2 Inductive Transducers 5.28
5.3 Capacitive Transducers 5.35
5.4 Frequency Generating or Modulating Type
Transducers 5.43
5.5 Opto-electronic Transducers 5.46
5.6 Nucleonic Transducers 5.52
5.7 Ultrasonic Transducers 5.52
5.8 Hall effect Transducers 5.53
6. Active and Digital Transducers 6.1–6.37
6.1 Active Transducers Based on Thermoelectric Effect 6.1
6.2 Active Transudcers Based on Piezoelectric Effect 6.14
6.3 Active Transducers Based on Electromagnetic
Induction Principle 6.24
6.4 Active Transducers Based on Photoelectric Effect 6.26
6.5 Digital Transducers 6.28
CONTENTS xiii
7. Transducers for Industrial Applications 7.1—7.70

7.1 Introduction 7.1
7.2 Pressure Monitoring 7.11
7.3 Flow Instrumentation 7.23
7.4 Level Instrumentation 7.41
7.5 Instrumentation of Mechanical Variables 7.57
7.6 Monitoring of Humidity and Moisture 7.66
C: ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTATION
8. Signal Conditioning and Data Conversion 8.1—8.95

8.1 Transducers Bridges 8.3
8.2 Amplifiers 8.12
8.3 Signal Converters 8.29
8.4 Rectifiers and Applications 8.33
8.5 Active Filters 8.38
8.6 Linearization of Transducer Characteristics 8.53
8.7 Data Converters and Digital Signal Conditioning 8.64
9. Telemetry and Networked Systems 9.1—9.40
9.1 Types of Data Telemetry Systems 9.2
9.2 Land Line Telemetry 9.4
9.3 Current Telemetry 9.6
9.4 Frequency Telemetry 9.12
9.5 Multiplexing of Signals 9.15
9.6 Digital Data-transmission 9.19
9.7 Network Requirements 9.23
9.8 Communication Interface Industrial System 9.27
9.9 Data Acquisition Systems(DAS) 9.29
9.10 Sensor Networks and Smart Transducers 9.32
xiv CONTENTS
APPENDICES
A Instrumentation Symbols A.1—A.4
B Compensation of Lead Resistance by
Muller’s Method B.1—B.2
C Basics of Operational Amplifiers (OP-amps) C.1—C.9
D Units and Conversions D.1—D.2
E Thermocouple Tables E.1—E.14
F Journals in Instrumentation Engineering F.1—F.1
G Websites for Data Sheets, Component
Manufacturers and Technical Information G.1—G.4
H Answers to Selected Problems for Exercise H.1—H.15
I Glossary of Common Terms I.1—I.6
J Bibliography J.1—J.4
Subject Index SI.1—SI.8
CHAPTER 1
Instrumentation Systems
‘‘If you cannot measure it, you cannot control it.

If you cannot control it, you cannot manage it.
If you cannot manage it, you cannot improve it.’’
Conclusion is - if you cannot measure it, you cannot improve it.
Dr. H. James Harrington International Quality Guru
INTRODUCTION Inside the Chapter

For any industry to be Role of Instrumentation
successful, quality control and
Elements of Instrumentation system
scale of production at the viable
Use of Monitored Information
economic level is a must. The
Types of Instrumentation Systems
quality control depends on the
monitoring of vital processes Standards of Instrumentation Design and
Telemetry
and associated variables. The
Industry Standard for Analog Signal
economy of operation is
Transmission
controlled by material and
Current Loop Telemetry Systems
energy inputs into the
Other Electrical Standards
production process/system.
Other Standards
The monitoring of variables,
the process thereby, energy and Calibration
materials need instrumentation Recent Trends
systems finally to achieve the Review Problems
automatic control of the given Problems for Exercise
industrial process.
The integration of monitoring elements/devices and systems for
each individual variable in the process is referred as data acquisition
channel and a combination of all such channels is referred as Data
1.2 INSTRUMENTATION : Theory and Applications
Acquisition System (DAS). With the integration of DAS and the

process being monitored and controller the DAS acquires the level of
Instrumentation system, as shown in Fig. 1.1.
Fig. 1.1 Elements of Instrumentation System
1.1 ROLE OF INS TR

INSTR UMENT
TRUMENT
UMENTAATION SSY
YSTEMS
In any industrial system, measurement of variables, provides the
information about their magnitude and time of occurrence viz. The
status which may be utilized for one or more of the following
activities:
(i) Monitoring
(ii) Control
(iii) Behavioral analysis
Instrumentation professional is required to have appropriate
choice of the system (or process, used synonymously) variables,
measuring devices, their arrangement and method of utilization of the
measurands so as to meet the desired objective(s). An arrangement
satisfying the desired objective may also be called instrumentation
system.
The objectives need to be defined more specifically, depending
upon the type of system and the priorities associated with them. For
example, the detailed objectives in the cases of oil refineries system,
municipal water supply system, electric power generation system,
meteorological system, aerospace vehicle system or a human
physiological system have widely different objectives and therefore
may lead to widely different instrumentation systems.
Objectives in general would be:
(i) Smooth plant operation
(ii) Monitoring at every stage to ensure end product quality
(iii) Safety of plant and community
INSTRUMENTATION SYSTEMS 1.3
(iv) Environmental protection

(v) Equipment protection
(vi) Monitoring for diagnosis, production control and profit
analysis
For a set of specified objectives there are several guiding factors in
the design of instrumentation such as, maximizing efficiency and speed
of data acquisition, minimizing cost of devices, quality improvement of
data acquired, type of display desired etc. often it is difficult to satisfy
them together and one needs a good amount of skill and the
complexity of the scheme is often related to the efficiency, cost and
quality of the product and pollution control laws of the state.
1.2 ELEMENT
ELEMENTS S OF INS
INSTRTRUMENT
TRUMENT
UMENTA ATION SSYYSTEMS
For understanding the instrumentation, their systematic organization
and analysis, generalized approach is useful, as it makes possible to
describe the operation and performance of the system, without
referring to specific hardware.
A general instrumentation system can be categorized into two
major classes - analog systems, dealing with the information available
as continuous function throughout, and digital systems handling the
data information in digital or discrete from. Both of these types will
have three major elements as shown in Fig. 1.1. These include:
(a) Input devices
(b) Intermediate devices
(c) Output devices
Input quantities (also known as measurands) from the process, for
the most instrumentation systems are non-electrical. Therefore for
measuring, manipulation or control, it is necessary to convert them
into an electrical signal. An input device performing this role is known
as transducer, and may involve the use of primary sensor. These are
discussed in detail in fourth chapter onwards.
The intermediate devices stage consists of an assortment of
electronic assemblies to perform variety of useful operation such as :
(i) Signal conditioning of the signal obtained from the transducer is
performed with the help of amplifiers, attenuators, filters, signal
shapers and converters, data converters, multiplexers, transducer
bridges, linearising and other processing units for suitable calibration,
transfer and display etc., with avowed objective to meet the typical
requirements of the system under consideration, so as to bring the
signal into a format and level suitable for next stage to transmit for
local/remote display, monitoring and control purposes.
(ii) Data transmission/telemetry is the stage of transferring the

data, corresponding to physical variable being measured, already
brought into the format and level suitable for sending to the control
room for monitoring by display, recording and control of the process.
The format and the media for telemetry are large decided on the basis
of distance over which the signal is required to be sent. For example,
the media could be coaxial cable for small distances with high fidelity,
open telephone lines for medium distances with economy but open to
noise contamination, through wireless media—the type of RF
transmission analog or digital and modulation technique depending
upon the distance and fidelity required but at a greater cost.
The distances can vary from very small in laboratory scale produc-
tion units in case of sophisticated semiconductor device fabrication
units to scattered (up to kms) in case of chemical, fertilizer, oil refinery
units. Large telemetering distances are experienced in aircraft
guidance and control, missile control, with very large distances
traveled by signals picked up by space vehicles and satellites.
(iii) Data processing with the help of dedicated hardware or a
computer, involving operations such as linearising, limit comparison,
square root extraction, noise suppression, estimation of nonmeasu-
rable/unobservable variables, signal extraction etc.
Depending upon the process type and its details one or more of
above group of operations may be used.
The output devices, including visual display devices for continuous
monitoring of process/system variables. These include cathode ray
oscilloscope or (computer) monitor screens, alphanumeric displays,
panel meters etc. Very often recorders are used to have permanent
record of collected data for supervisory role, diagnostics modifica-
tions and optimization analysis, and managerial decisions. There is a
wide range of paper chart type ink/non ink stylus recorders, optical
recorders, galvanometric recorders, ultraviolet recorders to modern
magnetic tape recorders and digital recorders and plotters available.
1.3 USE OF MONITORED INF

MONITORED ORMA
INFORMA TION
ORMATION
The purpose of instrumentation in any industrial system/process is to
help in achieving desired output quality, by utilizing the values of
physical variables being monitored to implement the control strategy
appropriate for controlling the output variables. Here it will not be
attempted to go into the details of control strategies, yet a represen-
tative control system is presented to emphasize the role of instrumen-
tation. As shown in Fig 1.2 the main elements of a control scheme for
one of the variables of the system are indicated.
Input
Controlled Manipulated Controlled

Signal Variable Variable Instrumentation Monitoring
Actuator Process
System
Analysis
Error
Signal Process Variable
Controller
Desired Output
Fig. 1.2 Elements of Control System
Instrumentation system is being used to measure the process

variable(s) at the output (or some inside variable) as a monitoring
activity. This is compared with the desired output value of this variable
in the comparator. Any difference between them is called error and
needs to be corrected by the controller action(s). Error actuates the
controller to produce control signal depending upon the type of error
and the configuration of controller. Control signal in-turn acts upon
the actuator of the system to regulate the input quantity so as to result
in an output close to the desired one.
For example in a thermal system the heat inflow of the system may
be controlled by actuating a valve to control the flow rate of steam or
gate current of silicon controlled rectifier (SCR) to regulate the flow of
current into the heater etc., to keep the temperature of the system
(being monitored) close to the desired temperature (also called set
point).
There may be a number of variables to be monitored and for
several of them it may be possible to control independently. Depend-
ing on the degree of freedom we shall have as many closed-loops as
the number of controlled variables.
1.4 TYPES OF INS TR

INSTR UMENT
TRUMENT
UMENTA ATION SSY YSTEM
Feedback or closed-loop control systems providing automatic control
have developed immensely during the last 60 years. The growth has
been need base and limited by the available techniques and devices.
We can broadly categorise the various instrumentation systems used
with these systems into four types as:
(i) Mechanical, the classical one, using thermometers of various

types for temperature, manometers and dial gauges for pressure
etc. Some of these are quite economical, reliable and still commonly
employed. Figure 1.3 shows three types of mechanical types of
instruments:
(a) manometers for pressure measurement [Fig. 1.3(a)]
(b) a float based monitoring arrangement and [Fig. 1.3(b)]
(c) large pressure measuring arrangement using a Bourdon gauge
[Fig. 1.3(c)] as typical example of this class.
Max
Min
Input
Pressure
(c) Bourdon Gauge Type Pressure
Monitor for Large Mechanical
Pressure
Fig. 1.3 Mechanical Instruments
(ii) Pneumatic type has been the common choice in chemical and
oil industry (commonly referred to as process industry), steel plants
and many a section of power industry. In this a physical measurand
such as temperature, flow level etc., is converted into a pneumatic (air)

pressure, in proportion to the magnitude of the input. This can be
transmitted quite faithfully and have proved to be safe, efficient and
clean. Developments in this have been in all aspects of process control
including computing, amplifying, relaying, processing and logical
decision-making.
(iii) Hydraulic type, claimed to be as much efficient as pneumatic
but of late not popular due to various snags, mainly due to the fluid
(oil) being used. It is typically used for applications involving large
pressures for example in conveyors, lifts, brakes etc.
(iv) Electrical and electronic type: Major developments have taken
place in this type during the last 20 years and a stage has been reached
so that the new plants 10 years hence shall have 95% instrumentation
of this type. This has been made possible due to the advances made in
electronics, contribution to improvement in response time and quality
of data acquisition, data display facilities, recording and reproduction,
faster processing and analytical decision making to name a few. In
view of the growing importance of this class of instrumentation, the
present text emphasizes this with some of the widely used
configurations. The first three types are not being presented, for the
sake of brevity as these are becoming obsolete and within a decade
shall be replaced by electronic instrumentation. However, in the
present systems wherever they are in use, are being replaced slowly.
Interested reader may look into bibliography.
1.5 STAND
STANDARDS IN INS
ANDARDS TR
INSTR UMENT
TRUMENTATION DESIGN AND TELEMETR
UMENTA Y
TELEMETRY
As mentioned earlier, the main objective of intermediate devices is to
meet the requirements of the system. After the choice of appropriate
transducer, the signal conditioning stage is needed in most cases. The
selection and design of this stage and the subsequent one is simplified
by using standard devices and design procedures. For this signal
conditioning equipments are specified to provide standard output
signal for transmission to control and display devices.
The design of instrumentation systems around an established
standard provides distinct advantages in design, assembly, recon-
figuration, operation and maintenance. Commonality of spares and
thereby saving in cost of inventory, the reduction in training needs and
avoidance of special fault diagnostic aids are other advantages that
automatically follow. In a typical large process industry such as oil
refinery or entertainment electronics industry the common standards
offer major advantages in operation, maintenance, up gradation,

training of personnel etc., according to level of modernization. This
will be discussed in detail in Chapter 7.
Signal transmission or telemetry is one of the most important links
in data acquisition and have been standardized for universal use
for the reasons of clarity of understanding, flexibility of devices
connected, fidelity of signals transmission and future expansion of
system.
1.5.1 Industry Standard for Analog Signal T

Standard Trransmission
The most common 4-20 mA dc standard is based on live-zero concept,
rather than the voltage. This implies that for zero value of the input
measurand the current supplied is 4 mA and for the maximum (full
scale) value the signal current supplied is 20 mA. Current standard
provides a variable current according to the value of measurand
between these limits, through the loop formed in any of the connection
modes shown in Fig. 1.4., and a drop in current transmitted below
4 mA indicates malfunctioning i.e. usually dead connection. As can be
noticed from Figs. 1.4 (a-c), current loop is totally floating from the
earth and therefore provides excellent noise immunity due to the
absence of common mode noise. The errors caused by different earth
potentials around the plant are thus totally avoided. Also the line
resistance has no disturbing effect because current, rather the voltage,
is being used.
P.S.
Measurand
(a) Two Wire System
Current Source Display
Measurand
Recorder
Controller
(b) Series Connection of Output Devices in Current Loop

Measurand Controlled
+ Output
Transducer Display Devices

(Signal Conditioning)
(c) 4-20 mA Current Loop Principle
Fig. 1.4 Current Telemetry System
1.5.2 C urr
Curr ent Loop T
urrent elemetry SSy
Telemetry yst ems
stems
(a) Series connection of display/control devices with the
transducer as shown in Fig. 1.4, with the total resistance
limited by the consideration of the current controlling source
characteristics, or several of these as in Fig. 1.4(b), each output
device being a current sensor.
(b) Separately powered connection, is designed with transducer
providing the current (see Fig. 1.4c), or, as two-wire operation
with signal wires also acting as the power supplies
connections.
These are generally economical as a suitable local supply can be
used, to meet the demand of current for display devices too. In these
systems, the transducer is required to act as a current sink and adjust a
regulator to provide the correct magnitude of current in correspon-
dence with the value of measurand.
EXAMPLE 1.1
An instrumentation arrangement for temperature monitoring produces a
4-20 mA signal with an indicator and recorder connected at the (monitoring)
control room.
Show the interconnection and state assumptions.
SOLUTION:
A voltage supply of appropriate value is connected as shown in
Fig. ex. 1.1. The chosen supply should be able to maintain a load
independency say upto 600 Ω, so that the voltage supply needed
Vs = 40 mA × 600 Ω = 24 V
Suppose the devices to be connected are standard device i.e. with
definite input resistance say for indicator 200 Ω, for recorder 150 Ω.
This provides a gap of 250 Ω and more devices can be connected, also
the voltage may have to be reduced from 24 V so as to keep maximum

line current within 40 mA.
Fig. Ex. 1.1
1.5.3 Other Electrical Standards

Standards
4-20 mA standard described earlier is by far the most common yet
there are some others also in existence. Among these are 10-50 mA
standard and 1-5 V with zero off-set.
The voltage telemetry schemes shown in Fig. 1.5, suffer from a
serious disadvantage of voltage drop along the line, and this may
Fig. 1.5 Voltage Telemetry Schemes

necessitate the use of amplifiers/repeaters at the intermediate stations

between sending and receiving ends in case of long distances. The
main advantage of voltage telemetry lies in reduced power drain,
almost to zero by using null deflection technique, but in dynamic
situation it is difficult to achieve this as it demands faster response
from the equipment.
Often depending on type of output device, there may be a need of
current to voltage (I-V) or voltage to current converter (V-I), as part of
signal conditioning operations.
1.5.4 Other Standards

Standards
For chemical and allied industries, pneumatic control is still the most
common choice for the reasons of safety. For this class pressure
standard used is 3-15 p.s.i. or 20-100 K Pascals. Response speed is
improved by off-set zero. Pneumatic systems use dry, clean filtered air
as a medium of flow through the tubing of rubber or steel depending
upon the place of application. Pressure loss can be caused by venting to
the air and has an exponential decay with time, as shown in Fig. 1.6.
Fig. 1.6 Principle of Operation of Pneumetic Systems
The current trend is to convert the data received from the process
into a digital format and make it plant wide available through a
communication bus system as also to interface with computer for
storage, processing and display in a chosen format with efficiency and
flexibility. The details of such digital interface standards are discussed
in Chapter 9.
1.6 CALIBRA TION

CALIBRATION
This is one of the most important activities of an instrumentation
engineer in an industry. This provides meaningful information from
any system, and direct indication of the quality of instrumentation

system used, in terms of the accuracy. It relates the measurand value of
the variable with the (supposedly) true value or standard/reference
value, and presents it through a graphical plot, called—Calibration
graph. Another graph which is helpful is error versus indicated
reading, relates the errors against the measurand values.
These are shown in Figs. 1.7 (a, b) for typical cases. The calibration
needs to be checked from time-to-time in addition to every time
repairs or modifications are made in instrument system/subsystem.
There are schedules to be maintained for calibration just as these are
made for maintenance. During calibration only one variable is to be
changed at a time, under static conditions. Comparison is made with a
reference standard, which should be traceable to standards laboratory.
It should be also borne in mind that, it is being done under controlled
conditions of noise and loading i.e. under ideal conditions and
instruments might show a little different set of errors during use
under actual conditions.
Fig. 1.7 Calibration of Instruments
To identify the behavior of instrumentation system elements, we

consider in the next chapter the methods of characterizing the systems
and techniques available to test and verify. It will be followed by
measurement and analysis aspects.
1.7 RECENT TRENDS

Currently the emphasis is on miniaturization of transducer and related
units, (to be discussed in detail) all packaged into one, using VLSI
technology is called smart transducer. Needless to say that, the
accuracy norms and portability criteria have created the need for
digital specifications. The data sharing has become prevalent and
supports digital data format. Plant wide networking is a common
strategy to meet the demands of resource optimization at higher level,

distributed and hierarchical control. The network bus architectures
topologies shall be the future. In order to facilitate the data transfer
efficiently, sharing of buses compatibility of devices is important and is
taken care through the use of standards. IEEE standards are the
established ones and a brief introduction is included in this text.
SUGGESTED READINGS
1. Doeblin, E.O. - Measurement systems (MGH).
2. Fribance, A.E. - Industrial instrumentation fundamentals (MGH).
3. Holzbock, W.G. - Instruments for measurements and control (East-West
Press).
4. Eckman, D.P. - Industrial instrumentation (Wiley eastern).
REVIEW PROBLEMS
1.1 What is the role of instrumentation engineers in industry?
1.2 What are the building blocks of the instrumentation channel?
1.3 What is a legacy instrumentation system?
1.4 What is the difference between measurement and monitoring?
1.5 What are the objectives of monitoring?
1.6 Identify the major inputs in any industry? Explain their role with example.
1.7 What can be the advantages of off-line behavioral analysis?
1.8 Explain the live-zero concept and its importance in current telemetry.
1.9 Why is current telemetry preferred over voltage telemetry in industry?
1.10 Explain the operation of synchro transmitter-receiver pair operation for
position telemetry.
1.11 What are the other devices available in synchro family? Explain their
application in instrumentation and control.
1.12 Where are the national test house located in your country for primary
calibration of instrumentation?
PROBLEMS FOR EXERCISE

1.13 Draw the control loop for control of liquid level in a reservoir (tank) and identify
all instrumentation, control components.
1.14 Identify the variables and the monitoring instruments in a four-wheeler with
role and range of each.
1.15 Draw a possible control loop to maintain the temperature in a room at a
desired value, lower than outside (ambient) in summers and higher in winters.
Explain the control action and identify the component blocks needed.
1.16 From the appendix E note the standard symbols for various instruments and
controllers and use them for problems 1.13 and 1.15 above to draw the
process instrumentation diagram.
CHAPTER 2
System Specifications and
Tools for Analysis
INTRODUCTION Inside the Chapter

The behavior of an instrument, Performance Characteristics
a complex system or a
Static Characteristics
component can be specified by
a set of characteristics. These Dynamic Inputs
are obtained by actual experi- Dynamic Systems
mentation on the device in the Analytical Techniques for Dynamic
appropriate domain – time or Systems
frequency. Usually the time- Stability of Systems
domain has better tuning with System Representation and Variables
mental thought process but the
Review Problems
frequency response techniques
Problems for Exercise
provide better insight into the
behavior typically from design
point of view. The approaches
are interrelated, though in a complex manner.
Both the technique has been presented in this chapter only from
application view point. For rigorous definitions and more details the
references may be pursued.
In order to have understanding of the methods of analysis and
correlate theory with the practice, the representation of systems via
mathematical models is included. Some other mathematical
procedures and concepts such as stability also have been included
briefly.
2.1 PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS

Considering the generalized input-output system or the black box
approach, it can be characterized by three properties:
(a) Input characteristics

(b) Transfer characteristics
(c) Output characteristics
Input and output characteristics are considered for a functional
unit within the system e.g. range, linearity, impedance etc., and have
an important bearing on their interconnection with other unit in the
system. Transfer characteristics show a relation between input and
output variables.
Another approach for specifying the qualitative behavior of the
devices is to consider the characteristics as static, if the measurement
conditions are stationary in time, and dynamic if the measurements
are having time variable properties.
2.2 ST
STAATIC CHARA CTERIS
CHARACTERIS
CTERISTIC TIC
TICSS
These are specified by the following measures:
(a) Accuracy and Error: Accuracy of an instrument or a system is
the measure of the closeness between measured value and the
actual value of the process variable being measured. A precise
term to express the accuracy is error. This can be expressed in
a number of ways. A common approach is to express the
maximum difference between the actual value and the
measured value as % of full-scale deflection (FSD) of the
measuring device, or as a % of actual value of process variable
(PV). Yet another method of expression of the error is absolute
indication of error, e.g. ± 1°C for temperature instrumentation
irrespective of the value. Figure 2.1 shows the relation
between the actual and indicated values in a chemical process.
The error expressed as per the above approaches would be,
(15/65 × 100)% of actual value and absolute error at 65°C.
Fig. 2.1 Accuracy and Error Calculation

SYSTEM SPECIFICATIONS AND TOOLS FOR ANALYSIS 2.3
(b) Repeatability and Hysteresis: These terms are measure of

consistency of the measurements, and at times may be more
important than accuracy. Also referred as precision, to which
the same output will be obtained if the given input is applied
again and again over a period of time. The difference in
readings can be attributed to several reasons such as—
hysteresis, internal noise, temperature change or drift.
Hysteresis: is said to exist if the reading obtained for same
measuring point, in the different (increasing and decreasing) direc-
tions are not same. A common source of mechanical hysteresis is
slippage in mechanical linkage such as gears, as shown in Fig. 2.2.
Stiction or static friction is also a common cause of hysteresis in
mechanical systems in the form of force or torque necessary to initiate
the motion of body from rest.
Fig. 2.2 Hysteresis Effect

(c) Resolution: represents the smallest increment of the
measurand which can be detected with certainty. It also defines the
steps in which a reading can be sensibly made. A wire wound
resistance for example, shown in Fig. 2.3 having a movable wiper, can
be used to provide an output voltage corresponding to the position of
wiper. This potentiometric arrangement has an inherent output
voltage step size depending on the gauge of the wire and number of
turns of wire used per unit of length.
Fig. 2.3 Wire would Potentiometer

(d) Range and Span: The range of a variable is specified by its

maximum and minimum values obtainable/observable. For example, a
temperature sensing device may have an input range Paving to PVmax
of 30°C to 200°C and an output range of 6-20 mA.
Span is the difference between maximum and minimum values.
For example, in the earlier case, the input span is 170°C and the output
span is 14 mA as indicated in Fig. 2.4.
MV
20
PVmin PVmax
Temp °C
(300) (200)
Fig. 2.4 Transfer Characteristics of a Temperature Sensor
(e) Sensitivity: This is defined as the ratio of the change in

magnitude of instrument output to a corresponding change in
magnitude of measurand, also called gain or amplification factor,
referring to Fig. 2.4,
K = (MVmax – MVmin)/(PVmax – PV min) ...(2.1)
where MV and PV are measured value of process variable (electrical
signal) and the actual value of the physical variable (e.g. temperature).
EXAMPLE 2.1
For a temperature to voltage transducer, the range of measurement is 30°C to
280°C, resulting in output variation from 0V to 10 V. Calculate the
sensitivity of this transducer.
SOLUTION:
Sensitivity K for the given data shall be K = (10 – 0)/(280 – 30)
= 40 mV/°C.
The sensitivity being too small for low temperatures if the device
is used for the whole range. In situations where monitored infor-
mation is being used for controlling the temperature at (say) about
233°C ±5° a span adjustment for 200 to 250°C to give a full-scale output
is beneficial providing a larger sensitivity
K = 10/(250 – 200) = 200 mV/°C
This will result in less error for the actual range of measurement
needed.
(f) Linearity: This is a desirable property of all instruments and
implies constant sensitivity, i.e. the plot of process variable (PV) and
the measured variable (MV) is expected to be a straight line, defined
by:
MV = K × PV + Y ...(2.2)
Figure 2.4 shows such a relationship for such a transducer and the
ideal expected response, the off-set Y can be positive, negative and
zero. The various types of linearity are shown in Fig. 2.5. In each of
these, the maximum deviation from the ideal linear response
expressed as percentage of full-scale deflection is an indication of the
extent of nonlinearity in the measurements.
Output
Ideal
100% 100%
Output
Ideal
Actual
Input 100% 100% Input

(a) Zero based Linearity (b) Independent Linearity
Fig. 2.5 Types of Linearity
Nonlinearity = (Actual output Yi – Linear output Xi)max/( Full-scale output)

where i = 1, 2,………………….. represent the successive inputs applied
over the full range producing corresponding outputs.
Though linearity is a desirable property, it is difficult to obtain for
some devices, as in the case of a thermocouple type of temperature
sensors. A typical response for such a device is shown in Fig. 2.6. This
cannot be approximated by a linear equation yet a quadratic relation
of the type,
MV = A + B × PV + C × PV2 ...(2.3)
will be able to provide a reasonably close approximation for modeling

the response. For linearising the characteristics of such devices,
hardware as well as software procedures are available so as to obtain
acceptable results in the range of interest. Whereas, for some devices
the nonlinearity is of such a magnitude that it cannot be and need not
be linearised, for example, orifice meters used for flow measurements
in pipes, without complex signal processing techniques, as the
governing relationship is:
MV = A × PV2
Fig. 2.6 A Typical Thermocouple Characteristic

(g) Dead-zone/dead-band characteristics: This is a nonlinear
effect observed in many mechanical, electrical and hydraulic devices.
Dead zone is observed if no response occurs for small inputs and only
after a critical or threshold value is exceeded, the response shows up
as indicated in Fig. 2.7 (a). In mechanical systems it can be attributed
to friction or free play between the gears, in electronic devices – the
cut-in voltage in the forward characteristic of PN junction diode,
Fig. 2.7 (b).
Fig. 2.7 Dead-zone Characteristic

(h) Saturation Characteristic: If input-output (I/O) characteristic

is such that, beyond a certain value of input there is no corresponding
change in output, i.e. the sensitivity drops to very low or zero value,
as shown in Fig. 2.8, the device said to have saturation characteristics.
This may be observed in both the directions i.e. increasing and
decreasing.
Some causes for saturation are : magnetic saturation of the core,
valves opening to maximum, amplifiers providing a maximum
collector current, prime movers having an upper limit of speed due to
physical limitations etc.
It must be noted that, many of the properties can be simulta-
neously observed in a system. The desired properties are to be
emphasized and used judiciously, whereas the undesirable ones are
required to be suppressed/eliminated by a suitable modification,
processing technique or limiting the range of operation to an
acceptable one.
Fig. 2.8 Saturation Characteristic
2.3 DYNAMIC INPUTS

The system having response varying with time, for a given set of
conditions, is referred as dynamic systems. The various factors
responsible for time dependent behavior are the types or configuration
of the system and the parameters, character of the signal applied at the
input and the initial conditions of the system. Since a system behaves
differently to different type of signals, the types of input signal is
considered first.
2.3.1 Types of Input

Since the inputs from the system or into it, may even be arbitrary in
real life, the behavioral study and testing cannot be made for all of
these. Therefore, standard signals (inputs) are selected to tests the

response under various extreme situations possible. Some of these
standard test inputs are as shown in Fig. 2.9, are discussed next.
Fig. 2.9 Common Test Input Signals

2.3.2 St ep or P
Step osition Input
Position
This presents the worst type of input i.e. temperature sensor suddenly
put into the liquid bath and expected to indicate the temperature of
bath correct to a reasonable degree of closeness to true value within
the shortest possible time. Response of a typical temperature sensor is
indicated in Fig. 2.9 (a); Pressure gauge being used to monitor
pressure in a gas tank is suddenly applied the full pressure; etc. Such
inputs are mathematically presented as:
f(t) = K u(t)
and f(t) = K u(t – T), is called a delayed step signal where T is the delay,
see Fig. 2.9(b).
2.3.3 Ramp or Velocity Input

Velocity
This represents an input which is increasing slowly with time
according to a linear relationship as shown in Fig. 2.9 (c). For a
temperature sensor when subjected to such an input, the response is as
shown in Fig. 2.9 (d). This input physically presents the most desirable
type of inputs, for example the load on the beam applied in a
gradually increasing manner so that the stresses are changing slowly
and monitored more easily within the safe (ultimate) limits for the
material of the beam. Quite often it may be possible that the structure
may fail under the step input but may be able to bear the same or
sometimes even larger load under the ramp input conditions. Also, the
response of the system, if acceptable for step input, will surely be
acceptable with ramp input.
It can mathematically be represented as:
f(t) = K t, for 0 < t
If K = 1, it is referred as unit-ramp input. A practical ramp input would
be a modified/terminated ramp input as shown in Fig. 2.9 (e), wherein
magnitude of input is constrained to be constant after a certain value
instead of monotonically increasing and reaching a dangerous values
causing a certain failure of the system.
2.3.4 Par
Par abolic or A
arabolic Accceler ation Input
eleration
This represents a signal which is rather sluggish in the early period
but rises at a faster rate as the time progresses, as shown in Fig. 2.9(f).
Such signals are encountered in speed instrumentation systems, for
example a motor starting under large load (inertia) starts slowly and
pick up high speed later as also in the case of a passenger aircraft or
freight carrier. The peak response to this class of signals is always

within the limits of worst case e.g. step-input.
2.3.5 Sinusoidal Input

These are the ideal class of inputs subject of limits of amplitude and
frequency, compatible to the system under test. The practical load
disturbance signals are quite often of this type and there are standard
techniques available for analysis based on sinusoidal signals. These
are amenable to use for systems running under normal operating
conditions and are quite often used for identification of designed
systems’ parameters and performance rather than design tests.
2.3.6 Impulse Input

These are not for testing the physical systems may be used for further
analysis only and details can be found in any text on control
engineering.
2.3.7 Gener al Effects

General
The final steady state errors due to step, ramp and parabolic inputs
are referred as position, velocity and acceleration errors respectively.
These are relevant to the type of input being monitored and their
values are dependent on the configuration of the system. In general
the steady state error is required to be minimum but during
implementation, the other specifications may be more important are
discussed later in Sec. 2.5.5.
2.4 DYNAMIC SYSTEMS
2.4.1 Definition
Dynamics of a system is specified in terms of the rate of change of the
variables involved when subjected to specified inputs (which may also
have dynamics) and the observation is made over a reasonable period
of time.
For example a general dynamic system as shown in Fig. 2.10 can be
presented by a mathematical model, by the equation:
dnc(t) dn−1c(t) dn−2c(t) dc(t)

an n
+ an− 1 n−1
+ an− 2 n− 2
+ ... + a1 + a0c(t)
dt dt dt dt
dmr(t) dm−1r(t) dm− 2r(t) dr(t)

= bm + bm−1 m−1
+ bm−2 m− 2
+ ..... + b1 + b0r(t) ...(2.5)
dt(m) dt dt dt
n m
or, ∑ aici (t) = ∑ bi r j (t)
i=0 j=0
where, c(t) is the output and r(t) is the input. The coefficients a0, a1,
a2, .... an depend on system characteristics; b0, b1, .... bm depend on the
dynamics of the signal. These coefficients may be time variant/
invariant. The system has the dynamics of order n and for almost all
practical systems n > m. The analysis is simplified if the coefficients are
assumed to be constants.
Since the instrumentation devices-transducers, amplifiers, filters
etc., are generally limited to second order the above equation
simplifies to:
d2c(t) dc(t)
2 + a1
a2 + a0c(t) = b0r(t) ...(2.6)
dt dt
For a simple input of any of the types discussed earlier. We shall
consider later the various possibilities to identify the dynamical
model representations for instrumentation systems, devices described
by hardware configuration, and evaluate their performance for the
type of expected inputs.
Fig. 2.10 Block Diagram of a SISO System
2.4.2 C ommen
ommentt s
Commen
The most common technique for analysis of the assembly if
instruments along with the system devices, is the transfer function
modeling and simulation. It has been possible to model the systems
such as: boilers, reactors, heat exchangers, water tanks etc.,
instruments viz. analog indicating instruments, devices viz. sensors for
temperatures, pressure, flow, level, speed etc., and controllers of the
analog type–pneumatic, hydraulic or electrical....
There are other approaches to modeling i.e. state variable model,
time series model etc. but they have not found much application in
instrumentation, except for complex systems and then too, these are
limited to representation of process system only.
Simulation is the standard approach whenever analytical solution

is difficult. With the availability of computers now, it is possible to
think ahead and consider the eventualities, well before the actual
commissioning of the system and study of experimental results. For
more details, references cited at the end may be looked into.
2.4.3 T
Trransfer Function A
Function ppr
Appr oach tto
pproach o Modeling
The approach is most helpful in determining the output response of a
system or network for any given input, under relaxed conditions.
As an extension of our discussion earlier in Sec. 2.4.1 for dynamical
systems represented by Eqn. (2.5), with c(t) as output and r(t) as input,
a’s and b’s as real constants is considered again. By taking Laplace
transform of equation, neglecting the effect of initial conditions it is
possible to rearrange as :
ansnC(s) + an–1sn–1C(s) + ............. a1sC(s) + a0C(s)
= bmsmR(s) + bm–1sm–1R(s) + ............ + b1sR(s) + b0R(s)
C(s) bm sm + bm−1 sm−1 + ..................... + b1s + b0

or = = G(s) ...(2.7)
R(s) am sn + an−1 sn−1 + ..................... + a1s + a0
For a second order system it would reduce to
C(s) b s2 + b1s + b0
= 2 2
R(s) a2 s + a1s + a0
This relation in s domain is defined as transfer function and is a
frequency domain representation.
2.4.4 Use of Transfer Function

From the last equation we have
C(s) = G(s) ⋅ R(s) ...(2.8)
and the frequency response of the system with T.F. G(s) can be
obtained by setting s = jω, and evaluating the amplitude and phase
function values.
The time response of the system is evaluated using inverse Laplace
transform technique, so that:
C(t) = L–1 {G(s) ⋅ R(s)} ...(2.9)
It has to be remembered that, since the Laplace transform of unit
impulse response of any network or system is the T.F., provided all
initial conditions are zero.
For those readers, who are having reasonable background of

Laplace transforms are advised to see any standard textbook in
control engineering for more details (see bibliography).
2.4.5 Properties of Transfer Function

According to the configuration of transfer function the information
about the poles and zeros, the likely response can be guessed without
going for the complete solution. In many cases it is possible to
rearrange the Eqn. 2.7 in factorized form:
K(s + z1) (s + z2 )..................

G(s) = ...(2.10)
sm(s + p1 ) (s + p2 )..................
then, s = –z1, –z2,... etc., represent the poles in the s-plane at which
G(s) = 0. All such points are referred as zeros of G(s) function.
Conversely the points, s = –p1, –p2, … etc., at which the value of G(s)
become infinite are called poles. Also, m indicates the number of poles
at the origin and K is called steady state or dc gain. A general map is
shown in Fig. 2.11.
Fig. 2.11 s-plane Mapping of Poles and Zeros
If there exists a factor in T.F. of the type {(s + a)2 + b2}1/2, then
complex poles or zeros are to be found. Depending upon the value of
a the complex zeros/poles would be at origin or some other location
but will always be at origin or some other location but will always be
present in pair. Some typical responses are indicated in Fig. 2.12
corresponding to typical pole/zero mappings.
K (s + z )
G(s) =
s(s + p1) (s + p2 ) {s − (a + jb)} {s − (a − jb)}
jw c(t)
x x
o
o t
(a)
jw c(t)
x
x
o t
(b)
jw
c(t)
x
1
x o
t
(c)
jw c(t)
1
x
o
x t
(d)
Fig. 2.12 Effect of Pole Location on Response
2.5 ANALYTICAL TECHNIQUES FOR DYNAMICAL SYSTEMS

In this section we shall be considering some examples from industrial
systems with different orders of dynamics to correlate the material of
the previous section with the characteristics observed.
2.5.1 Zeroth Order Systems

If the device or the process is such that, on applying an input the
output appears immediately without any delay, storage or phase
change the it is said to be of zeroth order. For example, a potentio-
meter shown in Fig. 2.3 used as a position transducer is a zeroth order

element with scalar relation between the input (mechanical displace-
ment of wiper) and output (voltage at the output terminals).
R  R.Vi
e0 =  2  Vt = .x = K1.x ...(2.11)
R
 1 R1
Transfer characteristic, typical input and corresponding response

are shown in Figs. (2.13a, b & c).
Fig. 2.13 Response of Zeroth Order Device
2.5.2 First Order SSy

Order yst ems
stems
Systems characterized by first order rate of change of output variable
are called first order systems and they show a lag in the response.
Examples include temperature sensors i.e. thermometers, which take a
finite time to reach steady value (or close to it), depending upon the
properties of thermometer and the conditions of the surroundings.
Figure 2.14 shows a typical mercury thermometer as a first order
Fig. 2.14 A Typical First Order Device and its Characteristic

device and the indication of temperature when subjected to a sudden

change in the input conditions (step input) i.e. thermometer being
suddenly dipped into a heated bath.
The heat transfer involved in such a case over a small period dt can
be related as:
dT
MCp = UA (T1 – T2) ...(2.12)
dt
where,
M = mass of mercury in thermometer bulb
Cp = thermal capacity of thermometer bulb
A = area of the surface through which heat transfer takes place
from bath liquid to thermometer bulb
On rearrangement,
MCp dT
+ T2 = T 1 ...(2.13)
UA dt
dT
or, τ + T2 = T 1 ...(2.14)
dt
MCp
where, τ=
UA
T being the temperature of the thermometer bulb at any instant of
time and is called time constant of this first order system. 1/UA is
referred to as resistance and MCp as the capacity. It can also be
considered analogous to capacity in electrical circuit.
The time response of the thermometer to step input i.e. sudden
immersion in the liquid bath can be obtained by procedure outlined
earlier to finally yield:
T′ = T2 + T
and, T = (T1 – T2) 1 − exp  t   . ...(2.15)

  τ 
Therefore the rate of change of temperature indicated by the

thermometer would depend on τ, as shown in Fig. 2.15 for various
values of τ.
It is to be noticed that only 63.2% of the final steady state value is

reached in time τ, 86% in 2τ, 95% in 3τ, 98% in 4τ and it takes
practically infinite time for reaching final steady state value.
Fig. 2.15 Effect of Changing Time-constant on Response
Settling time is defined as the time to reach and stay within a

permissible tolerance around final steady value, is important and a
smaller settling-time indicates a faster response. In practical tempera-
ture sensors it is an important parameter and choice depends on the
objectives of the typical application situation.
EXAMPLE 2.2
Obtain the time response of the resistance temperature detector measuring
device, initially at ambient temperature of 25°C, when suddenly dipped into
the liquid bath being maintained at 115°C. Assume effective time constant for
the sensor to be 2 seconds. In how much time sensor indication will settle
within 2% of final steady temperature.
SOLUTION:
Dipping the sensors suddenly into the bath amounts to the step input
of (115 – 25 = 90°C). The sensor is known to be a first order system
with unity gain.
So, the temperature of the sensor shall change according as :
T(s) 1
= ; where τ is the time constant
U(s) 1 + sτ
Therefore,
T(t) = 90 (1 – e–t/τ)
The response plot of T(t) is shown below:

Linear Simulation Results
90
80
70
60
Amplitude
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Time (sec)
The 2% settling time is 7.82 seconds.

Another aspect to consider is the response of such systems to
inputs other than sudden (or step) e.g. ramp or velocity, parabolic or
acceleration input etc. For ramp-input the response would be obtained
as:
t
T = Q1 (e τ + t − τ) ...(2.16)
where, Qi – K t = Q1
The typical response will be as shown earlier in Fig. 2.16. The
derivation is left to the reader as an exercise.
Fig. 2.16 Response of a Temperature Sensor to Ramp Input
The two terms in the response equation represent important time

behavior of systems. Referring to the Eqns. (2.15) and (2.16), it may be
noticed that, the outputs have a time-variable term responsible for
steady-state response and becomes the dominant one as time elapses
after application of input. The other time variant term called transient,
should have value reducing to zero as time increases for any stable
system i.e. useful in practical sense. This implies that, the response of
any system should finally have a steady value only, of finite
magnitude and in a definite relation with input magnitude. The ratio
of steady output to the constant input amplitude is called steady-state
gain.
Time response evaluation is the most commonly identified
technique for analysis but not simple or easily implementable one.
Also the considerations of design, strategic choice of other
possibilities and assuring frequency response and impulse response
technique may be important.
EXAMPLE 2.3
Write the dynamical equation for a liquid level tank being used for
maintaining the inventory of a feed-stock of an important ingredient in a
chemical manufacturing unit. Controlled input is allowed into the tank such
that a balance with the outflow is maintained and level in the tank (stock) is
maintained constant at H meters. Tank may be considered circular with cross-
sectional area ofA-m2.
Obtain the transfer function and indicate the nature of response (change
in level) for a sudden change in the inflow to the tank.
SOLUTION :
Dynamic relation is derived from the material balance equation:
Input – Output = Storage
If left hand side is positive the stock (level) in tank will rise, if
negative level will fall and if zero the level shall maintain the original
level, H.
Qi – Q 0 = 0
where Qs are the flow rates in M 3/sec Initially, inflow is maintained
equal to outflow and R.H.S. is zero and is referred as steady state.
Now if there is a disturbance in inflow rate, the balance is disturbed
and dynamic state is represented by
dh
Q1 – Q 0 = A
dt
where h indicates the change in level due to unbalance.
Q0 is dependent on the level in the tank and can be approximated =
H/k steady under initial steady condition. Suppose Qi changes by ∆Qi
resulting in a change in level to (H + ∆h). Rise in the level to H + ∆h will
cause the outflow Q 0 to riseby say ∆Q 0 and the dynamic relation

becomes:
(Qi + ∆Qi) – (Q0 + ∆Q0) = A d(H + ∆h)

dt
H + ∆h  d(H + ∆h)
(Qi + ∆Qi) –   = A
 k  dt
Using the steady state relation and remembering that H is
constant,
∆hd∆h
∆Qi – = A
k dt
By uniformly dropping the ∆s in the relation, we obtain
dh
Qi – h = A
dt
and by taking Laplace transform of the relation
H(s)
Qi(s) – = A s H (s)
k
H(s) 1
=
Qi (s) 1
As +
k
k
=
1 + sT
where time-constant, T = A.k
Fig. Ex. 2.3 Liquid Level Control in Tank
The response of the system here implies the change in height for a
sudden change in the opening of input valve increasing the inflow.
Since the output also tends to increase (or decrease) with increase (or
decrease) in inflow and thereby the height, there is a self regulation
experienced and such systems are also called ‘self-regulated systems’.
The nature of response will be same as for any First order system to
step input, as shown in Fig. 2.14(b).
2.5.3 F
Frrequency Response T
Response echnique
Technique
This provides useful information about the behavior of systems.
Applied to first order system/instruments, for sinusoidal inputs, it is
expressed in transfer function (T.F.) form as:
e0 (s) K
G(s) = = ...(2.17)
ei (s) 1 + sτ
This form is also known as prototype first order T.F.
By substituting s = jω we have
K
G(s) = ∠ − tan−1 (ωτ) ...(2.18)
(1 = ω2τ2 )1/2
K
where 1 is gain/amplitude and φ = ∠–tan–1 (ωτ) is the phase
(1 + ω τ )
2 2 2
angle.
The gain and phase plots for typical first order instrument are
shown in Fig. 2.17. It may be noted that for zero order system, similar
plots are available but of lesser consequences as:
eo ( jω)
= K ∠ 0° ...(2.19)
ei ( jω)
i.e. gain is independent of frequency and phase is identically zero.
Fig. 2.17 Frequency Response of a First Order System

2.5.4 SSec
ec ond Or
econd der SSy
Order yst ems/Instruments
stems/Instruments
This class of systems/instruments involve two energy storage
elements formed singly or in combination of elements such as mass,
damper, capacity, inductance, resistance etc., and involve two rates of
changes in the dynamical representation of this class of systems.
In Fig. 2.18 are shown two examples of this class. For these devices
Equn. 2.6 holds and this can be rearranged as:
d2 x dx
2 + 2ξωn + ωn2 = bor ...(2.19)
dt dt
After taking Laplace transform and rearranging:
X(s) Kω2n
= 2 ... ...(2.20)
R(s) s + 2ξωns + ω2n
This form is also known as second order prototype T.F. where ξ is

called damping factor and ωn is the natural frequency of oscillation of
the system. The responses of this class of instruments for unit-step
input for various values of ξ are noted as follows:
For input r(t) = 1, 0 < t < ∞
(i) Under-damped case (ξ < 1):
{ }
 e −ξωnt 1 
x(t) = K  1 − sin [1 − ξ2 ]2 ωnt + φ 
 (1 − ξ2 )
1 ...(2.21a)

2
1
where sin φ = ([1 − ξ 2 )]2
ξ = 1):
(ii) Critically damped case (ξ
x(t) = K (1 − (1 + ωnt) e−ωnt ) ...(2.21b)
ξ > 1):
(iii) Over damped case (ξ
 ξ − (ξ2 − 1) 2 {( −ξ−( ξ2 −1) 2 ).ωnt } ξ + (ξ2 − 1) 2 { −ξ+( ξ2 −1) 2 .ωnt }  ...(2.21c)

1
1
1
1
x(t) = K  1 + e − e 
 ξ 2
−
1
ξ 2
−
1

 2( 1) 2( 1) 
2 2
The general nature of the time response would be computed from

the Eqns. (2.21) (a),(b),(c) is shown in Fig. 2.19. For details of the
characteristics and the effects of parameter thereferences are cited at
the end.
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
"I'm sorry, ma'am," Elisabeth answered, and not one
word did she utter in self-defence.
But, though Hecla could be forgetful and careless, she

could not stand by and see Elisabeth blamed for what was
her fault.
"It was me, auntie," she said. "It wasn't Elisabeth. I

wanted to get these snowdrops, and I ran into the quarry.
They're for you, auntie—because I love you."
Aunt Anne bent a little towards the child, with a soft

look in her eyes, yet she said—"I'm afraid I can't take the
flowers to-day, Hecla. I'm sorry. I should like them—but I
must not."
Hecla stood still, dismayed. She partly understood.
"You may go, Elisabeth. I am glad to know that it was

not your fault."
And Elisabeth disappeared.
"Dear little Hecla, don't you know that love is best

shown by doing what is right—by obeying orders? I love to
know that you love me; but I want to see you thinking first
of doing rightly. And then—to have the flowers would be so
nice. But not if they made you disobey and get others into
trouble. Now you had better run upstairs and wash your
hands. After dinner you must change your frock, but there
is not time now."
Hecla was glad to hurry away, for something had made

a lump creep into her throat; and she hated that feeling of
a lump. She washed her hands in a great hurry, and tried to
brush off some of the muddy streaks. And then, to get rid
more completely of the lump, she raced round and round
the room several times, and jumped on and off a chair as
hard as she could jump—never once thinking of her Aunt
Millicent in the room below. It certainly did make her feel
better, though not yet happy; for she knew that she had not
done as she ought, out-of-doors; and when she glanced
towards the poor little rejected snowdrops, lying on her
table, the lump wanted to come back.
It was not surprising that, when she got downstairs,

Miss Storey asked, "What have you been doing, Hecla,—to
make such extraordinary noises overhead?"
"Oh, I only—jumped, auntie."
"Pray don't make such a noise another time."
Early dinner that day was rather a solemn meal. Miss

Storey did not say anything about the late return, as she
knew that Miss Anne had already spoken; but the usual
chatter on Hecla's part was stopped, and the little girl was
made to feel herself just a little in disgrace.
As they left the table, Miss Storey said to her sister—"I

think, my dear Anne, that as Hecla has forgotten so many
things to-day which she ought to have remembered, we will
put off telling her our news until to-morrow."
"Perhaps it will be best," assented gentle Aunt Anne.
"What news, auntie?" cried Hecla. "I do love news. Oh,

please tell me."
"Not to-day, Hecla. To-morrow, perhaps, if you are a

good child."
"Auntie Millicent, I will be good. I'll be most dreadfully

good, if only you'll tell me."
"We shall see," said Miss Storey. "Now you must go
upstairs."
After dinner, Hecla always had to lie down on her bed

for an hour, as her back was not very strong. Aunt Anne
often came to read to her, which she loved, or to talk with
her, which she counted still more delightful; but to-day for
once Aunt Anne failed to appear.
So Hecla lay and pondered, kicking her legs about with

impatience, as she tried to imagine what the news could
possibly be. She worried and worried, guessed and
guessed, ransacked her little brain for ideas, and felt as if
she really did not know how to wait such a tremendous
length of time as a whole afternoon and evening and night.
Was it something to do with Chris? Or was it something

to do with Trip? Or had somebody sent her a nice present?
Hecla loved presents. Or was someone coming to pay the
aunts a visit? That did not happen often, but it was nice
when it did happen. Or was there to be an excursion
somewhere? What could it be?
CHAPTER IV
Little Ivy
MISS STOREY'S cousin, Mr. Frederick Croft, read her

letter silently, his young wife leaning against his shoulder
and reading it also. They were alone together.
"Kind creature!" he said at length. "I didn't really expect
it of her."
"I did, Fred. She is so dear—so really good."
"Anne would be ready enough. Anne loves children. But

Millicent—"
"She would do anything she felt to be right."
"Yes; that's it. She writes sweetly; but it's because she
thinks she ought. Not because she wants Ivy. And the
question is—Were we right to ask it of her?"
"I don't see that there was anything else to be done."
"What I mean is—Am I right to let you come with me?

That is the real question."
"I knew you meant that. But you can't help it, dear,
because I am coming." Mary Croft spoke firmly.
"If I forbade it—you would not come."
"You are not going to forbid it."
"What if the climate should make you ill?"
"What if it should make you ill?" she asked.
"Then, of course—But it is my plain duty to go."
"And it is my duty, Fred, to go with you."
"It is not necessary for you, as it is for me."
"Fred, don't argue any more. My mind is made up. And

you know you couldn't get on without me. You would be
wretched, miserable. You know you would," repeated Mary
Croft. "As for the climate, I am twice as strong as you are,
and much less likely to be ill. And if you should be ill, I must
be there to nurse you."
Neither said any more for two or three minutes. Perhaps

Mr. Croft felt too strongly to reply. His next words were with
a husky laugh, which sounded as if tears might not be very
far distant.
"I wonder how poor little 'Why-because' will take it?"
"She will say—that," Mary answered, trying to conquer

the shake in her voice. For, though she was quite
determined not to stay behind when her husband went to
Africa, it nearly broke her heart to think of leaving her
darling Ivy.
"We must tell her."
"She is so sweet, so reasonable," murmured Mrs. Croft.

"She will understand—that it has to be."
"I'll tell her. You must leave it to me."
"No, no, Fred. Not you. You have enough to think about.
I shall do it!"
Mary Croft always tried to spare other people.
"I don't believe you can."
"Yes, I can. And I know you can't. I shall explain how it

is. Somehow, one always talks to Ivy as one would to a
grown-up person. Dear, you will write at once to Miss
Storey. Tell her how grateful we are; how I love her for it;
how sweet our pet is. I'll write too, but not to-day."
"Sh—sh!" murmured Mr. Croft, as the door opened, and
a child came softly in.
Then, in a moment, he knew that he could not possibly

make up his mind to tell little Ivy of the coming separation.
He could not do it. He was a brave man, but that was
beyond his powers.
"Yes, I'll go and write to the cousins," he said hurriedly,

standing up.
And Mary Croft smiled faintly to herself, for she

understood. He went out of the room, pausing by the way
to bend over the child for one vehement kiss. After which
he fled.
Ivy came forward, and stood beside the table, looking

at her mother. She was such a dear little girl! No wonder
her father and mother could hardly bear the thought of
being parted from her. She held her head well up, like a
small queen, and she had pretty plump fair arms, and soft
velvety cheeks; and great billows of pale brown hair, which
was shot with gold when the sun shone on it, rose over her
forehead and fell curling all down her back; and her big
thoughtful brown eyes were fixed wonderingly on Mrs.
Croft's face.
When anything puzzled Ivy, she had a funny way of

saying: "Why-because?"—pronouncing the two words in a
soft, slow, questioning manner. Mr. Croft liked so much the
way in which she did this, that he would not have her
taught to speak differently. And that was how he had fallen
into the habit of calling her, "Little Why-because."
Besides being so sweet to look at, Ivy was very sweet in

character—a loving-hearted, gentle child—and indeed it was
this which made her so sweet in face and manner. If she
had been spoilt and ill-tempered and disagreeable and
selfish, she might have been just as nice-looking a little girl
in outward form, but everybody would not have loved her
nearly so much. She would not have looked half so sweet
and attractive. Nothing spoils the prettiest face like ill-
temper.
As she stood by the table, she inquired—"Mummie,

why-because is daddy crying?"
"Was daddy crying, darling?"
"I saw real live tears in his eyes, mummie." She meant
that he was not merely pretending to cry, to amuse her, as
sometimes he had done.
"He is sorry, pet, and so am I. We have to do something

that we don't like to do, and it makes us sorry. And yet it
has to be. Sometimes, you know, God tells us to do things
that we would much rather not do."
"Why-because?"
"Always because He loves us, darling. We may be quite

sure of that."
Ivy waited for more; quietly standing and waiting, as a

grown-up person might have done; not fidgeting about, as
Hecla would have done in her place. All her short life she
had been much with her elders, and often she had a
manner beyond her years. Yet she was a most happy little
girl, full of enjoyment.
Mrs. Croft came round the table to where Ivy was, and
sat down, putting her arm round the child.
"Sweet, do you remember last summer, when we were
at the seaside, that daddy had to make you wear big blue
spectacles when you were down on the shore? You didn't
like them because they kept you from seeing the beautiful
sea and waves properly. And you wanted to take them off;
and mummie had to say 'No.' And then you asked, 'Why-
because must you wear them?' And daddy explained that it
was because Ivy's eyes were weak; and if she didn't wear
the spectacles, the hot sun would make them worse, and
then they might be weak always; but if she did as she was
told, they would soon be stronger. And it was just because
daddy and mummie do so love their little girl that they
made her keep on wearing those tiresome ugly big
spectacles. Don't you see? Not because we wanted to
trouble our pet, but only because we loved her so."
Ivy smiled.
"And it is the same thing with our kind loving Father in

Heaven, Ivy. Sometimes He sees that we need a trouble—
something like wearing those spectacles—something that
tries us and makes us sad—and yet He sees that if we don't
have it, we shall not be strong and well in our spirits by-
and-by. And so—because He so tenderly cares for us—He
sends the trouble, and tells us to bear it patiently. Does my
pet understand?"
A little nod came in reply. "But daddy did have real

tears, mummie."
"I don't think that was wrong of daddy. When God has
to send us trouble, He doesn't tell us not to mind, only to
try to be patient, and always to be sure that He loves us.
When our dear Lord was on earth, and had great troubles to
bear, He shed tears, and He was very, very sad; but still He
always said, 'Thy will be done!' And we must say the same."
Ivy gave a sigh, and leant her pretty head against her
mother's shoulder. Mrs. Croft's other arm came round her
tightly. Oh, how she wished that she could shield her darling
from every sorrow! She would gladly have borne anything
herself, if only Ivy might be perfectly happy.
"Sweet, how would you like to pay a visit to kind Cousin

Millicent and Cousin Anne? You know what a beautiful
present they sent you at Christmas."
"My big doll, mummie."
"Yes; with a lot of fine clothes that come off and on, and
a cradle for dolly to sleep in. Wasn't it good of them? And
now I hope Ivy is going to stay with them."
"Mummie and daddy too!"
"Mummie will take you there, darling. And then

mummie and daddy have to go on somewhere else for a
time."
"Where?"
"A good way off. Daddy has to go; and mummie can't
let him go alone."
"Why-because must daddy go?"
"I'm afraid you can't understand that, Ivy. You are too
little. By-and-by, when you are older, you will see why it
had to be. You must believe now that daddy wouldn't go if it
was not right. There are many things that we can't
understand till we are older—things that daddy and
mummie can't understand now, and never will till—by-and-
by! And this is a thing that little Ivy can't understand yet.
But you can trust daddy and mummie, darling. You know
we wouldn't go if we could help it, if it wasn't for little Ivy's
good in some way."
Perhaps poor Mrs. Croft was saying all this as much for
her own comfort as for Ivy's; yet Ivy seemed in a way to
understand.
And then Mrs. Croft added, "We should love to take our
darling with us; but we must not."
"Why-because?" came promptly, as a matter of course.
"It is a place where little children cannot live. If we took

you, you would soon fall ill. You would suffer terribly, and
you could not run or play. Think how cruel that would be for
us. You are healthy and strong now; and we want you to
keep well. And so we are going to leave you for a while with
those dear kind cousins, and they will take such care of our
pet, till we come back."
"Why-because should I be ill, mummie?" Ivy spoke in a

rather smothered voice.
"It is such a hot place, burning hot, and not fresh and
cool like this. All little English children fall ill there; so their
fathers and mothers dare not take them. Yet daddy has to
go; and I know my little Ivy will be brave and good, and will
wish mummie to go with daddy and to take care of him.
And only think—" as she felt a heaving sob—"only think,
sweet, what fun it will be for you to have Cousin Hecla to
play with! She is only three or four years older than Ivy. You
have never yet had another little girl belonging to you, in
the same house. Won't that be delightful? You must take
your new dolly, and you and Hecla can play with it
together."
Though Ivy cried a little, as she nestled in her mother's
arms, it was wonderful how bravely she took all this.
Of course she did not know what it really meant. She

had no idea how far away her parents were going, or how
long they might have to stay. She had never yet been
parted from them; and she could not picture to her little self
what it would be not to have them always at hand. She was
so small.
But also she was, as her mother had said, "such a

reasonable little girl." Though only five years old, she was
remarkably sensible and full of thought. When once she
knew that there were good reasons for what had to be, she
would submit.
In this case she understood at least that "daddy" was

obliged to go, and that "mummie" could not let him go
alone; and that she might not go with them. And she
submitted, not indeed without tears, but without resisting
and fretting.
It seemed, too, as if the little child already knew

something—already grasped just a beginning—of that which
many people do not even begin to see till late in life—a full
belief that God always knows what is best, and that
whatever comes from Him comes in love.
CHAPTER V
The Wonderful News
HECLA had to wait next day till after early dinner, before
hearing what the wonderful news was. Miss Storey felt sure
that, if she were told sooner, she would not do a single
lesson well that morning; so at breakfast, Aunt Anne
promised that she should know directly dinner was over, if
she were good meantime.
That "if" had wonderful power. Hecla, in alarm lest she

should have to wait another day, did her very best, and did
nicely. She actually kept from fidgeting, learnt her easy
lessons, wrote neatly, made few ink-spots, and put almost
everything away in its right place, without being reminded.
"So, you see, dear, you can do better when you

choose," Aunt Millicent remarked. "What a pity you don't
choose oftener!"
And it was a pity, was it not?
Then she went for her walk with Elisabeth, and

Elisabeth seemed to know more than Hecla did, for she kept
pursing up her lips in a most provoking fashion, and
refusing to answer questions.
"You'll hear, all in good time," was the most she would
say, when Hecla kept wondering and wondering what the
"news" could possibly be.
"I believe you know all the time, and I don't see why I
shouldn't too," she said in an injured tone, forgetting that
but for her own fault she would have been told as soon as
Elisabeth. "Do just say one thing! It isn't a doll, is it? A big,
big doll that winks. I should love to have a doll that winks!
It isn't that, I'm quite perfectly sure, because it's nobody's
birthday now, and I do wish it was."
"If you're quite perfectly sure, Miss Hecla, there ain't no
need for me to tell you."
"Elisabeth, you're just horrid!" cried Hecla, and she

raced away, making Elisabeth race after her.
But, of course, she did not really mean that kind

Elisabeth was horrid; and in three minutes she was back
again by her side, putting endless questions.
In time the walk ended. They reached home punctually

at one, and early dinner followed. Both aunts were smiling;
and Hecla felt sure that the coming news must be good
news. She was in such haste to be told, that she tried to get
rid of her helping in a terrific hurry, and drew on herself
more than one rebuke.
"My dear Hecla, you will certainly choke yourself," Miss

Storey said seriously. "That is not the way to eat. Look at
Aunt Anne and me. Do we stuff our food down in that
fashion?"
Hecla was obliged to confess that they did not, as she

watched the tiny morsels which were delicately inserted,
one by one, between Miss Storey's lips.
"But I'm in such a dreadful hurry to-day, auntie."
Aunt Anne looked pleadingly at Aunt Millicent, and the

latter said nothing. Hecla tried to copy Miss Storey's mode
of eating; and so pleased was Miss Storey to see this that,
when the meat went away, she observed—
"You have been a good girl this morning, and you shall
not wait any longer."
And then the news was told.

Hecla listened with fixed eyes of amazement, hardly
able to believe what she heard. She kept breaking in with
questions, interrupting explanations, and repeating the
words uttered, as if they conveyed no meaning to her mind.
It was not that she was actually stupid, as a listener might
have imagined, but that her own thoughts were racing at
such a pace as to make it impossible for her to take in half
of what was spoken. Naturally she became puzzled.
"A real little girl! Coming here! Coming to live! Truly,

auntie! A real, live, little girl!"
"My dear Hecla, don't be silly," began Miss Storey,

rather vexed.
And before she could utter another word, Hecla,

suddenly grasping what the news meant, leaped from her
chair, and hopped vigorously round the room.
Miss Storey looked in despair at her sister, who was

smiling, and said, "Now, what is that for?"
"Just a little ebullition of feeling, dear Millicent," said

Miss Anne.
And as Hecla, in her wild career, came close, she put

out a firm hand and stopped the child. Hecla stood still,
breathing hard with her exertions.
"What's 'ebullition,' auntie?"
Miss Anne did not take the trouble to reply, since she
knew from experience that the explanation would be
forgotten in five minutes. She only said—
"How will you like to have little Ivy?"

Hecla gasped with joy.
"And is her name Ivy, auntie?"
"We have told you so four times already," remarked

Miss Storey. "Surely you knew that you had a little cousin
named Ivy!"
Yes, of course Hecla had known it, but she had a

provoking way of seeming to forget things, just when she
ought to have remembered them.
"And will she be ever so much smaller than me?"
"Now, Hecla, why do you not ask sensible questions?

Ivy is more than three years younger than you."
"And will she be here always, always?"
"For a time she will be here, while her father and

mother are abroad."
Hecla wanted to hop again, but Miss Anne held her fast.
"That was what I expected," Miss Storey said, sighing.

"We ought to have waited till after dinner, as I intended."
"Yes, you were right," agreed Miss Anne.
"Now, Hecla, you are to sit down and eat your pudding.
No more hopping. You know that you are not allowed to get
up in the middle of dinner."
"Unless Auntie Millicent wants me to ring the bell!"
"But she did not want you to ring the bell just now, so
that has nothing to do with the question."
"Oh, but I'm so dreadfully glad, auntie."
Hecla danced round the table to her seat, and plumped

into it.
"I don't want any pudding, please."
"But pudding is good for you." And Miss Storey sent a

helping, as usual. "That is to be eaten, my dear."
Hecla began it in a distracted style. "Oh dear—what is

Ivy like, auntie, please?"
"She was a very dear little girl when we saw her last,"
Miss Anne replied. "You and she will be great friends, I am
sure."
Hecla gave a leap in her chair, which set the glasses

rattling, and her spoon fell—handle and all—into her rice
pudding.
"My dear Hecla!" protested Miss Storey, but she was

unheard.
Hecla's cheeks were crimson.
"Auntie—oh, auntie—please—may I take care of Ivy?

Please, mayn't I? I'd love to dress and undress her; like I
do with my doll."
"And throw her into a corner, when you are tired of

doing it?" asked Miss Anne.
"Oh no, no—I couldn't ever be tired of Ivy! May I?"
"Elisabeth, a fresh spoon for Miss Hecla. Finish your

pudding," said Miss Storey.
"Mayn't I, auntie? Please say yes."
"If we find you growing very, very careful and particular,

and always doing what you are told, perhaps some day you
shall be allowed to help," Aunt Anne said. "But you must
show us first that we can trust you, Hecla. You must not go
on forgetting everything you are told."
Hecla swallowed a big mouthful with a gulp.
"I'll never, never, never forget one single thing ever

again, auntie. And then you'll know I can be trusted—won't
you?"
"Yes, I think we should know then," Miss Anne said.
And Miss Storey shook an unbelieving head.
"Auntie, I don't feel as if I could lie down quiet this

afternoon," pleaded Hecla, as they rose from table. "I'm all
over kicks and jumpiness all through every single bit of me.
I do want to go out, and have a run. Please—mayn't I?"
The aunts spoke together in undertones; and Miss Anne

turned to Hecla.
"Just for once we will let you off the lying down," she
said. "You must be very good, and not ask it again. I am
going to speak to Mr. Deane, and you may come with me."
Hecla flung herself on Aunt Anne, in rapturous

gratitude.
Alas, for Miss Anne's beautiful frills! But she liked to be

hugged, even though she gently tried to shelter the frills
from being crushed.
"That will do, dear. Now we must get our hats."
"And perhaps I shall find Chris. I do want to tell Chris;

and Uncle John too."
"Uncle John" was Mr. Deane, the Vicar of Nortonbury.

He was not really Hecla's uncle, but since Chris, his nephew,
always called him so, Hecla had fallen into the same way.
Mr. Deane liked her to do it. He was very fond of children,
and all children loved him.
During many years he had worked tremendously hard in

a big poor London parish, till he became very ill, and was
ordered to go into the country, to save his life. He was here
still, three years after, always hoping to be some day strong
enough to go back to his beloved London work; but at
present he was not nearly so. He was not married, and he
had one orphan nephew living with him, just as the Misses
Storey had one little orphan niece.
Hecla and Chris were great chums. He was over ten,

and of course he felt himself to be years and years older
and wiser than a mere little girl of eight and a half; and, of
course, he expected her to be properly meek and
submissive. But, as she had an immense admiration for
him, and never supposed that he could do wrong, he was
really kind to her; and on the whole, he did not dislike to
have her hanging round, and watching his every movement
with dog-like devotion, only not quite so dumb as a dog's
devotion, for whatever else happened or did not happen,
Hecla always talked.
As Miss Anne Storey and Hecla reached the open door

of the Vicarage—it generally stood wide open, as if inviting
the people of the place to go in as often as they liked,
which, indeed, was the Vicar's desire—a pale, thin, delicate-
looking man, with a face which seemed made of sunshine,
came out of the front room.
"What! Miss Anne and little Hecla! Come along. Come

in," he said heartily. "How do you both do? Well, little one?"
Hecla burst out at once, "Oh, Uncle John, only think!

There's a dear, sweet, little darling pet cousin coming!"
"Eh, how's that?" The Vicar led them in, put a chair for
Miss Anne, and dropped into another himself.
Miss Anne began to explain, and Hecla broke in with

further particulars, as she leant confidingly against the
Vicar's knee.
"Hush, hush," he murmured. "Polite people don't

interrupt, you know. Aunt Anne was saying something."
Hecla held her tongue exactly six seconds, and felt as if

she had been silent for half-an-hour.
"Won't it be lovely?" she exclaimed, taking advantage of

a tiny halt. "And I'm going perhaps to dress and undress
Ivy, as soon as ever I've shown I can be properly trusted."
Mr. Deane's eyes twinkled. "Can't you be trusted yet?

That is sad."
"Because I sometimes forget," Hecla said, hanging her

head. "But," and she brightened up, "I'm beginning this
very minute, so's to be ready when Ivy comes."
"It's a great thing to be trusted, Hecla. Worth trying

hard for. Mind you do."
"And Ivy's only five years old, Uncle John."

"Ah, that ought to make a little woman of you. When
she comes, you must remember that you will be the big
girl, and she the little one. You will have to set her a good
example. See?"
Hecla nodded, examining the Vicar's sleeve-stud.
"Little girls almost always try to do what they see big

girls doing. So a great deal will depend upon you. If Ivy
sees you careful and truthful and obedient, she will try to be
the same. And if not—she will copy the other ways. I
wonder if you are going to think about this, and be a help to
Auntie Anne."
"I don't mean ever to forget anything ever again!"
"That's right. Aim high, little one. Always try for the
best. And how are you going to do it?" He lifted his hand
gravely upward. "That is the only way," he said. "You must
ask God to make you able."
Hecla nodded shyly.
"And now I think you must run out into the garden
while Aunt Anne and I have a talk. You'll find Chris there
somewhere. Down the path to the little pond."
Hecla glanced at Miss Anne Storey for leave, and then,

as he released her, she scampered cheerfully off, through
the open front door, and down the side path of which the
Vicar had spoken. This being Chris' half-holiday, she had
been in great hopes of coming across him.
And, indeed, no sooner had she passed through a mass

of bushes than she saw her friend. The path opened out
upon a minute pond, and by its side stood a boy, hands in
pockets, surveying a large frog. The frog sat motionless,
apparently surveying him with no less interest. Christie, or
Chris, as he was commonly called, had a merry, freckled
face, and reddish hair.
"Chris!" she cried. "Only think—only think, Chris!"
"Well?" questioned Chris, not changing his attitude.
"Chris, it's going to be so lovely!"
"What is?"
Chris showed no overwhelming interest: A girl's news

was not likely to be important.
Hecla whirled round like a little dancing Dervish as a

relief to her spirits, and dropped down on the grass, only to
spring up and whirl again.
"Hallo—I say, you're frightening my frog."
Hecla came to a standstill.
"Is he yours? How did you get him?"
"Came," Chris explained with brevity. "What's up?"
"Guess—only guess! I'll give you—twenty guesses!"
"New doll?"
"No, it isn't a new doll—not exactly."
"Well, you may as well say. New frock, I suppose," with

calm disdain.
Hecla whirled again, three times round. "No, it isn't a

new frock," she cried gleefully.
"Then I don't know what it is. Girls only care for dolls
and frocks."
"It's—it's—Chris, it's the loveliest news! Only think! A

dear little darling girl is coming to live with us. Really to live
with us, Chris. A real, true cousin!" By which, she rather
unkindly meant to point the difference between this
connection and the sham relationship which Chris enjoyed.
But the arrow fell harmless, for Chris was sublimely

indifferent to cousinships.
"And I'm going to do heaps of things for her. And she's

to have all my toys, and the dolls most especially, for I
sha'n't want dolls now I'm going to have Ivy. She'll be ever
so much nicer than dolls, and I'll always play with her. And
perhaps I'll be allowed to dress and undress her."
"You'll jolly soon get sick of that."
"No, I sha'n't. I'll never get tired of her. And I've got to
show I can be trusted, and I don't mean ever to forget
things again. And then they'll know I can."
Chris laughed.
"You needn't laugh, Chris—not like that—truly you

needn't, because I do mean it you know."
Chris was delicately tickling the frog with a straw to

induce it to leap. Hecla paused in her outpour to watch his
proceedings. She always loved to look at what he might be
doing.
"So it's a baby, is it?" he presently vouchsafed to ask.
"The frog?" inquired absent-minded Hecla.

"You dunderhead! The cousin, of course!"
"She's near a baby—but not quite. She's five years old."
"And you're only eight—pretty much the same."
This was too insulting—even from Chris.
"Why, Chris!"—getting crimson. "Oh, Chris, how can

you? Why, I'm eight and a half, and a whole month besides.
And I can read, and I can hem pocket-handkerchiefs, and I
can spell and do lots of sums. And I know history. And she's
only a tiny wee mite!"
Then Hecla reminded him that even he was only ten and
a half, just two years older than herself—which he always
treated as a huge difference—and she tried to reason out
the fact that he was less older than herself than she was
older than Ivy. She saw the comparison in her mind, but
only managed to bring it out confusedly.
And Chris's sole comment was, "Bosh!"
Then the frog made up his mind what to do, and went
off in a series of long leaps. Chris rushed after him, and
Hecla would have done the same but for Aunt Anne's voice
calling.
So she had to go home, feeling rather flat, for her joy in

Ivy's coming had met with small sympathy from her chum.
CHAPTER VI
Buttons and Button-holes
THREE weeks passed, and little Ivy came. Think how

happy Hecla was. She felt it to be a thousand million times
better than having a present of the biggest doll ever made
—even a doll which could open and shut its eyes, and would
make a noise when pinched about the waist.
Her most ardent wish now—a wish which had grown

stronger every day of the three weeks—was to be trusted
sometimes to take care of little Ivy. She was always
thinking about this. She wanted to be allowed really to help
with the child; to tie and untie her strings, to button and
unbutton her clothes; to amuse her; to keep her happy; to
be a "little mother" to Ivy. It was Aunt Anne who had put
this last idea into Hecla's head.
She had remarked, "Poor little Ivy will miss her dear
mother so much! We shall have to try our best to make up
to her for that great loss!"
And then Hecla began to wonder if she could not act the
part of a sort of imitation-mother to Ivy.
It was in her busy little head that she would be so good,

so sensible, so careful, so unforgetful, that her aunts would
feel sure they might trust Ivy with her anywhere, out in the
garden as well as indoors, and even perhaps—wouldn't that
be grand?—on the road as far as the Vicarage, which really
was only a few minutes away. What fun—if she might be
allowed sometimes to trot little Ivy round there, and to
have games with Chris in the nice Vicarage garden!
She thought and thought this over, in her funny absent

fashion, during the three weeks. And while she was
planning hard about all that she meant to be and to do in
the future, her mind was quite away from present duties,
and more than ever she forgot all sorts of things which she
ought to have attended to each day.
Elisabeth was not going away. At first Miss Storey said

that this would have to be. She felt that she ought to find
an older servant to look after Ivy.
But everybody was unhappy at the thought. Elisabeth

was such a nice girl, so true and honest and careful and
dependable and conscientious—really, the number of virtues
which had to be tacked to her name was quite astonishing,
when one came to count them over.
Miss Storey first spoke to Elisabeth about parting with

her, three or four days after it was settled that Ivy would
come; and Elisabeth simply cried and cried until her eyes
nearly disappeared. And Hecla cried, and Miss Anne cried,
and the household generally became so appallingly tearful,
that poor Miss Storey, who cried as much as anybody, was
quite at her wits' end, and didn't know which way to turn.
Then old Mrs. Prue, who never cried, but showed her
feelings by getting fearfully cross and scolding everybody all
round—even her mistresses, and they always took it
meekly, because they said it was just dear old faithful Prue's
way, and they supposed she wasn't feeling very well, and
ought to take a tonic—old Mrs. Prue made a suggestion.
She said she couldn't for the life of her see why in the
world Elisabeth shouldn't stay on, and take care of Miss Ivy.
For her part, she'd sooner have Elisabeth than a dozen of
them giddy flaunting girls, going about with red feathers in
their hats and gaudy blue silk blouses as was a disgrace to
the parents that had brought them up. And Elisabeth, if she
was young, had got a head on her shoulders, and was used
to children in her own home; and she'd be willing to learn,
which was more than could be said for that other sort of
girl; and if help was wanted, why, she herself would be
ready enough to lend a hand.
And while Hecla, who overheard all this, was wondering

what a girl would be like who hadn't any head on her
shoulders, Miss Anne chimed in with further entreaties, and
said how she meant to do everything herself for the little
darling, and how she would dress and undress her, and take
her out and teach her to read. Aunt Millicent wanted
nothing more than to keep Elisabeth, for she hated new
faces and new ways. So at last it was settled, and
Elisabeth's poor blistered face became quite radiant with
happiness.
"And I can help," Hecla said confidently. "I can button

all the buttonholes, can't I, Auntie Anne?—And lots of things
besides."
"But you mustn't forget things, if you promise to do

them," Miss Anne warned her.
Hecla was perfectly sure that she never would forget

any single thing to do with Ivy. Miss Anne could not feel so
sure, but she began to hope that having Ivy in the house
might in time really make Hecla more careful.
The looked-for day came at last; and little Ivy was

brought by her mother, who stayed one night in "The
Cottage."
There is no need, I think, to describe the parting next

day. All who have seen such partings know only too well
what they mean. And Hecla knew, for she had had to say a
worse good-bye to her own dear mother, less than two
years before. Young as she was, she had not forgotten that
sad time.
Ivy was a tender-hearted, loving little child, and poor

Mrs. Croft tried hard for her sake not to give way; and Ivy,
too, struggled not to sob, because she had been told that it
would distress her mother. But when the fly had driven
away, she cried most bitterly and seemed quite broken-
hearted. Hecla, who at first sight had tumbled over head
and ears in love with the little girl, was rather astonished
that she could not be comforted by either toys or
"sweeties," which last Hecla had bought with the saved-up
pence of three weeks.
"Never mind, she will be better by-and-by," Aunt Anne

whispered, as the sobbing child turned away to hide her
face on Miss Anne's shoulder.
Indeed, that was the only thing which seemed to

comfort her—being held tightly in those kind arms and
petted and kissed.
But happily little children soon cheer up, and by next

morning, though she still looked forlorn and tears were near
at hand, she was able to take her breakfast, and to be
interested in things around.
Hecla was allowed to leave her lessons and to play with

Ivy, and she did her very best. She brought her toys and
sat on the ground putting them out, and making lavish
presents to the younger girl of anything that Ivy seemed to
admire. A good while passed pleasantly thus, and then,
when Ivy began to cry suddenly for "Mummie!" Miss Anne
came and sat down with them on the floor, and comforted
her and told one or two funny stories to make her smile.
"Now I think we might go for a walk," she said. "What
do you think, Ivy? Wouldn't that be nice?"
Hecla bounded up.
"And oh, auntie, may I button all the buttonholes?" she

cried.
Miss Anne laughed at the droll way in which she

expressed herself, and Ivy asked seriously—
"Why-because does she want?"
Hecla gave Ivy a rapturous hug.
"Oh, you dear little pet!" she cried. "Auntie, may we go

down by the river? I want to show Ivy the bridge-part, and
how boats go under and out again."
"Yes, I think we can go there."
Hecla danced upstairs, turning round every other step

to explain about the river and the "bridge-part," as she
called it, and Ivy followed slowly, step by step, holding Miss
Anne's hand. Hecla was allowed to stand by, while Aunt
Anne put on little Ivy's pretty blue walking-frock and blue
hat.
"Now you may button this, Hecla," she said.
And Hecla, who was not clever with her fingers,

struggled till she was scarlet in the face to get a rather
difficult button into its hole. She stopped at length in
despair, and to their surprise Ivy's little fingers did it at once
quite deftly.
"Clever little thing!" Aunt Anne murmured.

"She's cleverer than me, isn't she—lots?" cried Hecla,
overhearing what she was not meant to hear.
"Mummie always lets me dress myself," said Ivy.
"Then you shall do it another day," promised Miss Anne.
It was a lovely spring day, early spring, yet warm and

sunny. They went outside the town; not towards the
windmill, where Hecla had gone with Elisabeth one day, but
in another direction, past the Vicarage and the old grey
Church, and along a country road, with a little river beside
it.
Presently they reached a place where the river

disappeared under the road for a short distance, coming out
soon on the other side. All this covered part was arched
over, just like a particularly wide bridge, and that was what
Hecla meant when she talked of the "bridge-part."
It was a grand play-place for the children of Nortonbury.

They loved to throw in sticks and small boughs and
sometimes little wooden boats at the upper end of the
covered part, and then to rush to the lower end and watch
for the said sticks or boughs or boats to come out, carried
by a swift current through the long arch. The river just
there was both deeper and more rapid than elsewhere,
because it had to flow in a narrower channel.
Above the covered-over part the banks were steep; and

the children would stand at the edge and fling in their
boats. But at the lower end, there was a more shelving
bank, so that they could easily climb down to the water
brink, and could take them out, if the boats floated near
enough.
Chris and his schoolfellows would often play here on
their half-holidays, when not engaged with cricket or
football. Each would launch a boat, half-a-dozen or a dozen
being started at the same moment; and then they would
tear frantically down to the lower opening, watching whose
boat would appear first. Hecla loved to look on at such
times, if only she could persuade Miss Anne or Elisabeth to
take her there. She was delighted if Chris' boat came out
first from under the archway, and was disappointed if he
failed to win. For Chris was her chum and her hero, and the
dearest and best boy that the world had ever seen, in her
opinion.
Chris was fond of Hecla too, but he did not tell her so,
or condescend to say pretty things to her. Ten years old is
not an age when boys flatter girls. He always let her know
that she was "only a girl," and that she couldn't be expected
to do things so well as he could; and Hecla regretfully
agreed. She often wished that she had been a boy, instead
of only a girl.
On this particular occasion, when Miss Anne Storey and

the two children arrived at the spot, who should they find
but Chris himself, all alone for once, preparing to send a
small boat on its voyage under the road.
And the astonishing thing was that he had hardly looked

at little Ivy, in her blue frock, with her long soft hair, and
her small serious face, before he seemed just as much
taken with her as everybody else was. He actually put his
boat into her tiny plump hands, and allowed her to throw it
in herself while he stood close by, watching. And that was a
thing he had never allowed Hecla to do. He always seemed
to think it was quite honour and glory enough for Hecla, if
she just stood by and saw him doing it.
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402 pgs. | 168 figs. | 10 tbls.

Ph.D. (Systems Engg.), M. Engg. (ECS), B. Engg. (EE)

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in

Instrumentation and measurement are part of all scientific and

different branches/groups of engineering professionals vary largely.

cross referencing and make continuous reading possible without the

A: FUNDAMENTALS OF MEASUREMENTS AND

1. Instrumentation Systems 1.1—1.13

3.4 Errors in Measurements 3.12

4. Sensors and Transducers 4.1—4.24

7. Transducers for Industrial Applications 7.1—7.70

8. Signal Conditioning and Data Conversion 8.1—8.95

‘‘If you cannot measure it, you cannot control it.

Dr. H. James Harrington International Quality Guru

INTRODUCTION Inside the Chapter

Acquisition System (DAS). With the integration of DAS and the

Fig. 1.1 Elements of Instrumentation System

1.1 ROLE OF INS TR

(iv) Environmental protection

(ii) Data transmission/telemetry is the stage of transferring the

1.3 USE OF MONITORED INF

Controlled Manipulated Controlled

Fig. 1.2 Elements of Control System

Instrumentation system is being used to measure the process

1.4 TYPES OF INS TR

(i) Mechanical, the classical one, using thermometers of various

Fig. 1.3 Mechanical Instruments

such as temperature, flow level etc., is converted into a pneumatic (air)

offer major advantages in operation, maintenance, up gradation,

1.5.1 Industry Standard for Analog Signal T

(a) Two Wire System

Current Source Display

(b) Series Connection of Output Devices in Current Loop

Transducer Display Devices

Fig. 1.4 Current Telemetry System

the voltage may have to be reduced from 24 V so as to keep maximum

Fig. Ex. 1.1

1.5.3 Other Electrical Standards

Fig. 1.5 Voltage Telemetry Schemes

necessitate the use of amplifiers/repeaters at the intermediate stations

1.5.4 Other Standards

Fig. 1.6 Principle of Operation of Pneumetic Systems

1.6 CALIBRA TION

any system, and direct indication of the quality of instrumentation

Fig. 1.7 Calibration of Instruments

To identify the behavior of instrumentation system elements, we

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