Diesel engine

The diesel engine, named after Rudolf

Diesel, is an internal combustion engine
in which ignition of the fuel is caused by
the elevated temperature of the air in the
cylinder due to mechanical compression;
thus, the diesel engine is called a
compression-ignition engine (CI engine).
This contrasts with engines using spark
plug-ignition of the air-fuel mixture, such
as a petrol engine (gasoline engine) or a
gas engine (using a gaseous fuel like
natural gas or liquefied petroleum gas).

Diesel engine built by Langen & Wolf

under licence, 1898

18:11

1952 Shell Oil film showing the

development of the diesel engine
from 1877
Introduction
Diesel engines work by compressing only
air, or air plus residual combustion gases
from the exhaust (known as exhaust gas
recirculation, "EGR"). Air is inducted into
the chamber during the intake stroke,
and compressed during the compression
stroke. This increases the air
temperature inside the cylinder so that
atomised diesel fuel injected into the
combustion chamber ignites. With the
fuel being injected into the air just before
combustion, the dispersion of the fuel is
uneven; this is called a heterogeneous
air-fuel mixture. The torque a diesel
engine produces is controlled by
manipulating the air-fuel ratio (λ); instead
of throttling the intake air, the diesel
engine relies on altering the amount of
fuel that is injected, and the air-fuel ratio
is usually high.

The diesel engine has the highest

thermal efficiency (engine efficiency) of
any practical internal or external
combustion engine due to its very high
expansion ratio and inherent lean burn
which enables heat dissipation by the
excess air. A small efficiency loss is also
avoided compared with non-direct-
injection gasoline engines since
unburned fuel is not present during valve
overlap and therefore no fuel goes
directly from the intake/injection to the
exhaust. Low-speed diesel engines (as
used in ships and other applications
where overall engine weight is relatively
unimportant) can reach effective
efficiencies of up to 55%.[1] The
combined cycle gas turbine (Brayton and
Rankine cycle) is a combustion engine
that is more efficient than a diesel
engine, but it is, due to its mass and
dimensions, unsuited for vehicles,
watercraft, or aircraft. The world's largest
diesel engines put in service are 14-
cylinder, two-stroke marine diesel
engines; they produce a peak power of
almost 100 MW each.[2]
Diesel engines may be designed with
either two-stroke or four-stroke
combustion cycles. They were originally
used as a more efficient replacement for
stationary steam engines. Since the
1910s, they have been used in
submarines and ships. Use in
locomotives, buses, trucks, heavy
equipment, agricultural equipment and
electricity generation plants followed
later. In the 1930s, they slowly began to
be used in a few automobiles. Since the
1970s energy crisis, demand for higher
fuel efficiency has resulted in most major
automakers, at some point, offering
diesel-powered models, even in very
small cars.[3][4] According to Konrad Reif
(2012), the EU average for diesel cars at
the time accounted for half of newly
registered cars.[5] However, air pollution
emissions are harder to control in diesel
engines than in gasoline engines, so the
use of diesel auto engines in the U.S. is
now largely relegated to larger on-road
and off-road vehicles.[6][7]

Though aviation has traditionally avoided

diesel engines, aircraft diesel engines
have become increasingly available in
the 21st century. Since the late 1990s, for
various reasons – including the diesel's
normal advantages over gasoline
engines, but also for recent issues
peculiar to aviation – development and
production of diesel engines for aircraft
has surged, with over 5,000 such engines
delivered worldwide between 2002 and
2018, particularly for light airplanes and
unmanned aerial vehicles.[8][9]

History

Diesel's idea

Rudolf Diesel's 1893 patent on a

rational heat motor
Diesel's second prototype. It is a
modification of the first experimental
engine. On 17 February 1894, this
engine ran under its own power for
the first time.[10]

Effective efficiency 16.6%

Fuel consumption 519 g·kW−1·h−1

First fully functional diesel engine,

designed by Imanuel Lauster, built
from scratch, and finished by October
1896.[11][12][13]

Rated power 13.1 kW

Effective efficiency 26.2%
Fuel consumption 324 g·kW−1·h−1.
In 1878, Rudolf Diesel, who was a
student at the "Polytechnikum" in Munich,
attended the lectures of Carl von Linde.
Linde explained that steam engines are
capable of converting just 6–10% of the
heat energy into work, but that the Carnot
cycle allows conversion of much more of
the heat energy into work by means of
isothermal change in condition.
According to Diesel, this ignited the idea
of creating a highly efficient engine that
could work on the Carnot cycle.[14] Diesel
was also introduced to a fire piston, a
traditional fire starter using rapid
adiabatic compression principles which
Linde had acquired from Southeast
Asia.[15] After several years of working on
his ideas, Diesel published them in 1893
in the essay Theory and Construction of a
Rational Heat Motor.[14]

Diesel was heavily criticised for his

essay, but only a few found the mistake
that he made;[16] his rational heat motor
was supposed to utilise a constant
temperature cycle (with isothermal
compression) that would require a much
higher level of compression than that
needed for compression ignition. Diesel's
idea was to compress the air so tightly
that the temperature of the air would
exceed that of combustion. However,
such an engine could never perform any
usable work.[17][18][19] In his 1892 US
patent (granted in 1895) #542846, Diesel
describes the compression required for
his cycle:

pure atmospheric air is compressed,

according to curve 1 2, to such a
degree that, before ignition or
combustion takes place, the highest
pressure of the diagram and the
highest temperature are obtained-that
is to say, the temperature at which the
subsequent combustion has to take
place, not the burning or igniting point.
To make this more clear, let it be
assumed that the subsequent
combustion shall take place at a
temperature of 700°. Then in that case
the initial pressure must be sixty-four
atmospheres, or for 800° centigrade
the pressure must be ninety
atmospheres, and so on. Into the air
thus compressed is then gradually
introduced from the exterior finely
divided fuel, which ignites on
introduction, since the air is at a
temperature far above the igniting-
point of the fuel. The characteristic
features of the cycle according to my
present invention are therefore,
increase of pressure and temperature
up to the maximum, not by
combustion, but prior to combustion
by mechanical compression of air, and
there upon the subsequent
 performance of work without increase
of pressure and temperature by
gradual combustion during a
prescribed part of the stroke
determined by the cut-oil.[20]

By June 1893, Diesel had realised his

original cycle would not work and he
adopted the constant pressure cycle.[21]
Diesel describes the cycle in his 1895
patent application. Notice that there is no
longer a mention of compression
temperatures exceeding the temperature
of combustion. Now it is simply stated
that the compression must be sufficient
to trigger ignition.
 1. In an internal-combustion engine,
the combination of a cylinder and
piston constructed and arranged to
compress air to a degree producing a
temperature above the igniting-point of
the fuel, a supply for compressed air or
gas; a fuel-supply; a distributing-valve
for fuel, a passage from the air supply
to the cylinder in communication with
the fuel-distributing valve, an inlet to
the cylinder in communication with the
air-supply and with the fuel-valve, and a
cut-oil, substantially as
described.[22][23][24]

In 1892, Diesel received patents in

Germany, Switzerland, the United
Kingdom and the United States for
"Method of and Apparatus for Converting
Heat into Work".[25] In 1894 and 1895, he
filed patents and addenda in various
countries for his engine; the first patents
were issued in Spain (No. 16,654),[26]
France (No. 243,531) and Belgium
(No. 113,139) in December 1894, and in
Germany (No. 86,633) in 1895 and the
United States (No. 608,845) in 1898.[27]

Diesel was attacked and criticised over a

time period of several years. Critics
claimed that Diesel never invented a new
motor and that the invention of the diesel
engine is fraud. Otto Köhler and Emil
Capitaine were two of the most
prominent critics of Diesel's time.[28]
Köhler had published an essay in 1887, in
which he describes an engine similar to
the engine Diesel describes in his 1893
essay. Köhler figured that such an engine
could not perform any work.[19][29] Emil
Capitaine had built a petroleum engine
with glow-tube ignition in the early
1890s;[30] he claimed against his own
better judgement that his glow-tube
ignition engine worked the same way
Diesel's engine did. His claims were
unfounded and he lost a patent lawsuit
against Diesel.[31] Other engines, such as
the Akroyd engine and the Brayton
engine, also use an operating cycle that
is different from the diesel engine
cycle.[29][32] Friedrich Sass says that the
diesel engine is Diesel's "very own work"
and that any "Diesel myth" is "falsification
of history".[33]

The first diesel engine

Diesel sought out firms and factories that

would build his engine. With the help of
Moritz Schröter and Max Gutermuth,[34]
he succeeded in convincing both Krupp
in Essen and the Maschinenfabrik
Augsburg.[35] Contracts were signed in
April 1893,[36] and in early summer 1893,
Diesel's first prototype engine was built in
Augsburg. On 10 August 1893, the first
ignition took place, the fuel used was
petrol. In winter 1893/1894, Diesel
redesigned the existing engine, and by 18
January 1894, his mechanics had
converted it into the second prototype.[37]
During January that year, an air-blast
injection system was added to the
engine's cylinder head and tested.[38]
Friedrich Sass argues that, it can be
presumed that Diesel copied the concept
of air-blast injection from George B.
Brayton,[32] albeit that Diesel
substantially improved the system.[39] On
17 February 1894, the redesigned engine
ran for 88 revolutions – one minute;[10]
with this news, Maschinenfabrik
Augsburg's stock rose by 30%, indicative
of the tremendous anticipated demands
for a more efficient engine.[40] On 26
June 1895, the engine achieved an
effective efficiency of 16.6% and had a
fuel consumption of 519 g·kW−1·h−1. [41]
However, despite proving the concept,
the engine caused problems,[42] and
Diesel could not achieve any substantial
progress.[43] Therefore, Krupp considered
rescinding the contract they had made
with Diesel.[44] Diesel was forced to
improve the design of his engine and
rushed to construct a third prototype
engine. Between 8 November and 20
December 1895, the second prototype
had successfully covered over 111 hours
on the test bench. In the January 1896
report, this was considered a success.[45]
In February 1896, Diesel considered
supercharging the third prototype.[46]
Imanuel Lauster, who was ordered to
draw the third prototype "Motor
250/400", had finished the drawings by
30 April 1896. During summer that year
the engine was built, it was completed on
6 October 1896.[47] Tests were conducted
until early 1897.[48] First public tests
began on 1 February 1897.[49] Moritz
Schröter's test on 17 February 1897 was
the main test of Diesel's engine. The
engine was rated 13.1 kW with a specific
fuel consumption of 324 g·kW−1·h−1,[50]
resulting in an effective efficiency of
26.2%.[51][52] By 1898, Diesel had become
a millionaire.[53]
Timeline

1890s

1893: Rudolf Diesel's essay titled

Theory and Construction of a Rational
Heat Motor appears.[54][55]
1893: February 21, Diesel and the
Maschinenfabrik Augsburg sign a
contract that allows Diesel to build a
prototype engine.[56]
1893: February 23, Diesel obtains a
patent (RP 67207) titled
"Arbeitsverfahren und Ausführungsart
für Verbrennungsmaschinen" (Working
Methods and Techniques for Internal
Combustion Engines).
1893: April 10, Diesel and Krupp sign a
contract that allows Diesel to build a
prototype engine.[56]
1893: April 24, both Krupp and the
Maschinenfabrik Augsburg decide to
collaborate and build just a single
prototype in Augsburg.[56][36]
1893: July, the first prototype is
completed.[57]
1893: August 10, Diesel injects fuel
(petrol) for the first time, resulting in
combustion, destroying the
indicator.[58]
1893: November 30, Diesel applies for
a patent (RP 82168) for a modified
combustion process. He obtains it on
12 July 1895.[59][60][61]
1894: January 18, after the first
prototype had been modified to
become the second prototype, testing
with the second prototype begins.[37]
1894: February 17, The second
prototype runs for the first time.[10]
1895: March 30, Diesel applies for a
patent (RP 86633) for a starting
process with compressed air.[62]
1895: June 26, the second prototype
passes brake testing for the first
time.[41]
1895: Diesel applies for a second
patent US Patent # 608845[63]
1895: November 8 – December 20, a
series of tests with the second
prototype is conducted. In total, 111
operating hours are recorded.[45]
1896: April 30, Imanuel Lauster
completes the third and final
prototype's drawings.[47]
1896: October 6, the third and final
prototype engine is completed.[11]
1897: February 1, Diesel's prototype
engine is running and finally ready for
efficiency testing and production.[49]
1897: October 9, Adolphus Busch
licenses rights to the diesel engine for
the US and Canada.[53][64]
1897: 29 October, Rudolf Diesel
obtains a patent (DRP 95680) on
supercharging the diesel engine.[46]
1898: February 1, the Diesel Motoren-
Fabrik Actien-Gesellschaft is
registered.[65]
1898: March, the first commercial
diesel engine, rated 2×30 PS
(2×22 kW), is installed in the Kempten
plant of the Vereinigte
Zündholzfabriken A.G.[66][67]
1898: September 17, the Allgemeine
Gesellschaft für Dieselmotoren A.-G. is
founded.[68]
1899: The first two-stroke diesel
engine, invented by Hugo Güldner, is
 built.[52]
1900s

An MAN DM trunk piston diesel

engine built in 1906. The MAN DM
series is considered to be one of the
first commercially successful diesel
engines.[69]

1901: Imanuel Lauster designs the first

trunk piston diesel engine (DM 70).[69]
1901: By 1901, MAN had produced 77
diesel engine cylinders for commercial
use.[70]
1903: Two first diesel-powered ships
are launched, both for river and canal
operations: The Vandal naphtha tanker
and the Sarmat.[71]
1904: The French launch the first
diesel submarine, the Aigrette.[72]
1905: January 14: Diesel applies for a
patent on unit injection
(L20510I/46a).[73]
1905: The first diesel engine
turbochargers and intercoolers are
manufactured by Büchi.[74]
1906: The Diesel Motoren-Fabrik
Actien-Gesellschaft is dissolved.[28]
1908: Diesel's patents expire.[75]
 1908: The first lorry (truck) with a
diesel engine appears.[76]
1909: March 14, Prosper L'Orange
applies for a patent on precombustion
chamber injection.[77] He later builds
the first diesel engine with this
system.[78][79]
1910s

1910: MAN starts making two-stroke

diesel engines.[80]
1910: November 26, James McKechnie
applies for a patent on unit
injection.[81] Unlike Diesel, he managed
to successfully build working unit
injectors.[73][82]
1911: November 27, the Allgemeine
Gesellschaft für Dieselmotoren A.-G. is
dissolved.[65]
1911: The Germania shipyard in Kiel
builds 850 PS (625 kW) diesel engines
for German submarines. These
engines are installed in 1914.[83]
1912: MAN builds the first double-
acting piston two-stroke diesel
engine.[84]
1912: The first locomotive with a diesel
engine is used on the Swiss
Winterthur-Romanshorn railroad.[85]
1912: The Selandia is the first ocean-
going ship with diesel engines.[86]
1913: NELSECO diesels are installed
on commercial ships and US Navy
submarines.[87]
1913: September 29, Rudolf Diesel
dies mysteriously when crossing the
English Channel on the SS Dresden.[88]
1914: MAN builds 900 PS (662 kW)
two-stroke engines for Dutch
submarines.[89]
1919: Prosper L'Orange obtains a
patent on a Precombustion chamber
insert incorporating a needle injection
nozzle.[90][91][79] First diesel engine
from Cummins.[92][93]
1920s

Fairbanks Morse model 32

1923: At the Königsberg DLG

exhibition, the first agricultural tractor
with a diesel engine, the prototype
Benz-Sendling S6, is presented.[94]
1923: December 15, the first lorry with
a direct-injected diesel engine is tested
by MAN. The same year, Benz builds a
lorry with a pre-combustion chamber
injected diesel engine.[95]
1923: The first two-stroke diesel
engine with counterflow scavenging
appears.[96]
1924: Fairbanks-Morse introduces the
two-stroke Y-VA (later renamed to
Model 32).[97]
1925: Sendling starts mass-producing
a diesel-powered agricultural
tractor.[98]
1927: Bosch introduces the first inline
injection pump for motor vehicle diesel
engines.[99]
1929: The first passenger car with a
diesel engine appears. Its engine is an
Otto engine modified to use the diesel
principle and Bosch's injection pump.
 Several other diesel car prototypes
follow.[100]

1930s

1933: Junkers Motorenwerke in

Germany start production of the most
successful mass-produced aviation
diesel engine of all time, the Jumo
205. By the outbreak of World War II,
over 900 examples are produced. Its
rated take-off power is 645 kW.[101]
1933: General Motors uses its new
roots-blown, unit-injected two-stroke
Winton 201A diesel engine to power its
automotive assembly exhibit at the
Chicago World's Fair (A Century of
Progress).[102] The engine is offered in
several versions ranging from 600–
900 hp (447–671 kW).[103]
1934: The Budd Company builds the
first diesel–electric passenger train in
the US, the Pioneer Zephyr 9900, using
a Winton engine.[102]
1935: The Citroën Rosalie is fitted with
an early swirl chamber injected diesel
engine for testing purposes.[104]
Daimler-Benz starts manufacturing the
Mercedes-Benz OM 138, the first
mass-produced diesel engine for
passenger cars, and one of the few
marketable passenger car diesel
engines of its time. It is rated 45 PS
(33 kW).[105]
1936: March 4, the airship LZ 129
Hindenburg, the biggest aircraft ever
made, takes off for the first time. It is
powered by four V16 Daimler-Benz LOF
6 diesel engines, rated 1,200 PS
(883 kW) each.[106]
1936: Manufacture of the first mass-
produced passenger car with a diesel
engine (Mercedes-Benz 260 D)
begins.[100]
1937: Konstantin Fyodorovich Chelpan
develops the V-2 diesel engine, later
used in the Soviet T-34 tanks, widely
regarded as the best tank chassis of
World War II.[107]
 1938: General Motors forms the GM
Diesel Division, later to become Detroit
Diesel, and introduces the Series 71
inline high-speed medium-horsepower
two-stroke engine, suitable for road
vehicles and marine use.[108]
1940s

1946: Clessie Cummins obtains a

patent on a fuel feeding and injection
apparatus for oil-burning engines that
incorporates separate components for
generating injection pressure and
injection timing.[109]
1946: Klöckner-Humboldt-Deutz (KHD)
introduces an air-cooled mass-
 production diesel engine to the
market.[110]
1950s

Piston of an MAN M-System centre

sphere combustion chamber type
diesel engine (4 VD 14,5/12-1 SRW)

1950s: KHD becomes the air-cooled

diesel engine global market leader.[111]
1951: J. Siegfried Meurer obtains a
patent on the M-System, a design that
incorporates a central sphere
combustion chamber in the piston
(DBP 865683).[112]
1953: First mass-produced swirl
chamber injected passenger car diesel
engine (Borgward/Fiat).[81]
1954: Daimler-Benz introduces the
Mercedes-Benz OM 312 A, a 4.6 litre
straight-6 series-production industrial
diesel engine with a turbocharger,
rated 115 PS (85 kW). It proves to be
unreliable.[113]
1954: Volvo produces a small batch
series of 200 units of a turbocharged
version of the TD 96 engine. This 9.6
litre engine is rated 136 kW
(185 PS).[114]
1955: Turbocharging for MAN two-
stroke marine diesel engines becomes
 standard.[96]
1959: The Peugeot 403 becomes the
first mass-produced passenger
sedan/saloon manufactured outside
West Germany to be offered with a
diesel engine option.[115]
1960s

Mercedes-Benz OM 352, one of the

first direct injected Mercedes-Benz
diesel engines. It was introduced in
1963, but mass production only
started in summer 1964.[116]

1964: Summer, Daimler-Benz switches

from precombustion chamber injection
to helix-controlled direct
injection.[117][112]
 1962–65: A diesel compression
braking system, eventually to be
manufactured by the Jacobs
Manufacturing Company and
nicknamed the "Jake Brake", is
invented and patented by Clessie
Cummins.[118]
1970s

1972: KHD introduces the AD-System,

Allstoff-Direkteinspritzung, (anyfuel
direct-injection), for its diesel engines.
AD-diesels can operate on virtually any
kind of liquid fuel, but they are fitted
with an auxiliary spark plug that fires if
the ignition quality of the fuel is too
low.[119]
1976: Development of the common rail
injection begins at the ETH Zürich.[120]
1976: The Volkswagen Golf becomes
the first compact passenger
sedan/saloon to be offered with a
diesel engine option.[121][122]
1978: Daimler-Benz produces the first
passenger car diesel engine with a
turbocharger (Mercedes-Benz OM617
engine).[123]
1979: First prototype of a low-speed
two-stroke crosshead engine with
common rail injection.[124]
1980s

BMW E28 524td, the first mass-

produced passenger car with an
electronically controlled injection
pump

1981/82: Uniflow scavenging for two-

stroke marine diesel engines becomes
standard.[125]
1985: December, road testing of a
common rail injection system for
lorries using a modified 6VD 12,5/12
GRF-E engine in an IFA W50 takes
place.[126]
1986: The BMW E28 524td is the
world's first passenger car equipped
with an electronically controlled
injection pump (developed by
Bosch).[81][127]
1987: Daimler-Benz introduces the
electronically controlled injection
pump for lorry diesel engines.[81]
1988: The Fiat Croma becomes the
first mass-produced passenger car in
the world to have a direct injected
diesel engine.[81]
1989: The Audi 100 is the first
passenger car in the world with a
turbocharged, direct injected, and
electronically controlled diesel
engine.[81]
1990s

1992: 1 July, the Euro 1 emission

standard comes into effect.[128]
1993: First passenger car diesel
engine with four valves per cylinder,
the Mercedes-Benz OM 604.[123]
1994: Unit injector system by Bosch
for lorry diesel engines.[129]
1996: First diesel engine with direct
injection and four valves per cylinder,
used in the Opel Vectra.[130][81]
1996: First radial piston distributor
injection pump by Bosch.[129]
1997: First mass-produced common
rail diesel engine for a passenger car,
the Fiat 1.9 JTD.[81][123]
1998: BMW wins the 24 Hours
Nürburgring race with a modified BMW
E36. The car, called 320d, is powered
by a 2-litre, straight-four diesel engine
with direct injection and a helix-
controlled distributor injection pump
(Bosch VP 44), producing 180 kW
(240 hp). The fuel consumption is
23 L/100 km, only half the fuel
consumption of a similar Otto-powered
car.[131]
1998: Volkswagen introduces the VW
EA188 Pumpe-Düse engine (1.9 TDI),
with Bosch-developed electronically
controlled unit injectors.[123]
 1999: Daimler-Chrysler presents the
first common rail three-cylinder diesel
engine used in a passenger car (the
Smart City Coupé).[81]
2000s

Audi R10 TDI, 2006 24 Hours of Le

Mans winner.

2000: Peugeot introduces the diesel

particulate filter for passenger
cars.[81][123]
2002: Piezoelectric injector technology
by Siemens.[132]
2003: Piezoelectric injector technology
by Bosch,[133] and Delphi.[134]
2004: BMW introduces dual-stage
turbocharging with the BMW M57
engine.[123]
2006: The world's most powerful diesel
engine, the Wärtsilä-Sulzer RTA96-C, is
produced. It is rated 80,080 kW.[135]
2006: Audi R10 TDI, equipped with a
5.5-litre V12-TDI engine, rated 476 kW
(638 hp), wins the 2006 24 Hours of Le
Mans.[81]
2006: Daimler-Chrysler launches the
first series-production passenger car
engine with selective catalytic
reduction exhaust gas treatment, the
Mercedes-Benz OM 642. It is fully
complying with the Tier2Bin8 emission
standard.[123]
2008: Volkswagen introduces the LNT
catalyst for passenger car diesel
engines with the VW 2.0 TDI
engine.[123]
2008: Volkswagen starts series
production of the biggest passenger
car diesel engine, the Audi 6-litre V12
TDI.[123]
2008: Subaru introduces the first
horizontally opposed diesel engine to
be fitted to a passenger car. It is a 2-
litre common rail engine, rated
110 kW.[136]
2010s

2010: Mitsubishi developed and

started mass production of its 4N13
1.8 L DOHC I4, the world's first
passenger car diesel engine that
features a variable valve timing
system.[127]
2012: BMW introduces dual-stage
turbocharging with three turbochargers
for the BMW N57 engine.[123]
2015: Common rail systems working
with pressures of 2,500 bar
launched.[81]
2015: In the Volkswagen emissions
scandal, the US EPA issued a notice of
violation of the Clean Air Act to
 Volkswagen Group after it was found
that Volkswagen had intentionally
programmed turbocharged direct
injection (TDI) diesel engines to
activate certain emissions controls
only during laboratory emissions
testing.[137][138][139][140]

Operating principle

Overview

The characteristics of a diesel engine

are[141]

Use of compression ignition, instead of

an ignition apparatus such as a spark
plug.
Internal mixture formation. In diesel
engines, the mixture of air and fuel is
only formed inside the combustion
chamber.
Quality torque control. The amount of
torque a diesel engine produces is not
controlled by throttling the intake air
(unlike a traditional spark-ignition
petrol engine, where the airflow is
reduced in order to regulate the torque
output), instead, the volume of air
entering the engine is maximised at all
times, and the torque output is
regulated solely by controlling the
amount of injected fuel.
High air-fuel ratio. Diesel engines run
at global air-fuel ratios significantly
leaner than the stoichiometric ratio.
Diffusion flame: At combustion,
oxygen first has to diffuse into the
flame, rather than having oxygen and
fuel already mixed before combustion,
which would result in a premixed
flame.
Heterogeneous air-fuel mixture: In
diesel engines, there is no even
dispersion of fuel and air inside the
cylinder. That is because the
combustion process begins at the end
of the injection phase, before a
 homogeneous mixture of air and fuel
can be formed.
Preference for the fuel to have a high
ignition performance (Cetane number),
rather than a high knocking resistance
(octane rating) that is preferred for
petrol engines.

Thermodynamic cycle

Diesel engine model, left side

Diesel engine model, right side

The diesel internal combustion engine
differs from the gasoline powered Otto
cycle by using highly compressed hot air
to ignite the fuel rather than using a
spark plug (compression ignition rather
than spark ignition).

In the diesel engine, only air is initially

introduced into the combustion chamber.
The air is then compressed with a
compression ratio typically between 15:1
and 23:1. This high compression causes
the temperature of the air to rise. At
about the top of the compression stroke,
fuel is injected directly into the
compressed air in the combustion
chamber. This may be into a (typically
toroidal) void in the top of the piston or a
pre-chamber depending upon the design
of the engine. The fuel injector ensures
that the fuel is broken down into small
droplets, and that the fuel is distributed
evenly. The heat of the compressed air
vaporises fuel from the surface of the
droplets. The vapour is then ignited by
the heat from the compressed air in the
combustion chamber, the droplets
continue to vaporise from their surfaces
and burn, getting smaller, until all the fuel
in the droplets has been burnt.
Combustion occurs at a substantially
constant pressure during the initial part
of the power stroke. The start of
vaporisation causes a delay before
ignition and the characteristic diesel
knocking sound as the vapour reaches
ignition temperature and causes an
abrupt increase in pressure above the
piston (not shown on the P-V indicator
diagram). When combustion is complete
the combustion gases expand as the
piston descends further; the high
pressure in the cylinder drives the piston
downward, supplying power to the
crankshaft.

As well as the high level of compression

allowing combustion to take place
without a separate ignition system, a
high compression ratio greatly increases
the engine's efficiency. Increasing the
compression ratio in a spark-ignition
engine where fuel and air are mixed
before entry to the cylinder is limited by
the need to prevent pre-ignition, which
would cause engine damage. Since only
air is compressed in a diesel engine, and
fuel is not introduced into the cylinder
until shortly before top dead centre
(TDC), premature detonation is not a
problem and compression ratios are
much higher.
 pV diagram for the ideal diesel cycle
(which follows the numbers 1–4 in
clockwise direction). The horizontal
axis is the cylinder volume. In the
diesel cycle the combustion occurs at
almost constant pressure. On this
diagram the work that is generated
for each cycle corresponds to the
area within the loop.

The pressure–volume diagram (pV)

diagram is a simplified and idealised
representation of the events involved in a
diesel engine cycle, arranged to illustrate
the similarity with a Carnot cycle.
Starting at 1, the piston is at bottom dead
centre and both valves are closed at the
start of the compression stroke; the
cylinder contains air at atmospheric
pressure. Between 1 and 2 the air is
compressed adiabatically – that is
without heat transfer to or from the
environment – by the rising piston. (This
is only approximately true since there will
be some heat exchange with the cylinder
walls.) During this compression, the
volume is reduced, the pressure and
temperature both rise. At or slightly
before 2 (TDC) fuel is injected and burns
in the compressed hot air. Chemical
energy is released and this constitutes
an injection of thermal energy (heat) into
the compressed gas. Combustion and
heating occur between 2 and 3. In this
interval the pressure remains constant
since the piston descends, and the
volume increases; the temperature rises
as a consequence of the energy of
combustion. At 3 fuel injection and
combustion are complete, and the
cylinder contains gas at a higher
temperature than at 2. Between 3 and 4
this hot gas expands, again
approximately adiabatically. Work is done
on the system to which the engine is
connected. During this expansion phase
the volume of the gas rises, and its
temperature and pressure both fall. At 4
the exhaust valve opens, and the
pressure falls abruptly to atmospheric
(approximately). This is unresisted
expansion and no useful work is done by
it. Ideally the adiabatic expansion should
continue, extending the line 3–4 to the
right until the pressure falls to that of the
surrounding air, but the loss of efficiency
caused by this unresisted expansion is
justified by the practical difficulties
involved in recovering it (the engine
would have to be much larger). After the
opening of the exhaust valve, the exhaust
stroke follows, but this (and the following
induction stroke) are not shown on the
diagram. If shown, they would be
represented by a low-pressure loop at the
bottom of the diagram. At 1 it is
assumed that the exhaust and induction
strokes have been completed, and the
cylinder is again filled with air. The
piston-cylinder system absorbs energy
between 1 and 2 – this is the work
needed to compress the air in the
cylinder, and is provided by mechanical
kinetic energy stored in the flywheel of
the engine. Work output is done by the
piston-cylinder combination between 2
and 4. The difference between these two
increments of work is the indicated work
output per cycle, and is represented by
the area enclosed by the pV loop. The
adiabatic expansion is in a higher
pressure range than that of the
compression because the gas in the
cylinder is hotter during expansion than
during compression. It is for this reason
that the loop has a finite area, and the net
output of work during a cycle is
positive.[142]
Efficiency

The fuel efficiency of diesel engines is

better than most other types of
combustion engines,[143][144] due to their
high compression ratio, high air–fuel
equivalence ratio (λ),[145] and the lack of
intake air restrictions (i.e. throttle valves).
Theoretically, the highest possible
efficiency for a diesel engine is 75%.[146]
However, in practice the efficiency is
much lower, with efficiencies of up to
43% for passenger car engines,[147] up to
45% for large truck and bus engines, and
up to 55% for large two-stroke marine
engines.[1][148] The average efficiency
over a motor vehicle driving cycle is
lower than the diesel engine's peak
efficiency (for example, a 37% average
efficiency for an engine with a peak
efficiency of 44%).[149] That is because
the fuel efficiency of a diesel engine
drops at lower loads, however, it does not
drop quite as fast as the Otto (spark
ignition) engine's.[150]

Emissions

Diesel engines are combustion engines

and, therefore, emit combustion products
in their exhaust gas. Due to incomplete
combustion,[151] diesel engine exhaust
gases include carbon monoxide,
hydrocarbons, particulate matter, and
nitrogen oxides pollutants. About 90 per
cent of the pollutants can be removed
from the exhaust gas using exhaust gas
treatment technology.[152][153] Road
vehicle diesel engines have no sulfur
dioxide emissions, because motor
vehicle diesel fuel has been sulfur-free
since 2003.[154] Helmut Tschöke argues
that particulate matter emitted from
motor vehicles has negative impacts on
human health.[155]

The particulate matter in diesel exhaust

emissions is sometimes classified as a
carcinogen or "probable carcinogen" and
is known to increase the risk of heart and
respiratory diseases.[156]
Electrical system

In principle, a diesel engine does not

require any sort of electrical system.
However, most modern diesel engines
are equipped with an electrical fuel
pump, and an electronic engine control
unit.

However, there is no high-voltage

electrical ignition system present in a
diesel engine. This eliminates a source of
radio frequency emissions (which can
interfere with navigation and
communication equipment), which is
why only diesel-powered vehicles are
allowed in some parts of the American
National Radio Quiet Zone.[157]

Torque control

To control the torque output at any given

time (i.e. when the driver of a car adjusts
the accelerator pedal), a governor adjusts
the amount of fuel injected into the
engine. Mechanical governors have been
used in the past, however electronic
governors are more common on modern
engines. Mechanical governors are
usually driven by the engine's accessory
belt or a gear-drive system[158][159] and
use a combination of springs and
weights to control fuel delivery relative to
both load and speed.[158] Electronically
governed engines use an electronic
control unit (ECU) or electronic control
module (ECM) to control the fuel delivery.
The ECM/ECU uses various sensors
(such as engine speed signal, intake
manifold pressure and fuel temperature)
to determine the amount of fuel injected
into the engine.

Due to the amount of air being constant

(for a given RPM) while the amount of
fuel varies, very high ("lean") air-fuel
ratios are used in situations where
minimal torque output is required. This
differs from a petrol engine, where a
throttle is used to also reduce the
amount of intake air as part of regulating
the engine's torque output. Controlling
the timing of the start of injection of fuel
into the cylinder is similar to controlling
the ignition timing in a petrol engine. It is
therefore a key factor in controlling the
power output, fuel consumption and
exhaust emissions.

Classification
There are several different ways of
categorising diesel engines, as outlined
in the following sections.
RPM operating range

Günter Mau categorises diesel engines

by their rotational speeds into three
groups:[160]

High-speed engines (> 1,000 rpm),

Medium-speed engines (300–1,000
rpm), and
Slow-speed engines (< 300 rpm).
High-speed diesel engines

High-speed engines are used to power

trucks (lorries), buses, tractors, cars,
yachts, compressors, pumps and small
electrical generators.[161] As of 2018,
most high-speed engines have direct
injection. Many modern engines,
particularly in on-highway applications,
have common rail direct injection.[162] On
bigger ships, high-speed diesel engines
are often used for powering electric
generators.[163] The highest power output
of high-speed diesel engines is
approximately 5 MW.[164]

Medium-speed diesel engines

Stationary 12 cylinder turbo-diesel

engine coupled to a generator set for
auxiliary power

Medium-speed engines are used in large

electrical generators, railway diesel
locomotives, ship propulsion and
mechanical drive applications such as
large compressors or pumps. Medium
speed diesel engines operate on either
diesel fuel or heavy fuel oil by direct
injection in the same manner as low-
speed engines. Usually, they are four-
stroke engines with trunk pistons;[165] a
notable exception being the EMD 567,
645, and 710 engines, which are all two-
stroke.[166]

The power output of medium-speed

diesel engines can be as high as
21,870 kW,[167] with the effective
efficiency being around 47-48%
(1982).[168] Most larger medium-speed
engines are started with compressed air
direct on pistons, using an air distributor,
as opposed to a pneumatic starting
motor acting on the flywheel, which
tends to be used for smaller engines.[169]

Medium-speed engines intended for

marine applications are usually used to
power (ro-ro) ferries, passenger ships or
small freight ships. Using medium-speed
engines reduces the cost of smaller
ships and increases their transport
capacity. In addition to that, a single ship
can use two smaller engines instead of
one big engine, which increases the
ship's safety.[165]

Low-speed diesel engines

 The MAN B&W 5S50MC, a two-stroke,
low-speed, inline five-cylinder marine
diesel engine on board a 29,000 tonne
chemical carrier

Low-speed diesel engines are usually

very large in size and mostly used to
power ships. There are two different
types of low-speed engines that are
commonly used: Two-stroke engines with
a crosshead, and four-stroke engines
with a regular trunk-piston. Two-stroke
engines have a limited rotational
frequency and their charge exchange is
more difficult, which means that they are
usually bigger than four-stroke engines
and used to directly power a ship's
propeller.

Four-stroke engines on ships are usually

used to power an electric generator. An
electric motor powers the propeller.[160]
Both types are usually very undersquare,
meaning the bore is smaller than the
stroke.[170] Low-speed diesel engines (as
used in ships and other applications
where overall engine weight is relatively
unimportant) often have an effective
efficiency of up to 55%.[1] Like medium-
speed engines, low-speed engines are
started with compressed air, and they
use heavy oil as their primary fuel.[169]
Combustion cycle

Schematic of a two-stroke diesel

engine with a roots blower

Detroit Diesel timing

Four-stroke engines use the combustion

cycle described earlier. Most smaller
diesels, for vehicular use, for instance,
typically use the four-stroke cycle. This is
due to several factors, such as the two-
stroke design's narrow powerband which
is not particularly suitable for automotive
use and the necessity for complicated
and expensive built-in lubrication
systems and scavenging measures.[171]
The cost effectiveness (and proportion
of added weight) of these technologies
has less of an impact on larger, more
expensive engines, while engines
intended for shipping or stationary use
can be run at a single speed for long
periods.[171]

Two-stroke engines use a combustion

cycle which is completed in two strokes
instead of four strokes. Filling the
cylinder with air and compressing it
takes place in one stroke, and the power
and exhaust strokes are combined. The
compression in a two-stroke diesel
engine is similar to the compression that
takes place in a four-stroke diesel engine:
As the piston passes through bottom
centre and starts upward, compression
commences, culminating in fuel injection
and ignition. Instead of a full set of
valves, two-stroke diesel engines have
simple intake ports, and exhaust ports
(or exhaust valves). When the piston
approaches bottom dead centre, both the
intake and the exhaust ports are "open",
which means that there is atmospheric
pressure inside the cylinder. Therefore,
some sort of pump is required to blow
the air into the cylinder and the
combustion gasses into the exhaust.
This process is called scavenging. The
pressure required is approximately 10-
30 kPa.[172]

Due to the lack of discrete exhaust and

intake strokes, all two-stroke diesel
engines use a scavenge blower or some
form of compressor to charge the
cylinders with air and assist in
scavenging.[172] Roots-type
superchargers were used for ship
engines until the mid-1950s, however
since 1955 they have been widely
replaced by turbochargers.[173] Usually, a
two-stroke ship diesel engine has a
single-stage turbocharger with a turbine
that has an axial inflow and a radial
outflow.[174]

Scavenging in two-stroke engines

In general, there are three types of

scavenging possible:

Uniflow scavenging
Crossflow scavenging
Reverse flow scavenging

Crossflow scavenging is incomplete and

limits the stroke, yet some
manufacturers used it.[175] Reverse flow
scavenging is a very simple way of
scavenging, and it was popular amongst
manufacturers until the early 1980s.
Uniflow scavenging is more complicated
to make but allows the highest fuel
efficiency; since the early 1980s,
manufacturers such as MAN and Sulzer
have switched to this system.[125] It is
standard for modern marine two-stroke
diesel engines.[2]

Fuel used

So-called dual-fuel diesel engines or gas

diesel engines burn two different types of
fuel simultaneously, for instance, a
gaseous fuel and diesel engine fuel. The
diesel engine fuel auto-ignites due to
compression ignition, and then ignites
the gaseous fuel. Such engines do not
require any type of spark ignition and
operate similar to regular diesel
engines.[176][177]

Fuel injection
The fuel is injected at high pressure into
either the combustion chamber, the "swirl
chamber" or the "pre-chamber"[141]
(unlike older petrol engines where the
fuel is added in the inlet manifold or
carburetor). Engines where the fuel is
injected into the main combustion
chamber are called "direct injection" (DI)
engines, while those which use a swirl
chamber or pre-chamber are called
"indirect injection" (IDI) engines.[178]
Direct injection

Different types of piston bowls

Most direct injection diesel engines have

a combustion cup in the top of the piston
where the fuel is sprayed. Many different
methods of injection can be used.
Usually, an engine with helix-controlled
mechanic direct injection has either an
inline or a distributor injection pump.[158]
For each engine cylinder, the
corresponding plunger in the fuel pump
measures out the correct amount of fuel
and determines the timing of each
injection. These engines use injectors
that are very precise spring-loaded valves
that open and close at a specific fuel
pressure. Separate high-pressure fuel
lines connect the fuel pump with each
cylinder. Fuel volume for each single
combustion is controlled by a slanted
groove in the plunger which rotates only
a few degrees releasing the pressure and
is controlled by a mechanical governor,
consisting of weights rotating at engine
speed constrained by springs and a lever.
The injectors are held open by the fuel
pressure. On high-speed engines the
plunger pumps are together in one
unit.[179] The length of fuel lines from the
pump to each injector is normally the
same for each cylinder in order to obtain
the same pressure delay. Direct injected
diesel engines usually use orifice-type
fuel injectors.[180]

Electronic control of the fuel injection

transformed the direct injection engine
by allowing much greater control over the
combustion.[181]

Common rail

Common rail (CR) direct injection

systems do not have the fuel metering,
pressure-raising and delivery functions in
a single unit, as in the case of a Bosch
distributor-type pump, for example. A
high-pressure pump supplies the CR. The
requirements of each cylinder injector
are supplied from this common high
pressure reservoir of fuel. An Electronic
Diesel Control (EDC) controls both rail
pressure and injections depending on
engine operating conditions. The
injectors of older CR systems have
solenoid-driven plungers for lifting the
injection needle, whilst newer CR
injectors use plungers driven by
piezoelectric actuators that have fewer
moving mass and therefore allow even
more injections in a very short period of
time.[182] Early common rail system were
controlled by mechanical means.
The injection pressure of modern CR
systems ranges from 140 MPa to
270 MPa.[183]

Indirect injection

Ricardo Comet indirect injection

chamber

An indirect diesel injection system (IDI)

engine delivers fuel into a small chamber
called a swirl chamber, precombustion
chamber, pre chamber or ante-chamber,
which is connected to the cylinder by a
narrow air passage. Generally the goal of
the pre chamber is to create increased
turbulence for better air / fuel mixing.
This system also allows for a smoother,
quieter running engine, and because fuel
mixing is assisted by turbulence, injector
pressures can be lower. Most IDI
systems use a single orifice injector. The
pre-chamber has the disadvantage of
lowering efficiency due to increased heat
loss to the engine's cooling system,
restricting the combustion burn, thus
reducing the efficiency by 5–10%. IDI
engines are also more difficult to start
and usually require the use of glow plugs.
IDI engines may be cheaper to build but
generally require a higher compression
ratio than the DI counterpart. IDI also
makes it easier to produce smooth,
quieter running engines with a simple
mechanical injection system since exact
injection timing is not as critical. Most
modern automotive engines are DI which
have the benefits of greater efficiency
and easier starting; however, IDI engines
can still be found in the many ATV and
small diesel applications.[184] Indirect
injected diesel engines use pintle-type
fuel injectors.[180]
Air-blast injection

Typical early 20th century air-blast

injected diesel engine, rated at 59 kW.

Early diesel engines injected fuel with the

assistance of compressed air, which
atomised the fuel and forced it into the
engine through a nozzle (a similar
principle to an aerosol spray). The nozzle
opening was closed by a pin valve
actuated by the camshaft. Although the
engine was also required to drive an air
compressor used for air-blast injection,
the efficiency was nonetheless better
than other combustion engines of the
time.[52] However the system was heavy
and it was slow to react to changing
torque demands, making it unsuitable for
road vehicles.[185]

Unit injectors

A unit injector system, also known as

"Pumpe-Düse" (pump-nozzle in German)
combines the injector and fuel pump into
a single component, which is positioned
above each cylinder. This eliminates the
high-pressure fuel lines and achieves a
more consistent injection. Under full
load, the injection pressure can reach up
to 220 MPa.[186] Unit injectors are
operated by a cam and the quantity of
fuel injected is controlled either
mechanically (by a rack or lever) or
electronically.

Due to increased performance

requirements, unit injectors have been
largely replaced by common rail injection
systems.[162]

Diesel engine particularities

Mass

The average diesel engine has a poorer

power-to-mass ratio than an equivalent
petrol engine. The lower engine speeds
(RPM) of typical diesel engines results in
a lower power output.[187] Also, the mass
of a diesel engine is typically higher,
since the higher operating pressure
inside the combustion chamber
increases the internal forces, which
requires stronger (and therefore heavier)
parts to withstand these forces.[188]

Noise ("diesel clatter")

Engine noise of a 1950s MWM AKD

112 Z two-cylinder diesel engine at
idle

The distinctive noise of a diesel engine,

particularly at idling speeds, is
sometimes called "diesel clatter". This
noise is largely caused by the sudden
ignition of the diesel fuel when injected
into the combustion chamber, which
causes a pressure wave that sounds like
knocking.

Engine designers can reduce diesel

clatter through: indirect injection; pilot or
pre-injection;[189] injection timing;
injection rate; compression ratio; turbo
boost; and exhaust gas recirculation
(EGR).[190] Common rail diesel injection
systems permit multiple injection events
as an aid to noise reduction. Through
measures such as these, diesel clatter
noise is greatly reduced in modern
engines. Diesel fuels with a higher cetane
rating are more likely to ignite and hence
reduce diesel clatter.[191]

Cold weather starting

In warmer climates, diesel engines do

not require any starting aid (aside from
the starter motor). However, many diesel
engines include some form of preheating
for the combustion chamber, to assist
starting in cold conditions. Engines with
a displacement of less than 1 litre per
cylinder usually have glowplugs, whilst
larger heavy-duty engines have flame-
start systems.[192] The minimum starting
temperature that allows starting without
pre-heating is 40 °C (104 °F) for
precombustion chamber engines, 20 °C
(68 °F) for swirl chamber engines, and
0 °C (32 °F) for direct injected engines.

In the past, a wider variety of cold-start

methods were used. Some engines, such
as Detroit Diesel engines used a system
to introduce small amounts of ether into
the inlet manifold to start
combustion.[193] Instead of glowplugs,
some diesel engines are equipped with
starting aid systems that change valve
timing. The simplest way this can be
done is with a decompression lever.
Activating the decompression lever locks
the outlet valves in a slight down
position, resulting in the engine not
having any compression and thus
allowing for turning the crankshaft over
with significantly less resistance. When
the crankshaft reaches a higher speed,
flipping the decompression lever back
into its normal position will abruptly re-
activate the outlet valves, resulting in
compression − the flywheel's mass
moment of inertia then starts the
engine.[194] Other diesel engines, such as
the precombustion chamber engine XII
Jv 170/240 made by Ganz & Co., have a
valve timing changing system that is
operated by adjusting the inlet valve
camshaft, moving it into a slight "late"
position. This will make the inlet valves
open with a delay, forcing the inlet air to
heat up when entering the combustion
chamber.[195]

Supercharging & turbocharging

1980s BMW M21 passenger car

turbo-diesel engine

Forced induction, especially

turbocharging is commonly used on
diesel engines because it greatly
increases efficiency and torque
output.[196] Diesel engines are well suited
for forced induction setups due to their
operating principle which is
characterised by wide ignition limits[141]
and the absence of fuel during the
compression stroke. Therefore, knocking,
pre-ignition or detonation cannot occur,
and a lean mixture caused by excess
supercharging air inside the combustion
chamber does not negatively affect
combustion.[197]

Major manufacturers
MTU
MAN
Wartsila
Rolls Royce
Siemens
Kolomna KDZ TMH BMZ and UDMZ
General Electric GE Transportation
Volvo Penta
Sulzer (manufacturer)
Doosan Doosan infracore , Doosan
Marine
YaMZ VAZ , KMZ - RD Nevsky , STM
GAZ VMZ VMZ
Mitsubishi , Mitsui Mazda IHI
Kawasaki Honda Suzuki Subaru Isuzu
Nissan plus others
Caterpillar and Cummins
AO Zvezda and Zvezda Energetika
Bergen Engines MaK Deutz AG MWM
BMW VW , MAPNA BHEL DESA Steyr
 Motors GmbH Iran Khodro Diesel
Isotta Fraschini , EMD Fairbanks Morse
, Shanxi Henan Diesel SDM

Fuel and fluid

characteristics
Diesel engines can combust a huge
variety of fuels, including several fuel oils
that have advantages over fuels such as
petrol. These advantages include:

Low fuel costs, as fuel oils are

relatively cheap
Good lubrication properties
High energy density
Low risk of catching fire, as they
do not form a flammable vapour
 Biodiesel is an easily synthesised,
non-petroleum-based fuel
(through transesterification) which
can run directly in many diesel
engines, while gasoline engines
either need adaptation to run
synthetic fuels or else use them
as an additive to gasoline (e.g.,
ethanol added to gasohol).

In diesel engines, a mechanical injector

system atomizes the fuel directly into the
combustion chamber (as opposed to a
Venturi jet in a carburetor, or a fuel
injector in a manifold injection system
atomizing fuel into the intake manifold or
intake runners as in a petrol engine).
Because only air is inducted into the
cylinder in a diesel engine, the
compression ratio can be much higher as
there is no risk of pre-ignition provided
the injection process is accurately
timed.[197] This means that cylinder
temperatures are much higher in a diesel
engine than a petrol engine, allowing less
volatile fuels to be used.

The MAN 630's M-System diesel

engine is a petrol engine (designed to
run on NATO F 46/F 50 petrol), but it
also runs on jet fuel, (NATO F 40/F
44), kerosene, (NATO F 58), and diesel
engine fuel (NATO F 54/F 75)

Therefore, diesel engines can operate on

a huge variety of different fuels. In
general, fuel for diesel engines should
have a proper viscosity, so that the
injection pump can pump the fuel to the
injection nozzles without causing
damage to itself or corrosion of the fuel
line. At injection, the fuel should form a
good fuel spray, and it should not have a
coking effect upon the injection nozzles.
To ensure proper engine starting and
smooth operation, the fuel should be
willing to ignite and hence not cause a
high ignition delay, (this means that the
fuel should have a high cetane number).
Diesel fuel should also have a high lower
heating value.[198]
Inline mechanical injector pumps
generally tolerate poor-quality or bio-
fuels better than distributor-type pumps.
Also, indirect injection engines generally
run more satisfactorily on fuels with a
high ignition delay (for instance, petrol)
than direct injection engines.[199] This is
partly because an indirect injection
engine has a much greater 'swirl' effect,
improving vaporisation and combustion
of fuel, and because (in the case of
vegetable oil-type fuels) lipid depositions
can condense on the cylinder walls of a
direct-injection engine if combustion
temperatures are too low (such as
starting the engine from cold). Direct-
injected engines with an MAN centre
sphere combustion chamber rely on fuel
condensing on the combustion chamber
walls. The fuel starts vaporising only
after ignition sets in, and it burns
relatively smoothly. Therefore, such
engines also tolerate fuels with poor
ignition delay characteristics, and, in
general, they can operate on petrol rated
86 RON.[200]

Fuel types

In his 1893 work Theory and Construction

of a Rational Heat Motor, Rudolf Diesel
considers using coal dust as fuel for the
diesel engine. However, Diesel just
considered using coal dust (as well as
liquid fuels and gas); his actual engine
was designed to operate on petroleum,
which was soon replaced with regular
petrol and kerosene for further testing
purposes, as petroleum proved to be too
viscous.[201] In addition to kerosene and
petrol, Diesel's engine could also operate
on ligroin.[202]

Before diesel engine fuel was

standardised, fuels such as petrol,
kerosene, gas oil, vegetable oil and
mineral oil, as well as mixtures of these
fuels, were used.[203] Typical fuels
specifically intended to be used for diesel
engines were petroleum distillates and
coal-tar distillates such as the following;
these fuels have specific lower heating
values of:

Diesel oil: 10,200 kcal·kg−1

(42.7 MJ·kg−1) up to 10,250 kcal·kg−1
(42.9 MJ·kg−1)
Heating oil: 10,000 kcal·kg−1
(41.8 MJ·kg−1) up to 10,200 kcal·kg−1
(42.7 MJ·kg−1)
Coal-tar creosote: 9,150 kcal·kg−1
(38.3 MJ·kg−1) up to 9,250 kcal·kg−1
(38.7 MJ·kg−1)
Kerosene: up to 10,400 kcal·kg−1
(43.5 MJ·kg−1)

Source:[204]
The first diesel fuel standards were the
DIN 51601, VTL 9140-001, and NATO F
54, which appeared after World War
II.[203] The modern European EN 590
diesel fuel standard was established in
May 1993; the modern version of the
NATO F 54 standard is mostly identical
with it. The DIN 51628 biodiesel standard
was rendered obsolete by the 2009
version of the EN 590; FAME biodiesel
conforms to the EN 14214 standard.
Watercraft diesel engines usually operate
on diesel engine fuel that conforms to
the ISO 8217 standard (Bunker C). Also,
some diesel engines can operate on
gasses (such as LNG).[205]
Modern diesel fuel properties
Modern diesel fuel properties[206]
EN 590 (as of 2009) EN 14214 (as of 2010)

Ignition performance ≥ 51 CN ≥ 51 CN

Density at 15 °C 820...845 kg·m−3 860...900 kg·m−3

Sulfur content ≤10 mg·kg−1 ≤10 mg·kg−1

Water content ≤200 mg·kg−1 ≤500 mg·kg−1

Lubricity 460 µm 460 µm

Viscosity at 40 °C 2.0...4.5 mm2·s−1 3.5...5.0 mm2·s−1

FAME content ≤7.0% ≥96.5%

Molar H/C ratio – 1.69

Lower heating value – 37.1 MJ·kg−1

Gelling

DIN 51601 diesel fuel was prone to

waxing or gelling in cold weather; both
are terms for the solidification of diesel
oil into a partially crystalline state. The
crystals build up in the fuel system
(especially in fuel filters), eventually
starving the engine of fuel and causing it
to stop running.[207] Low-output electric
heaters in fuel tanks and around fuel
lines were used to solve this problem.
Also, most engines have a spill return
system, by which any excess fuel from
the injector pump and injectors is
returned to the fuel tank. Once the engine
has warmed, returning warm fuel
prevents waxing in the tank. Before direct
injection diesel engines, some
manufacturers, such as BMW,
recommended mixing up to 30% petrol in
with the diesel by fuelling diesel cars
with petrol to prevent the fuel from
gelling when the temperatures dropped
below −15 °C.[208]
Safety

Fuel flammability

Diesel fuel is less flammable than petrol,

because its flash point is 55 °C,[207][209]
leading to a lower risk of fire caused by
fuel in a vehicle equipped with a diesel
engine.

Diesel fuel can create an explosive

air/vapour mix under the right conditions.
However, compared with petrol, it is less
prone due to its lower vapour pressure,
which is an indication of evaporation
rate. The Material Safety Data Sheet[210]
for ultra-low sulfur diesel fuel indicates a
vapour explosion hazard for diesel fuel
indoors, outdoors, or in sewers.

Cancer

Diesel exhaust has been classified as an

IARC Group 1 carcinogen. It causes lung
cancer and is associated with an
increased risk for bladder cancer.[211]

Engine runaway (uncontrollable

overspeeding)

See diesel engine runaway.

Applications
The characteristics of diesel have
different advantages for different
applications.

Passenger cars

Diesel engines have long been popular in

bigger cars and have been used in
smaller cars such as superminis in
Europe since the 1980s. They were
popular in larger cars earlier, as the
weight and cost penalties were less
noticeable.[212] Smooth operation as well
as high low-end torque are deemed
important for passenger cars and small
commercial vehicles. The introduction of
electronically controlled fuel injection
significantly improved the smooth torque
generation, and starting in the early
1990s, car manufacturers began offering
their high-end luxury vehicles with diesel
engines. Passenger car diesel engines
usually have between three and twelve
cylinders, and a displacement ranging
from 0.8 to 6.0 litres. Modern
powerplants are usually turbocharged
and have direct injection.[161]

Diesel engines do not suffer from intake-

air throttling, resulting in very low fuel
consumption especially at low partial
load[213] (for instance: driving at city
speeds). One fifth of all passenger cars
worldwide have diesel engines, with
many of them being in Europe, where
approximately 47% of all passenger cars
are diesel-powered.[214] Daimler-Benz in
conjunction with Robert Bosch GmbH
produced diesel-powered passenger cars
starting in 1936.[81] The popularity of
diesel-powered passenger cars in
markets such as India, South Korea and
Japan is increasing (as of 2018).[215]

Commercial vehicles and lorries

Lifespan of Mercedes-Benz diesel engines[216]

In 1893, Rudolf Diesel suggested that the
diesel engine could possibly power
"wagons" (lorries).[217] The first lorries
with diesel engines were brought to
market in 1924.[81]

Modern diesel engines for lorries have to

be both extremely reliable and very fuel
efficient. Common-rail direct injection,
turbocharging and four valves per
cylinder are standard. Displacements
range from 4.5 to 15.5 litres, with power-
to-mass ratios of 2.5–3.5 kg·kW−1 for
heavy duty and 2.0–3.0 kg·kW−1 for
medium duty engines. V6 and V8 engines
used to be common, due to the relatively
low engine mass the V configuration
provides. Recently, the V configuration
has been abandoned in favour of straight
engines. These engines are usually
straight-6 for heavy and medium duties
and straight-4 for medium duty. Their
undersquare design causes lower overall
piston speeds which results in increased
lifespan of up to 1,200,000 kilometres
(750,000 mi).[218] Compared with 1970s
diesel engines, the expected lifespan of
modern lorry diesel engines has more
than doubled.[216]

Railroad rolling stock

Diesel engines for locomotives are built

for continuous operation between
refuelings and may need to be designed
to use poor quality fuel in some
circumstances.[219] Some locomotives
use two-stroke diesel engines.[220] Diesel
engines have replaced steam engines on
all non-electrified railroads in the world.
The first diesel locomotives appeared in
1913,[81] and diesel multiple units soon
after. Nearly all modern diesel
locomotives are more correctly known as
diesel–electric locomotives because
they use an electric transmission: the
diesel engine drives an electric generator
which powers electric traction
motors.[221] While electric locomotives
have replaced the diesel locomotive for
passenger services in many areas diesel
traction is widely used for cargo-hauling
freight trains and on tracks where
electrification is not economically viable.

In the 1940s, road vehicle diesel engines

with power outputs of 150–200 metric
horsepower (110–150 kW; 150–200 hp)
were considered reasonable for DMUs.
Commonly, regular truck powerplants
were used. The height of these engines
had to be less than 1 metre (3 ft 3 in) to
allow underfloor installation. Usually, the
engine was mated with a pneumatically
operated mechanical gearbox, due to the
low size, mass, and production costs of
this design. Some DMUs used hydraulic
torque converters instead. Diesel–
electric transmission was not suitable for
such small engines.[222] In the 1930s, the
Deutsche Reichsbahn standardised its
first DMU engine. It was a 30.3 litres
(1,850 cu in), 12-cylinder boxer unit,
producing 275 metric horsepower
(202 kW; 271 hp). Several German
manufacturers produced engines
according to this standard.[223]

Watercraft

One of the eight-cylinder 3200 I.H.P.

Harland and Wolff – Burmeister &
Wain diesel engines installed in the
motorship Glenapp. This was the
highest powered diesel engine yet
(1920) installed in a ship. Note man
standing lower right for size
comparison.
 0:34

Hand-cranking a boat diesel motor in

Inle Lake (Myanmar)

The requirements for marine diesel

engines vary, depending on the
application. For military use and medium-
size boats, medium-speed four-stroke
diesel engines are most suitable. These
engines usually have up to 24 cylinders
and come with power outputs in the one-
digit Megawatt region.[219] Small boats
may use lorry diesel engines. Large ships
use extremely efficient, low-speed two-
stroke diesel engines. They can reach
efficiencies of up to 55%. Unlike most
regular diesel engines, two-stroke
watercraft engines use highly viscous
fuel oil.[1] Submarines are usually diesel–
electric.[221]

The first diesel engines for ships were

made by A. B. Diesels Motorer Stockholm
in 1903. These engines were three-
cylinder units of 120 PS (88 kW) and
four-cylinder units of 180 PS (132 kW)
and used for Russian ships. In World War
I, especially submarine diesel engine
development advanced quickly. By the
end of the War, double acting piston two-
stroke engines with up to 12,200 PS
(9 MW) had been made for marine
use.[224]
Aviation

Early

Diesel engines had been used in aircraft

before World War II, for instance, in the
rigid airship LZ 129 Hindenburg, which
was powered by four Daimler-Benz DB
602 diesel engines,[225] or in several
Junkers aircraft, which had Jumo 205
engines installed.[101]

In 1929, in the United States, the Packard

Motor Company developed America's
first aircraft diesel engine, the Packard
DR-980—an air-cooled, 9-cylinder radial
engine. They installed it in various
aircraft of the era—some of which were
used in record-breaking distance or
endurance flights,[226][227][228][229] and in
the first successful demonstration of
ground-to-air radiophone
communications (voice radio having
been previously unintelligible in aircraft
equipped with spark-ignition engines, due
to electromagnetic interference).[227][228]
Additional advantages cited, at the time,
included a lower risk of post-crash fire,
and superior performance at high
altitudes.[227]

On March 6, 1930, the engine received an

Approved Type Certificate—first ever for
an aircraft diesel engine—from the U.S.
Department of Commerce.[230] However,
noxious exhaust fumes, cold-start and
vibration problems, engine structural
failures, the death of its developer, and
the industrial economic contraction of
the Great Depression, combined to kill
the program.[227]

Modern

From then, until the late 1970s, there had

not been many applications of the diesel
engine in aircraft. In 1978, Piper
Cherokee co-designer Karl H. Bergey
argued that “the likelihood of a general
aviation diesel in the near future is
remote.”[231]
However, with the 1970s energy crisis
and environmental movement, and
resulting pressures for greater fuel
economy, reduced carbon and lead in the
atmosphere, and other issues, there was
a resurgence of interest in diesel engines
for aircraft. High-compression piston
aircraft engines that run on aviation
gasoline ("avgas") generally require the
addition of toxic Tetraethyl lead to avgas,
to avoid engine pre-ignition and
detonation; but diesel engines do not
require leaded fuel. Also, biodiesel can,
theoretically, provide a net reduction in
atmospheric carbon compared to avgas.
For these reasons, the general aviation
community has begun to fear the
possible banning or discontinuance of
leaded avgas.[8][232][233][234]

Additionally, avgas is a specialty fuel in

very low (and declining) demand,
compared to other fuels, and its makers
are susceptible to costly aviation-crash
lawsuits, reducing refiners' interest in
producing it. Outside the United States,
avgas has already become increasingly
difficult to find at airports (and generally),
than less-expensive, diesel-compatible
fuels like Jet-A and other jet
fuels.[8][232][233][234]

By the late 1990s / early 2000s, diesel

engines were beginning to appear in light
aircraft. Most notably, Frank Thielert and
his Austrian engine enterprise, began
developing diesel engines to replace the
100 horsepower (75 kW) - 350
horsepower (260 kW) gasoline/piston
engines in common light aircraft use.[235]
First successful application of the
Theilerts to production aircraft was in the
Diamond DA42 Twin Star light twin,
which exhibited exceptional fuel
efficiency surpassing anything in its
class,[8][9][236] and its single-seat
predecessor, the Diamond DA40
Diamond Star.[8][9][235]

In subsequent years, several other

companies have developed aircraft
diesel engines, or have begun to[235]—
most notably Continental Aerospace
Technologies which, by 2018, was
reporting it had sold over 5,000 such
engines worldwide.[8][9][237]

The United States' Federal Aviation

Administration has reported that "by
2007, various jet-fueled piston aircraft
had logged well over 600,000 hours of
service".[235] In early 2019, AOPA
reported that a diesel engine model for
general aviation aircraft is “approaching
the finish line.”[238] By late 2022,
Continental was reporting that its "Jet-A"
fueled engines had exceeded "2,000... in
operation today," with over "9 million
hours," and were being "specified by
major OEMs" for Cessna, Piper, Diamond,
Mooney, Tecnam, Glasair and Robin
aircraft.[237]

In recent years (2016), diesel engines

have also found use in unmanned aircraft
(UAV), due to their reliability, durability,
and low fuel consumption.[239][240][241]

Non-road diesel engines

Air-cooled diesel engine of a 1959

Porsche 218
Non-road diesel engines are commonly
used for construction equipment and
agricultural machinery. Fuel efficiency,
reliability and ease of maintenance are
very important for such engines, whilst
high power output and quiet operation
are negligible. Therefore, mechanically
controlled fuel injection and air-cooling
are still very common. The common
power outputs of non-road diesel
engines vary a lot, with the smallest units
starting at 3 kW, and the most powerful
engines being heavy duty lorry
engines.[219]
Stationary diesel engines

Three English Electric 7SRL diesel-

alternator sets being installed at the
Saateni Power Station; Zanzibar, 1955

Stationary diesel engines are commonly

used for electricity generation, but also
for powering refrigerator compressors, or
other types of compressors or pumps.
Usually, these engines either run
continuously with partial load, or
intermittently with full load. Stationary
diesel engines powering electric
generators that put out an alternating
current, usually operate with alternating
load, but fixed rotational frequency. This
is due to the mains' fixed frequency of
either 50 Hz (Europe), or 60 Hz (United
States). The engine's crankshaft
rotational frequency is chosen so that
the mains' frequency is a multiple of it.
For practical reasons, this results in
crankshaft rotational frequencies of
either 25 Hz (1500 per minute) or 30 Hz
(1800 per minute).[242]

Low heat rejection engines

A special class of prototype internal
combustion piston engines has been
developed over several decades with the
goal of improving efficiency by reducing
heat loss.[243] These engines are
variously called adiabatic engines; due to
better approximation of adiabatic
expansion; low heat rejection engines, or
high temperature engines.[244] They are
generally piston engines with
combustion chamber parts lined with
ceramic thermal barrier coatings.[245]
Some make use of pistons and other
parts made of titanium which has a low
thermal conductivity[246] and density.
Some designs are able to eliminate the
use of a cooling system and associated
parasitic losses altogether.[247]
Developing lubricants able to withstand
the higher temperatures involved has
been a major barrier to
commercialization.[248]
Future developments
In mid-2010s literature, main
development goals for future diesel
engines are described as improvements
of exhaust emissions, reduction of fuel
consumption, and increase of lifespan
(2014).[249][161] It is said that the diesel
engine, especially the diesel engine for
commercial vehicles, will remain the
most important vehicle powerplant until
the mid-2030s. Editors assume that the
complexity of the diesel engine will
increase further (2014).[250] Some editors
expect a future convergency of diesel
and Otto engines' operating principles
due to Otto engine development steps
made towards homogeneous charge
compression ignition (2017).[251]

See also
Aircraft diesel engine
Diesel locomotive
Diesel automobile racing
Diesel–electric transmission
Diesel cycle
Diesel exhaust
DieselHouse
Diesel generator
Dieselisation
History of the internal combustion
engine
 Indirect injection
Partially premixed combustion
Reactivity controlled compression
ignition

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Messtechnik, 7th edition, Springer,
Wiesbaden 2014, ISBN 978-3-658-03194-
7, p. 273
251. Cornel Stan: Thermodynamik des
Kraftfahrzeugs: Grundlagen und
Anwendungen – mit
Prozesssimulationen, Springer,
Berlin/Heidelberg 2017, ISBN 978-3-662-
53722-0. p. 252

External links
Wikimedia Commons has media
related to Diesel engines.
Wikimedia Commons has media
related to Rudolf Diesel.
 Wikisource has the text of the 1921
Collier's Encyclopedia article Diesel
Engine.

"Diesel Information Hub" (https://web.a

rchive.org/web/20200224174227/http
s://dieselinformation.aecc.eu/) .
Association for Emissions Control by
Catalyst. Archived from the original (ht
tps://dieselinformation.aecc.eu/) on
February 24, 2020. Retrieved July 25,
2018.
The short film The Diesel Story (1952)
(https://archive.org/details/0613_Diesel
_Story_The_06_30_42_18) is available
for free viewing and download at the
Internet Archive.
 "Introduction to Two Stroke Marine
Diesel Engine" (https://www.youtube.c
om/watch?v=DDLJgUaBpmM) on
YouTube
"The Engine That Powers the World"
BBC Documentary (https://www.youtu
be.com/watch?v=wCA5pInfPpM) on
YouTube

Patents

Method of and Apparatus for

Converting Heat into Work. # 542846
filed 1892 (http://pdfpiw.uspto.gov/.pi
w?docid=00542846&SectionNum=2&I
DKey=1BB1E16A8D0F&HomeUrl=htt
p://patft.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parse
r?Sect1=PTO1%2526Sect2=HITOFF%2
526d=PALL%2526p=1%2526u=%2525
2Fnetahtml%25252FPTO%25252Fsrch
num.htm%2526r=1%2526f=G%2526l=5
0%2526s1=0542846.PN.%2526OS=P
N/0542846%2526RS=PN/0542846)
Internal Combustion Engine #608845
filed 1895 (http://pdfpiw.uspto.gov/.pi
w?Docid=00608845&homeurl=http%3
A%2F%2Fpatft.uspto.gov%2Fnetacgi%
2Fnph-Parser%3FSect1%3DPTO1%252
6Sect2%3DHITOFF%2526d%3DPALL%
2526p%3D1%2526u%3D%25252Fneta
html%25252FPTO%25252Fsrchnum.ht
m%2526r%3D1%2526f%3DG%2526l%3
D50%2526s1%3D0608845.PN.%2526O
S%3DPN%2F0608845%2526RS%3DP
N%2F0608845&PageNum=&Rtype=&S
 ectionNum=&idkey=NONE&Input=View
+first+page)

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