DHANALAKSHMI SRINIVASAN COLLEGE OF ARTS AND SCIENCE FOR WOMEN

(AUTONOMOUS)

PERAMBALUR-621 212

DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER APPLICATIONS

IT SKILLS FOR MANAGERS

CLASS: I MBA

SUBMITTED BY

Ms.P.ANITHA
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR
DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER APPLICATIONS

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 IT SKILLS FOR MANAGERS

UNIT -I

Charles Babbage is called the "Grand Father" of the computer. The First mechanical computer
designed by Charles Babbage was called Analytical Engine. It uses read-only memory in the
form of punch cards.

Computer is an advanced electronic device that takes raw data as input from the user and
processes these data under the control of set of instructions (called program) and gives the result
(output) and saves output for the future use. It can process both numerical and non-numerical
(arithmetic and logical) calculations.

Computers differ based on their data processing abilities. They are classified according to
purpose, data handling and functionality.

According to functionality, computers are classified as:

• Analog Computer: A computer that represents numbers by some continuously variable

physical quantity, whose variations mimic the properties of some system being modeled.

• Personal computer: A personal computer is a computer small and low cost. The
term "personal computer" is used to describe desktop computers (desktops).

• Workstation: A terminal or desktop computer in a network. In this context, workstation is just

a generic term for a user's machine (client machine) in contrast to a "server" or "mainframe."

• Minicomputer: A minicomputer isn't very mini. At least, not in the way most of us think of
mini. You know how big your personal computer is and its related family.

• Mainframe: It refers to the kind of large computer that runs an entire corporation.

• Supercomputer: It is the biggest, fastest, and most expensive computers on earth.

• Microcomputer: Your personal computer is a microcomputer.

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Functionalities of a computer
Any digital computer carries out five functions in gross terms:

 Takes data as input.

 Stores the data/instructions in its memory and use them when required.
 Processes the data and converts it into useful information.
 Generates the output
 Controls all the above four steps.

Characteristics
High Speed
 Computer is a very fast device.
 It is capable of performing calculation of very large amount of data.
 The computer has units of speed in microsecond, nanosecond, and even the picosecond.
 It can perform millions of calculations in a few seconds as compared to man who will
spend many months for doing the same task.

Accuracy
 In addition to being very fast, computers are very accurate.
 The calculations are 100% error free.
 Computers perform all jobs with 100% accuracy provided that correct input has been
given.

Storage Capability
 Memory is a very important characteristic of computers.
 A computer has much more storage capacity than human beings.
 It can store large amount of data.
 It can store any type of data such as images, videos, text, audio and many others.
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Diligence
 Unlike human beings, a computer is free from monotony, tiredness and lack of
concentration.
 It can work continuously without any error and boredom.
 It can do repeated work with same speed and accuracy.

Versatility
 A computer is a very versatile machine.
 A computer is very flexible in performing the jobs to be done.
 This machine can be used to solve the problems related to various fields.
 At one instance, it may be solving a complex scientific problem and the very next
moment it may be playing a card game.

Reliability
 A computer is a reliable machine.
 Modern electronic components have long lives.
 Computers are designed to make maintenance easy.

Automation
 Computer is an automatic machine.
 Automation means ability to perform the given task automatically.
 Once a program is given to computer i.e., stored in computer memory, the program and
instruction can control the program execution without human interaction.

Reduction in Paper Work

 The use of computers for data processing in an organization leads to reduction in paper
work and results in speeding up a process.
 As data in electronic files can be retrieved as and when required, the problem of
maintenance of large number of paper files gets reduced.

Reduction in Cost
 Though the initial investment for installing a computer is high but it substantially reduces
the cost of each of its transaction.

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Environment
 The operating environment of computer should be dust free and suitable.

No Feeling
 Computers have no feelings or emotions.
 It cannot make judgement based on feeling, taste, experience, and knowledge unlike a
human being.

Generation in computer terminology is a change in technology a computer is/was

being used. Initially, the generation term was used to distinguish between varying hardware
technologies. But nowadays, generation includes both hardware and software, which together
make up an entire computer system.

There are totally five computer generations known till date. Each generation has been discussed
in detail along with their time period and characteristics. Here approximate dates against each
generations have been mentioned which are normally accepted.

Following are the main five generations of computers

S.N. Generation & Description

1 First Generation

The period of first generation: 1946-1959. Vacuum tube based.

2 Second Generation

The period of second generation: 1959-1965. Transistor based.

3 Third Generation

The period of third generation: 1965-1971. Integrated Circuit

based.

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4 Fourth Generation

The period of fourth generation: 1971-1980. VLSI microprocessor

based.

5 Fifth Generation

The period of fifth generation: 1980-onwards. ULSI

microprocessor based

Computers can be broadly classified by their speed and computing power.

Sr.No. Type Specifications

1 PC (Personal It is a single user computer system having

Computer) moderately powerful microprocessor

2 WorkStation It is also a single user computer system

which is similar to personal computer but
have more powerful microprocessor.

3 Mini Computer It is a multi-user computer system which is

capable of supporting hundreds of users
simultaneously.

4 Main Frame It is a multi-user computer system which is

capable of supporting hundreds of users
simultaneously. Software technology is
different from minicomputer.

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 5 Supercomputer It is an extremely fast computer which can
execute hundreds of millions of instructions
per second.

Following are few of the important input devices which are used in a computer:

 Keyboard

 Mouse

 Joy Stick

 Light pen

 Track Ball

 Scanner

 Graphic Tablet

 Microphone

 Magnetic Ink Card Reader(MICR)

 Optical Character Reader(OCR)

 Bar Code Reader

 Optical Mark Reader(OMR)

Keyboard
Keyboard is the most common and very popular input device which helps in inputting data to
the computer. The layout of the keyboard is like that of traditional typewriter, although there are
some additional keys provided for performing additional functions.

Mouse
Mouse is most popular pointing device. It is a very famous cursor-control device having a small
palm size box with a round ball at its base which senses the movement of mouse and sends
corresponding signals to CPU when the mouse buttons are pressed.

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Joystick
Joystick is also a pointing device which is used to move cursor position on a monitor screen.

Light Pen
Light pen is a pointing device which is similar to a pen. It is used to select a displayed menu
item or draw pictures on the monitor screen. It consists of a photocell and an optical system
placed in a small tube.

Track Ball
Track ball is an input device that is mostly used in notebook or laptop computer, instead of a
mouse. This is a ball which is half inserted and by moving fingers on ball, pointer can be
moved.

Scanner
Scanner is an input device which works more like a photocopy machine. It is used when some
information is available on a paper and it is to be transferred to the hard disc of the computer for
further manipulation.

Optical Character Reader(OCR)

OCR is an input device used to read a printed text. OCR scans text optically character by
character, converts them into a machine readable code and stores the text on the system
memory.

Bar Code Readers

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Bar Code Reader is a device used for reading bar coded data (data in form of light and dark
lines). Bar coded data is generally used in labelling goods, numbering the books etc. It may be a
hand held scanner or may be embedded in a stationary scanner. Bar Code Reader scans a bar
code image, converts it into an alphanumeric value which is then fed to the computer to which
bar code reader is connected.

Optical Mark Reader(OMR)

OMR is a special type of optical scanner used to recognize the type of mark made by pen or
pencil. It is used where one out of a few alternatives is to be selected and marked. It is specially
used for checking the answer sheets of examinations having multiple choice questions.

Following are few of the output devices which are used in a computer.

 Monitors

 Graphic Plotter

 Printer

Monitors
Monitors, commonly called as Visual Display Unit (VDU), are the main output device of a
computer. It forms images from tiny dots, called pixels that are arranged in a rectangular form.
The sharpness of the image depends upon the number of pixels.

There are two kinds of viewing screen used for monitors.

 Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT)

 Flat- Panel Display

Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT) Monitor

The CRT display is made up of small picture elements called pixels. The smaller the pixels, the
better the image clarity, or resolution. It takes more than one illuminated pixel to form whole
character, such as the letter ‘e’ in the word help.

A finite number of characters can be displayed on a screen at once. The screen can be divided
into a series of character boxes - fixed location on the screen where a standard character can be
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placed. Most screens are capable of displaying 80 characters of data horizontally and 25 lines
vertically. There are some disadvantages of CRT:

 Large in Size

 High power consumption

Flat-Panel Display Monitor

The flat-panel display refers to a class of video devices that have reduced volume, weight and
power requirement in comparison to the CRT. You can hang them on walls or wear them on
your wrists. Current uses of flat-panel displays include calculators, video games, monitors,
laptop computer, graphics display.

The flat-panel display is divided into two categories:

 Emissive Displays - The emissive displays are devices that convert electrical energy into
light. Example are plasma panel and LED(Light-Emitting Diodes).
 Non-Emissive Displays - The Non-emissive displays use optical effects to convert
sunlight or light from some other source into graphics patterns. Example is LCD(Liquid-
Crystal Device)

. Cache Memory

 Primary Memory/Main Memory

 Secondary Memory
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Cache Memory
Cache memory is a very high speed semiconductor memory which can speed up CPU. It acts as
a buffer between the CPU and main memory. It is used to hold those parts of data and program
which are most frequently used by CPU. The parts of data and programs are transferred from
disk to cache memory by operating system, from where CPU can access them.

Primary Memory (Main Memory)

Primary memory holds only those data and instructions on which computer is currently
working. It has limited capacity and data is lost when power is switched off. It is generally
made up of semiconductor device. These memories are not as fast as registers. The data and
instruction required to be processed reside in main memory. It is divided into two subcategories
RAM and ROM.

UNIT -II
 Systems software

Set of programs that coordinates activities and functions of the hardware and
various other programs

 Application software

Programs that help users solve particular computing problems

 Personal

o Information systems that serve the needs of an individual user

 Workgroup

o Two or more people who work together to achieve a common goal

 Enterprise

o Information systems that support the firm in its interaction with its environment.

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  Software licensing

o Protection by software vendors to prevent unauthorized use

 Software upgrades

o A revised version of software that usually includes fixes of known problems, plus
enhancements to existing capabilities

 Global software support

o Software that is distributed around the globe may require unique support
mechanisms due to local political and economic conditions

 System software…

o Is an interface or buffer between application software and hardware

o Controls the computer hardware and acts as an interface with applications

programs

An Operating System (OS) is an interface between a computer user and computer hardware. An
operating system is a software which performs all the basic tasks like file management, memory
management, process management, handling input and output, and controlling peripheral
devices such as disk drives and printers.

Some popular Operating Systems include Linux, Windows, OS X, VMS, OS/400, AIX, z/OS,
etc.

Definition
An operating system is a program that acts as an interface between the user and the computer
hardware and controls the execution of all kinds of programs.

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Following are some of important functions of an operating System.

 Memory Management

 Processor Management

 Device Management

 File Management

 Security

 Control over system performance

 Job accounting

 Error detecting aids

 Coordination between other software and users

Memory Management
Memory management refers to management of Primary Memory or Main Memory. Main
memory is a large array of words or bytes where each word or byte has its own address..

Processor Management

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In multiprogramming environment, the OS decides which process gets the processor when and
for how much time. This function is called process scheduling. An Operating System does the
following activities for processor management −

 Keeps tracks of processor and status of process. The program responsible for this task is
known as traffic controller.

 Allocates the processor (CPU) to a process.

 De-allocates processor when a process is no longer required.

Device Management
An Operating System manages device communication via their respective drivers. It does the
following activities for device management −

 Keeps tracks of all devices. Program responsible for this task is known as the I/O
controller.

 Decides which process gets the device when and for how much time.

 Allocates the device in the efficient way.

 De-allocates devices.

File Management
A file system is normally organized into directories for easy navigation and usage. These
directories may contain files and other directions.

An Operating System does the following activities for file management −

 Keeps track of information, location, uses, status etc. The collective facilities are often
known as file system.

 Decides who gets the resources.

 Allocates the resources.

 De-allocates the resources.

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Batch operating system
The users of a batch operating system do not interact with the computer directly. Each user
prepares his job on an off-line device like punch cards and submits it to the computer operator.
To speed up processing, jobs with similar needs are batched together and run as a group. The
programmers leave their programs with the operator and the operator then sorts the programs
with similar requirements into batches.

The problems with Batch Systems are as follows −

 Lack of interaction between the user and the job.

 CPU is often idle, because the speed of the mechanical I/O devices is slower than the
CPU.

 Difficult to provide the desired priority.

Time-sharing operating systems

Time-sharing is a technique which enables many people, located at various terminals, to use a
particular computer system at the same time. Time-sharing or multitasking is a logical extension
of multiprogramming. Processor's time which is shared among multiple users simultaneously is
termed as time-sharing.

The main difference between Multiprogrammed Batch Systems and Time-Sharing Systems is
that in case of Multiprogrammed batch systems, the objective is to maximize processor use,
whereas in Time-Sharing Systems, the objective is to minimize response time.

Advantages of Timesharing operating systems are as follows −

 Provides the advantage of quick response.

 Avoids duplication of software.

 Reduces CPU idle time.

Disadvantages of Time-sharing operating systems are as follows −

 Problem of reliability.

 Question of security and integrity of user programs and data.

 Problem of data communication.

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Distributed operating System
Distributed systems use multiple central processors to serve multiple real-time applications and
multiple users. Data processing jobs are distributed among the processors accordingly.

The processors communicate with one another through various communication lines (such as
high-speed buses or telephone lines). These are referred as loosely coupled systems or
distributed systems. Processors in a distributed system may vary in size and function. These
processors are referred as sites, nodes, computers, and so on.

The advantages of distributed systems are as follows −

 With resource sharing facility, a user at one site may be able to use the resources
available at another.

 Speedup the exchange of data with one another via electronic mail.

 If one site fails in a distributed system, the remaining sites can potentially continue
operating.

 Better service to the customers.

 Reduction of the load on the host computer.

 Reduction of delays in data processing.

Network operating System

A Network Operating System runs on a server and provides the server the capability to manage
data, users, groups, security, applications, and other networking functions. The primary purpose
of the network operating system is to allow shared file and printer access among multiple
computers in a network, typically a local area network (LAN), a private network or to other
networks.

Examples of network operating systems include Microsoft Windows Server 2003, Microsoft
Windows Server 2008, UNIX, Linux, Mac OS X, Novell NetWare, and BSD.

The advantages of network operating systems are as follows −

 Centralized servers are highly stable.

 Security is server managed.

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  Upgrades to new technologies and hardware can be easily integrated into the system.

 Remote access to servers is possible from different locations and types of systems.

The disadvantages of network operating systems are as follows −

 High cost of buying and running a server.

 Dependency on a central location for most operations.

 Regular maintenance and updates are required.

Real Time operating System

A real-time system is defined as a data processing system in which the time interval required to
process and respond to inputs is so small that it controls the environment. The time taken by the
system to respond to an input and display of required updated information is termed as
the response time. So in this method, the response time is very less as compared to online
processing.

Real-time systems are used when there are rigid time requirements on the operation of a
processor or the flow of data and real-time systems can be used as a control device in a
dedicated application. A real-time operating system must have well-defined, fixed time
constraints, otherwise the system will fail. For example, Scientific experiments, medical
imaging systems, industrial control systems, weapon systems, robots, air traffic control systems,
etc.

There are two types of real-time operating systems.

Hard real-time systems

Soft real-time systems
Following are a few common services provided by an operating system −

 Program execution

 I/O operations

 File System manipulation

 Communication

 Error Detection

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  Resource Allocation

 Protection

Program execution
Operating systems handle many kinds of activities from user programs to system programs like
printer spooler, name servers, file server, etc. Each of these activities is encapsulated as a
process.

A process includes the complete execution context (code to execute, data to manipulate,
registers, OS resources in use). Following are the major activities of an operating system with
respect to program management −

 Loads a program into memory.

 Executes the program.

 Handles program's execution.

 Provides a mechanism for process synchronization.

 Provides a mechanism for process communication.

 Provides a mechanism for deadlock handling.

I/O Operation
An I/O subsystem comprises of I/O devices and their corresponding driver software. Drivers
hide the peculiarities of specific hardware devices from the users.

An Operating System manages the communication between user and device drivers.

 I/O operation means read or write operation with any file or any specific I/O device.

 Operating system provides the access to the required I/O device when required.

File system manipulation

A file represents a collection of related information. Computers can store files on the disk
(secondary storage), for long-term storage purpose. Examples of storage media include
magnetic tape, magnetic disk and optical disk drives like CD, DVD. Each of these media has its
own properties like speed, capacity, data transfer rate and data access methods.

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A file system is normally organized into directories for easy navigation and usage. These
directories may contain files and other directions. Following are the major activities of an
operating system with respect to file management −

 Program needs to read a file or write a file.

 The operating system gives the permission to the program for operation on file.

 Permission varies from read-only, read-write, denied and so on.

 Operating System provides an interface to the user to create/delete files.

 Operating System provides an interface to the user to create/delete directories.

 Operating System provides an interface to create the backup of file system.

Communication
In case of distributed systems which are a collection of processors that do not share memory,
peripheral devices, or a clock, the operating system manages communications between all the
processes. Multiple processes communicate with one another through communication lines in
the network.

The OS handles routing and connection strategies, and the problems of contention and security.
Following are the major activities of an operating system with respect to communication −

 Two processes often require data to be transferred between them

 Both the processes can be on one computer or on different computers, but are connected
through a computer network.

 Communication may be implemented by two methods, either by Shared Memory or by

Message Passing.

Error handling
Errors can occur anytime and anywhere. An error may occur in CPU, in I/O devices or in the
memory hardware. Following are the major activities of an operating system with respect to
error handling −

 The OS constantly checks for possible errors.

 The OS takes an appropriate action to ensure correct and consistent computing.

Resource Management
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In case of multi-user or multi-tasking environment, resources such as main memory, CPU
cycles and files storage are to be allocated to each user or job. Following are the major activities
of an operating system with respect to resource management −

 The OS manages all kinds of resources using schedulers.

 CPU scheduling algorithms are used for better utilization of CPU.

Protection
Considering a computer system having multiple users and concurrent execution of multiple
processes, the various processes must be protected from each other's activities.

Protection refers to a mechanism or a way to control the access of programs, processes, or users
to the resources defined by a computer system. Following are the major activities of an
operating system with respect to protection −

 The OS ensures that all access to system resources is controlled.

 The OS ensures that external I/O devices are protected from invalid access attempts.

 The OS provides authentication features for each user by means of passwords.

Batch processing
Batch processing is a technique in which an Operating System collects the programs and data
together in a batch before processing starts. An operating system does the following activities
related to batch processing −

 The OS defines a job which has predefined sequence of commands, programs and data as
a single unit.
 The OS keeps a number a jobs in memory and executes them without any manual
information.
 Jobs are processed in the order of submission, i.e., first come first served fashion.
 When a job completes its execution, its memory is released and the output for the job
gets copied into an output spool for later printing or processing.

Multitasking
Multitasking is when multiple jobs are executed by the CPU simultaneously by switching
between them.

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Introduction to Computer Program
Before getting into computer programming, let us first understand computer programs and what
they do.

A computer program is a sequence of instructions written using a Computer Programming

Language to perform a specified task by the computer.

The two important terms that we have used in the above definition are −

 Sequence of instructions

 Computer Programming Language

UNIT -III

Database is a collection of related data and data is a collection of facts and figures that can be
processed to produce information.

Mostly data represents recordable facts. Data aids in producing information, which is based on
facts. For example, if we have data about marks obtained by all students, we can then conclude
about toppers and average marks.

A database management system stores data in such a way that it becomes easier to retrieve,
manipulate, and produce information.

Characteristics
Traditionally, data was organized in file formats. DBMS was a new concept then, and all the
research was done to make it overcome the deficiencies in traditional style of data management.
A modern DBMS has the following characteristics −

 Real-world entity − A modern DBMS is more realistic and uses real-world entities to
design its architecture. It uses the behavior and attributes too. For example, a school
database may use students as an entity and their age as an attribute.

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 Relation-based tables − DBMS allows entities and relations among them to form tables.
A user can understand the architecture of a database just by looking at the table names.

 Isolation of data and application − A database system is entirely different than its data.
A database is an active entity, whereas data is said to be passive, on which the database
works and organizes. DBMS also stores metadata, which is data about data, to ease its
own process.

 Less redundancy − DBMS follows the rules of normalization, which splits a relation
when any of its attributes is having redundancy in values. Normalization is a
mathematically rich and scientific process that reduces data redundancy.

 Consistency − Consistency is a state where every relation in a database remains

consistent. There exist methods and techniques, which can detect attempt of leaving
database in inconsistent state. A DBMS can provide greater consistency as compared to
earlier forms of data storing applications like file-processing systems.

 Query Language − DBMS is equipped with query language, which makes it more
efficient to retrieve and manipulate data. A user can apply as many and as different
filtering options as required to retrieve a set of data. Traditionally it was not possible
where file-processing system was used.

 ACID Properties − DBMS follows the concepts of Atomicity, Consistency, Isolation,

and Durability (normally shortened as ACID). These concepts are applied on
transactions, which manipulate data in a database. ACID properties help the database
stay healthy in multi-transactional environments and in case of failure.

 Multiuser and Concurrent Access − DBMS supports multi-user environment and

allows them to access and manipulate data in parallel. Though there are restrictions on
transactions when users attempt to handle the same data item, but users are always
unaware of them.

 Multiple views − DBMS offers multiple views for different users. A user who is in the
Sales department will have a different view of database than a person working in the
Production department. This feature enables the users to have a concentrate view of the
database according to their requirements.
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  Security − Features like multiple views offer security to some extent where users are
unable to access data of other users and departments. DBMS offers methods to impose
constraints while entering data into the database and retrieving the same at a later stage.
DBMS offers many different levels of security features, which enables multiple users to
have different views with different features. For example, a user in the Sales department
cannot see the data that belongs to the Purchase department. Additionally, it can also be
managed how much data of the Sales department should be displayed to the user. Since
a DBMS is not saved on the disk as traditional file systems, it is very hard for miscreants
to break the code.

Users
A typical DBMS has users with different rights and permissions who use it for different
purposes. Some users retrieve data and some back it up. The users of a DBMS can be broadly
categorized as follows −

 Administrators − Administrators maintain the DBMS and are responsible for

administrating the database. They are responsible to look after its usage and by whom it
should be used. They create access profiles for users and apply limitations to maintain
isolation and force security. Administrators also look after DBMS resources like system
license, required tools, and other software and hardware related maintenance.

 Designers − Designers are the group of people who actually work on the designing part
of the database. They keep a close watch on what data should be kept and in what
format. They identify and design the whole set of entities, relations, constraints, and
views.
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  End Users − End users are those who actually reap the benefits of having a DBMS. End
users can range from simple viewers who pay attention to the logs or market rates to
sophisticated users such as business analysts.

Data models define how the logical structure of a database is modeled. Data Models are
fundamental entities to introduce abstraction in a DBMS. Data models define how data is
connected to each other and how they are processed and stored inside the system.

The very first data model could be flat data-models, where all the data used are to be kept in the
same plane. Earlier data models were not so scientific, hence they were prone to introduce lots
of duplication and update anomalies.

Entity-Relationship Model
Entity-Relationship (ER) Model is based on the notion of real-world entities and relationships
among them. While formulating real-world scenario into the database model, the ER Model
creates entity set, relationship set, general attributes and constraints.

ER Model is best used for the conceptual design of a database.

ER Model is based on −

 Entities and their attributes.

 Relationships among entities.

These concepts are explained below.

 Entity − An entity in an ER Model is a real-world entity having properties

called attributes. Every attribute is defined by its set of values called domain. For
example, in a school database, a student is considered as an entity. Student has various
attributes like name, age, class, etc.
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  Relationship − The logical association among entities is called relationship.
Relationships are mapped with entities in various ways. Mapping cardinalities define the
number of association between two entities.

Mapping cardinalities −

o one to one

o one to many

o many to one

o many to many

Relational Model
The most popular data model in DBMS is the Relational Model. It is more scientific a model
than others. This model is based on first-order predicate logic and defines a table as an n-ary
relation.

The main highlights of this model are −

 Data is stored in tables called relations.

 Relations can be normalized.

 In normalized relations, values saved are atomic values.

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  Each row in a relation contains a unique value.

 Each column in a relation contains values from a same domain.

Database Schema
A database schema is the skeleton structure that represents the logical view of the entire
database. It defines how the data is organized and how the relations among them are associated.
It formulates all the constraints that are to be applied on the data.

A database schema defines its entities and the relationship among them. It contains a descriptive
detail of the database, which can be depicted by means of schema diagrams. It’s the database
designers who design the schema to help programmers understand the database and make it
useful.

A database schema can be divided broadly into two categories −

 Physical Database Schema − This schema pertains to the actual storage of data and its
form of storage like files, indices, etc. It defines how the data will be stored in a
secondary storage.

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  Logical Database Schema − This schema defines all the logical constraints that need to
be applied on the data stored. It defines tables, views, and integrity constraints.

Database Instance
It is important that we distinguish these two terms individually. Database schema is the skeleton
of database. It is designed when the database doesn't exist at all. Once the database is
operational, it is very difficult to make any changes to it. A database schema does not contain
any data or information.

A database instance is a state of operational database with data at any given time. It contains a
snapshot of the database. Database instances tend to change with time. A DBMS ensures that its
every instance (state) is in a valid state, by diligently following all the validations, constraints,
and conditions that the database designers have imposed.

If a database system is not multi-layered, then it becomes difficult to make any changes in the
database system. Database systems are designed in multi-layers as we learnt earlier.

Data Independence
A database system normally contains a lot of data in addition to users’ data. For example, it
stores data about data, known as metadata, to locate and retrieve data easily. It is rather difficult
to modify or update a set of metadata once it is stored in the database. But as a DBMS expands,
it needs to change over time to satisfy the requirements of the users. If the entire data is
dependent, it would become a tedious and highly complex job.

27
Metadata itself follows a layered architecture, so that when we change data at one layer, it does
not affect the data at another level. This data is independent but mapped to each other.

Logical Data Independence

Logical data is data about database, that is, it stores information about how data is managed
inside. For example, a table (relation) stored in the database and all its constraints, applied on
that relation.

Logical data independence is a kind of mechanism, which liberalizes itself from actual data
stored on the disk. If we do some changes on table format, it should not change the data residing
on the disk.

Physical Data Independence

All the schemas are logical, and the actual data is stored in bit format on the disk. Physical data
independence is the power to change the physical data without impacting the schema or logical
data.

For example, in case we want to change or upgrade the storage system itself − suppose we want
to replace hard-disks with SSD − it should not have any impact on the logical data or schemas.

Normalization
If a database design is not perfect, it may contain anomalies, which are like a bad dream for any
database administrator. Managing a database with anomalies is next to impossible.

28
  Update anomalies − If data items are scattered and are not linked to each other properly,
then it could lead to strange situations. For example, when we try to update one data
item having its copies scattered over several places, a few instances get updated properly
while a few others are left with old values. Such instances leave the database in an
inconsistent state.

 Deletion anomalies − We tried to delete a record, but parts of it was left undeleted
because of unawareness, the data is also saved somewhere else.

 Insert anomalies − We tried to insert data in a record that does not exist at all.

Normalization is a method to remove all these anomalies and bring the database to a consistent
state.

First Normal Form

First Normal Form is defined in the definition of relations (tables) itself. This rule defines that
all the attributes in a relation must have atomic domains. The values in an atomic domain are
indivisible units.

We re-arrange the relation (table) as below, to convert it to First Normal Form.

Each attribute must contain only a single value from its pre-defined domain.

Second Normal Form

Before we learn about the second normal form, we need to understand the following −

 Prime attribute − An attribute, which is a part of the prime-key, is known as a prime

attribute.

 Non-prime attribute − An attribute, which is not a part of the prime-key, is said to be a

non-prime attribute.

29
If we follow second normal form, then every non-prime attribute should be fully functionally
dependent on prime key attribute. That is, if X → A holds, then there should not be any proper
subset Y of X, for which Y → A also holds true.

We broke the relation in two as depicted in the above picture. So there exists no partial
dependency.

Third Normal Form

For a relation to be in Third Normal Form, it must be in Second Normal form and the following
must satisfy −

 No non-prime attribute is transitively dependent on prime key attribute.

 For any non-trivial functional dependency, X → A, then either −

o X is a superkey or,
o A is prime attribute.

Boyce-Codd Normal Form

Boyce-Codd Normal Form (BCNF) is an extension of Third Normal Form on strict terms.
BCNF states that −

30
  For any non-trivial functional dependency, X → A, X must be a super-key.

In the above image, Stu_ID is the super-key in the relation Student_Detail and Zip is the super-
key in the relation ZipCodes. So,

UNIT –IV

A system of interconnected computers and computerized peripherals such as printers is called

computer network. This interconnection among computers facilitates information sharing
among them. Computers may connect to each other by either wired or wireless media.

Classification of Computer Networks

Computer networks are classified based on various factors.They includes:

 Geographical span

 Inter-connectivity

 Administration

 Architecture

Geographical Span
Geographically a network can be seen in one of the following categories:

 It may be spanned across your table, among Bluetooth enabled devices,. Ranging not
more than few meters.

 It may be spanned across a whole building, including intermediate devices to connect all
floors.

 It may be spanned across a whole city.

 It may be spanned across multiple cities or provinces.

 It may be one network covering whole world.

31
Inter-Connectivity
Components of a network can be connected to each other differently in some fashion. By
connectedness we mean either logically , physically , or both ways.

 Every single device can be connected to every other device on network, making the
network mesh.

 All devices can be connected to a single medium but geographically disconnected,

created bus like structure.

 Each device is connected to its left and right peers only, creating linear structure.

 All devices connected together with a single device, creating star like structure.

 All devices connected arbitrarily using all previous ways to connect each other, resulting
in a hybrid structure.

Administration
From an administrator’s point of view, a network can be private network which belongs a single
autonomous system and cannot be accessed outside its physical or logical domain.A network
can be public which is accessed by all.

Network Architecture
Computer networks can be discriminated into various types such as Client-Server,peer-
to-peer or hybrid, depending upon its architecture.

 There can be one or more systems acting as Server. Other being Client, requests the
Server to serve requests.Server takes and processes request on behalf of Clients.

 Two systems can be connected Point-to-Point, or in back-to-back fashion. They both

reside at the same level and called peers.

 There can be hybrid network which involves network architecture of both the above
types.

Network Applications
Computer systems and peripherals are connected to form a network.They provide numerous
advantages:

 Resource sharing such as printers and storage devices

32
  Exchange of information by means of e-Mails and FTP

 Information sharing by using Web or Internet

 Interaction with other users using dynamic web pages

 IP phones

 Video conferences

 Parallel computing

 Instant messaging

Personal Area Network

A Personal Area Network (PAN) is smallest network which is very personal to a user. This may
include Bluetooth enabled devices or infra-red enabled devices. PAN has connectivity range up
to 10 meters. PAN may include wireless computer keyboard and mouse, Bluetooth enabled
headphones, wireless printers and TV remotes.

For example, Piconet is Bluetooth-enabled Personal Area Network which may contain up to 8
devices connected together in a master-slave fashion.

Local Area Network

A computer network spanned inside a building and operated under single administrative system
is generally termed as Local Area Network (LAN). Usually,LAN covers an organization’
offices, schools, colleges or universities. Number of systems connected in LAN may vary from
as least as two to as much as 16 million.

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.

Metropolitan Area Network

The Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) generally expands throughout a city such as cable TV
network. It can be in the form of Ethernet,Token-ring, ATM, or Fiber Distributed Data Interface
(FDDI).

Metro Ethernet is a service which is provided by ISPs. This service enables its users to expand
their Local Area Networks. For example, MAN can help an organization to connect all of its
offices in a city.

Wide Area Network

As the name suggests,the Wide Area Network (WAN) covers a wide area which may span
across provinces and even a whole country. Generally, telecommunication networks are Wide
Area Network. These networks provide connectivity to MANs and LANs. Since they are
equipped with very high speed backbone, WANs use very expensive network equipment.

34
Internet is serving many proposes and is involved in many aspects of life. Some of them are:

 Web sites

 E-mail

 Instant Messaging

 Blogging

 Social Media

 Marketing

 Networking

 Resource Sharing

 Audio and Video Streaming

What is a Computer Network?

A computer network is a system in which multiple computers are connected to each other to
share information and resources.

35
Characteristics of a computer network
 Share Resources from one computer to another
 Create files and store them in one computer, access those files from the other
computer(s) connected over the network
 Connect a printer, scanner, or a fax machine to one computer within the network and let
other computers of the network use the machines available over network.

Following is the list of hardware's required to setup a computer network.

 Network Cables

 Distributors

 Routers

 Internal Network Cards

 External Network Cards

Network Cables
Network cables are used to connect computers. The most commonly used cable is Category 5
cable RJ-45.

36
Distributors
A computer can be connected to another one via a serial port but if we need to connect many
computers to produce a network, this serial connection will not work. The solution is to use a
central body to which other computers, printers, scanners etc. can be connected and then this
body will manage or distribute network traffic.

Concept of Distributed Architecture

A distributed system can be demonstrated by the client-server architecture, which forms the
base for multi-tier architectures; alternatives are the broker architecture such as CORBA, and
the Service-Oriented Architecture (SOA). In this architecture, information processing is not
confined to a single machine rather it is distributed over several independent computers.

There are several technology frameworks to support distributed architectures, including .NET,
J2EE, CORBA, .NET Web services, AXIS Java Web services, and Globus Grid services.
Middleware is an infrastructure that appropriately supports the development and execution of
distributed applications. It provides a buffer between the applications and the network.

It sits in the middle of system and manages or supports the different components of a distributed
system. Examples are transaction processing monitors, data convertors and communication
controllers, etc.

Middleware as an infrastructure for distributed system −

37
Basis of Distributed Architecture
The basis of a distributed architecture is its transparency, reliability, and availability.

The following table lists the different forms of transparency in a distributed system −

Transparency Description

Access Hides the way in which resources are accessed

and the differences in data platform.

Location Hides where resources are located.

Technology Hides different technologies such as programming

language and OS from user.

Migration / Relocation Hide resources that may be moved to another

location which are in use.

38
 Replication Hide resources that may be copied at several
location.

Concurrency Hide resources that may be shared with other

users.

Failure Hides failure and recovery of resources from user.

Persistence Hides whether a resource ( software ) is in

memory or disk.

Advantages
It has following advantages −

 Resource sharing − Sharing of hardware and software resources.

 Openness − Flexibility of using hardware and software of different vendors.
 Concurrency − Concurrent processing to enhance performance.
 Scalability − Increased throughput by adding new resources.
 Fault tolerance − The ability to continue in operation after a fault has occurred.

Disadvantages
Its disadvantages are −

 Complexity − They are more complex than centralized systems.

 Security − More susceptible to external attack.
 Manageability − More effort required for system management.
 Unpredictability − Unpredictable responses depending on the system organization and
network load.
 Internet
1. Internet is wide network of computers and is open for all.
2. Internet itself contains a large number of intranets.
3. The number of users who use internet is Unlimited.

39
 4. The Visitors traffic is unlimited.
5. Internet contains different source of information and is available for all.
 Intranet
1. Intranet is also a network of computers designed for a specific group of users.
2. Intranet can be accessed from Internet but with restrictions.
3. The number of users is limited.
4. The traffic allowed is also limited.
5. Intranet contains only specific group information.
 Therefore the Internet is an open, public space, while an intranet is designed to be a
private space. An intranet may be accessible from the Internet, but it is protected by a
password and accessible only to authorized users.

Router
A router is a type of device which acts as the central point among computers and other devices
that are part of a network. A router is equipped with holes called ports and computers and other
devices are connected to a router using network cables. Now-a-days router comes in wireless
modes using which computers can be connected without any physical cable.

Network Card
Network card is a necessary component of a computer without which a computer cannot be
connected over a network. It is also known as network adapter or Network Interface Card
(NIC). Most branded computers have network card pre-installed. Network cards are of two
types : Internal and External Network Cards.
40
INTERNAL NETWORK CARDS
Motherboard has a slot for internal network card where it is to be inserted. Internal network
cards are of two types in which first type uses Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI)
connection while the second type uses Industry Standard Architecture (ISA). Network cables
are required to provide network access.

EXTERNAL NETWORK CARDS

External network cards come in two flavours : Wireless and USB based. Wireless network card
need to be inserted into the motherboard but no network cable is required to connect to network

UNIT –V

Multimedia is the field concerned with the computer-controlled integration of text, graphics,
drawings, still and moving images (Video), animation, audio, and any other media where every
type of information can be represented, stored, transmitted and processed digitally.

E-Commerce or Electronics Commerce is a methodology of modern business which addresses

the need of business organizations, vendors and customers to reduce cost and improve the
quality of goods and services while increasing the speed of delivery. E-commerce refers to
paperless exchange of business information using following ways.

 Electronic Data Exchange (EDI)

 Electronic Mail (e-mail)

41
  Electronic Bulletin Boards

 Electronic Fund Transfer (EFT)

 Other Network-based technologies

Features
E-Commerce provides following features

 Non-Cash Payment − E-Commerce enables use of credit cards, debit cards, smart cards,
electronic fund transfer via bank's website and other modes of electronics payment.

 24x7 Service availability − E-commerce automates business of enterprises and services

provided by them to customers are available anytime, anywhere. Here 24x7 refers to 24
hours of each seven days of a week.

 Advertising / Marketing − E-commerce increases the reach of advertising of products

and services of businesses. It helps in better marketing management of products /
services.

 Improved Sales − Using E-Commerce, orders for the products can be generated any
time, any where without any human intervention. By this way, dependencies to buy a
product reduce at large and sales increases.

42
  Support − E-Commerce provides various ways to provide pre sales and post sales
assistance to provide better services to customers.

 Inventory Management − Using E-Commerce, inventory management of products

becomes automated. Reports get generated instantly when required. Product inventory
management becomes very efficient and easy to maintain.

 Communication improvement − E-Commerce provides ways for faster, efficient,

reliable communication with customers and partners.

Traditional Commerce v/s E-Commerce

Sr. Traditional Commerce E-Commerce

No.

1 Heavy dependency on Information sharing is made easy

information exchange from via electronic communication
person to person. channels making little dependency
on person to person information

43
 exchange.

2 Communication/ transaction Communication or transaction can

are done in synchronous way. be done in asynchronous way.
Manual intervention is Electronics system automatically
required for each handles when to pass
communication or communication to required person
transaction. or do the transactions.

3 It is difficult to establish and A uniform strategy can be easily

maintain standard practices in established and maintain in e-
traditional commerce. commerce.

4 Communications of business In e-Commerce or Electronic

depends upon individual Market, there is no human
skills. intervention.

5 Unavailability of a uniform E-Commerce website provides

platform as traditional user a platform where al l
commerce depends heavily on information is available at one
personal communication. place.

6 No uniform platform for E-Commerce provides a universal

information sharing as it platform to support commercial /
depends heavily on personal business activities across the
communication. globe.

E-Commerce advantages can be broadly classified in three major categories:

 Advantages to Organizations

 Advantages to Consumers
44
  Advantages to Society

Advantages to Organizations
 Using E-Commerce, organization can expand their market to national and international
markets with minimum capital investment. An organization can easily locate more
customers, best suppliers and suitable business partners across the globe.

 E-Commerce helps organization to reduce the cost to create process, distribute, retrieve
and manage the paper based information by digitizing the information.

 E-commerce improves the brand image of the company.

 E-commerce helps organization to provide better customer services.

 E-Commerce helps to simplify the business processes and make them faster and
efficient.

 E-Commerce reduces paper work a lot.

 E-Commerce increased the productivity of the organization. It supports "pull" type

supply management. In "pull" type supply management, a business process starts when a
request comes from a customer and it uses just-in-time manufacturing way.

Advantages to Customers
 24x7 support. Customer can do transactions for the product or enquiry about any
product/services provided by a company any time, any where from any location. Here
24x7 refers to 24 hours of each seven days of a week.

 E-Commerce application provides user more options and quicker delivery of products.

 E-Commerce application provides user more options to compare and select the cheaper
and better option.

 A customer can put review comments about a product and can see what others are
buying or see the review comments of other customers before making a final buy.

 E-Commerce provides option of virtual auctions.

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  Readily available information. A customer can see the relevant detailed information
within seconds rather than waiting for days or weeks.

 E-Commerce increases competition among the organizations and as result organizations

provides substantial discounts to customers.

Advantages to Society
 Customers need not to travel to shop a product thus less traffic on road and low air
pollution.

 E-Commerce helps reducing cost of products so less affluent people can also afford the
products.

 E-Commerce has enabled access to services and products to rural areas as well which are
otherwise not available to them.

 E-Commerce helps government to deliver public services like health care, education,
social services at reduced cost and in improved way.

E-Commerce disadvantages can be broadly classified in two major categories:

 Technical disadvantages

 Non-Technical disadvantages

E-Commerce or Electronics Commerce business models can generally categorized in following

categories.

 Business - to - Business (B2B)

 Business - to - Consumer (B2C)

 Consumer - to - Consumer (C2C)

 Consumer - to - Business (C2B)

 Business - to - Government (B2G)

 Government - to - Business (G2B)

 Government - to - Citizen (G2C)

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E-Commerce or Electronics Commerce sites use electronic payment where electronic payment
refers to paperless monetary transactions. Electronic payment has revolutionized the business
processing by reducing paper work, transaction costs, labour cost. Being user friendly and less
time consuming than manual processing, helps business organization to expand its market reach
/ expansion. Some of the modes of electronic payments are following.

 Credit Card

 Debit Card

 Smart Card

 E-Money

 Electronic Fund Transfer (EFT)

What is Data Mining?

Data Mining is defined as extracting information from huge sets of data. In other words, we can
say that data mining is the procedure of mining knowledge from data. The information or
knowledge extracted so can be used for any of the following applications −

 Market Analysis

 Fraud Detection

 Customer Retention

 Production Control

 Science Exploration

Data Mining Applications

Data mining is highly useful in the following domains −

 Market Analysis and Management

 Corporate Analysis & Risk Management

 Fraud Detection

Apart from these, data mining can also be used in the areas of production control, customer
retention, science exploration, sports, astrology, and Internet Web Surf-Aid.

Market Analysis and Management

47
Listed below are the various fields of market where data mining is used −

 Customer Profiling − Data mining helps determine what kind of people buy what kind
of products.

 Identifying Customer Requirements − Data mining helps in identifying the best

products for different customers. It uses prediction to find the factors that may attract
new customers.

 Cross Market Analysis − Data mining performs association/correlations between

product sales.

 Target Marketing − Data mining helps to find clusters of model customers who share
the same characteristics such as interests, spending habits, income, etc.

 Determining Customer purchasing pattern − Data mining helps in determining

customer purchasing pattern.

 Providing Summary Information − Data mining provides us various multidimensional

summary reports.

Corporate Analysis and Risk Management

Data mining is used in the following fields of the Corporate Sector −

 Finance Planning and Asset Evaluation − It involves cash flow analysis and
prediction, contingent claim analysis to evaluate assets.

 Resource Planning − It involves summarizing and comparing the resources and

spending.

 Competition − It involves monitoring competitors and market directions.

Fraud Detection
Data mining is also used in the fields of credit card services and telecommunication to detect
frauds. In fraud telephone calls, it helps to find the destination of the call, duration of the call,
time of the day or week, etc. It also analyzes the patterns that deviate from expected norms.

48
 Data mining deals with the kind of patterns that can be mined. On the basis of the kind of data
to be mined, there are two categories of functions involved in Data Mining −

 Descriptive

 Classification and Prediction

Descriptive Function
The descriptive function deals with the general properties of data in the database. Here is the list
of descriptive functions −

 Class/Concept Description

 Mining of Frequent Patterns

 Mining of Associations

 Mining of Correlations

 Mining of Clusters

What is multimedia with examples? applications and uses

Applications of multimedia with examples: Some of the points are discussed here to understand
meaning of the given term with examples. So let us check it out points given below.

1. Multimedia is what we see and what we hear for example text in various books, graphics in
various pictures or images or sound in music.
2. Multimedia is used in our day to day life and can be used in variety of ways.
3. Teachers uses multimedia presentation to teach students.
4. Multi means many or more than one and media means medium of communication.
5. Multimedia is a combination of sound, text, images, animation, video, or graphics.
6. Multimedia is an effective way to communicate and share the ideas with users.
7. If the users sit back and watch the presentation that plays from start to end in order to present the
information is a types of linear multimedia. Watching a movie is an example of linear
multimedia.
8. If the users control the delivery of multimedia elements such as images, videos, graphics etc then
it is a types of non-linear multimedia.
9. Multimedia is one of the effective way to promote business of any company.

49
 What is Multimedia in business? applications and uses

Applications of multimedia in business: Let us check it out some of the points related to
business. Following are some of the information to know more about business.

1. Multimedia devices such as mobile phones, laptops etc plays and important role to grow
business.
2. Millions of online websites (form of multimedia) are available on internet to reach end user and
grow business.
3. More and more companies are taking an advantages of world wide web to increase sales of their
products.
4. Using multimedia anyone can sell their product anywhere in the world on internet.
5. By placing advertisement in magazines and newspapers business can be increased effectively.
6. Powerpoint presentation (multimedia) is also an effective way to give details of their product.
7. On internet millions of people watches videos , so we can share our product with them within
seconds.
8. Multimedia is an effective and cheapest way to grab an attention of the visitors and share
information about various products easily.
9. Advertising industry uses multimedia for marketing various products.
10. Various companies making Virtual Games uses multimedia and makes it more attractive.
11. Today multimedia is very important to promote any time of business easily and effectively.
12. Various companies uses multimedia to entertain their visitors and make profit from multimedia.
13. Multimedia is also used to extend the list of clients using various technology such as email,
SMS, MMS etc.

Multimedia applications

Reflecting the generic, or buzzword, nature of the term multimedia is the range of applications
that claim to be multimedia. Existing and planned applications list such diverse target areas as
50
electronic magazines, video--on-demand, patient monitoring systems in hospitals, remote robotic
agents, distance learning, and interactive (WAN-)distributed virtual reality games. Using some
rough categorizations we can sort multimedia applications into the following categories (this list
is not exhaustive):

Information systems: All systems whose main purpose is to provide information to a user (or a
group of users). Example application areas are :
electronic publishing: Electronic newspapers (e.g., the Age or The Australian and magazines
(e.g., HotWiRED or Time Magazine online)
hospital information systems: Patient monitoring systems, multimedia patient databases,
mixed reality surgery(e.g., virtual reality goggles)
navigation and information systems: shopping center /airport and other public spaces offer
touch screen multimedia orientation systems
museums:Online catalogs using high definition rendering of paintings, interactive online
museum tours (the Virtual Museum in Victoria or the Paris Louvre WebMuseum offer virtual
reality museum trips ).
(Remote) representation: Systems which represent a user at a remote location. The
representation can be either passive or active---that is, the user can either just receive information
about the remote location and the actions taking place there (passive representation), or she can
take part in the action and even influence the process at the remote location (active
representation). Notable example applications include:
conferencing applications: The user takes part in a conference; he/she can see and hear the
other participants; usually some kind of tool for showing text and graphics to the other
participants is available.
distance learning: Distance learning is essentially the same as conferencing; instead of
transmitting a conference session or a group meeting, a seminar, a lecture, or a class is
transmitted to students somewhere on the network.
remote auctions: a growing area which is and extension of online shopping
remote robotic agents: The remote location might be situated inside a hazardous environment
(e.g., the core of a nuclear reactor, or a deep-sea exploration) which is too dangerous for the user
as that she could be there in person, yet, the task which the user wants to carry out requires
human intervention.
remote task agents: Taking the concept of remote robotic agents one step further we can
employ a piece of software, an agent, to act on behalf of us: For example, the agent would travel

51
across the Internet, visit a pre-determined set of machines, carry out the instruction that we
programmed it to do, bundle up the results (which, of course, would be multimedia documents),
and return to our workstation.
virtual reality:Whereas the conferencing and remote robotic agent applications represent the
user at another, existing, location, to which she could travel to instead, virtual reality applications
represent users inside a physically-nonexisting environment; for example, rather than accessing
the records of a database through an arcane retrieval language, the database user might enter a
virtual reality representation of the database, which would present individual records as old-
fashioned folders.
Entertainment: This area attracts most of the attention of the general public as a lot of
telecommunication and media companies expect that the entertainment market will be the one
with the largest audience and, also, the market which is best suited for the employment of
multimedia techniques. The following list presents just a short excerpt of the projects planned
and worked on:
digital television: Originally, digital television started out as a technology to deliver television
broadcasts that were to be of substantially higher quality and size than current, analog
technology based broadcasting services (the term high-definition television (HDTV ) was coined
to describe these new broadcasting services). However, the service providers that are
implementing those services are already looking at other uses of the digital television
technology: Data transmission, paging systems, wireless telephony, and multiple television
programs within one channel are just a few of the uses in consideration, thereby pushing the
original HDTV goal aside
video--on-demand: Cable companies want to distribute a customized program to each viewer---
that is, the user instead of the cable company shall have the authority to decide what kind of
program the cable company delivers; additionally, all the features which the user has come to
know from her video-cassette--recorder shall also be available with video--on-demand
widely distributed interactive games: Companies like Sega or Nintendo are working on
creating networks of game-boy machines, that will interconnect using the existing telephone
network or future networks.
interactive television: This kind of application is especially attractive for television companies
and multimedia "evangelists". The interactive part refers to the user's ability to partake in
televised voting or game shows. The attractive aspect of interactive television stems from the
fact, that the necessary technological infrastructure is already installed: Cable television and
52
telephony services are available almost everywhere. Hence, startup-costs are low; set-top boxes
link the television set, the telephone, and the user.

MCQ:

1.Identify the device through which data and instructions are entered into a computer

A.Software

B.Output device

C.Input device

D.Memory

Answer : Input device [Option : C]

2. Computer Moniter is also known as :

A.DVU

B.UVD

C.VDU

D.CCTV

Answer : VDU [Option : C]

3. Which one of these stores more data than a DVD ?

A.CD Rom

B.Floppy

C.Blue Ray Disk

D.Red Ray Disk

Answer : Blue Ray Disk [Option : C]

4. Eight Bits make up a

53
A.byte

B.megabyte

C.kilobyte

D.None

Answer : byte [Option : A]

5. Which one is the result of the output given by a computer

A.Data

B.Istruction

C.Information

D.Excursion

Answer : Information [Option : C]

6. Which one of these also known as read/write memory ?

A.ROM

B.RAM

C.DVD

D.Hard Disk

Answer : RAM [Option : B]

7. The printed output from a computer is called

A.Copy

B.Soft Copy

C.Hard Copy

D.Paper

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Answer : Hard Copy [Option : C]

8. Components that provide internal storage to the CPU are ______

a) Registers

b) Program Counters

c) Controllers

d) Internal chips

Answer: a

9. Saving data and instructions to make them readily available is the job of __________

a) Storage Unit

b) Cache Unit

c) Input Unit

d) Output Unit

Answer: a

10. Which of the following is used to hold running program instructions?

a) Primary Storage

b) Virtual Storage

c) Internal Storage

d) Minor Devices

Answer: a

11. Which of the following is non-volatile storage?

a) Backup

b) Secondary

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c) Primary

d) Cache

Answer: b

12. Which of the following is used in main memory?

a) SRAM

b) DRAM

c) PRAM

d) DDR

Answer: b

13. Which of the following are types of ROMs?

a) SROM & DROM

b) PROM & EPROM

c) Only one type there is no further classification

d) PROM & EROM

Answer: b

14. A non-erasable disk that stores digitized audio information is _____

a) CD

b) CD-ROM

c) DVD-R

d) DVD-RW

Answer: a

15. The process of producing useful information for the user is called ___________

56
a) Controlling

b) Outputting

c) Inputting

d) Processing

Answer: b

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