IMMUNITY

Students must be able to:

o describe the immune system
o outline types of immunity
o explain how the first line defence works
o discuss the importance of vaccination
o explain how HIV weakens the immune system
o discuss organ transplants
o describe the ABO rhesus systems
o describe factors to be considered before blood transfusion
Meaning of immunity
- Immunity is the ability of the body to resist disease attack.
- This is made possible by the immune system.
- The immune system is a collection of biological structures and processes within an organism that protects it
against diseases.
- The system is able to recognise, react and defend the body against pathogens.
- Pathogens are disease causing microorganisms e.g. viruses, bacteria, fungi or parasites.
Cells involved in immunity
- Immunity in human beings is controlled by white blood cells.
Types of white blood cells
- There are two types of white blood cells namely;
1. Phagocytes
2. Lymphocytes
1. Lymphocytes
- Lymphocytes are produced in the bone marrow and mature in the thymus.
Types of lymphocytes
- Lymphocytes can be grouped into
a) B – lymphocytes
b) T – lymphocytes
B – lymphocytes
- They produce antibodies and provide defense in the following ways
o Neutralise the toxins produced by the pathogens. These antibodies are called antitoxins
o kill the pathogens by dissolving them. These antibodies are called lysins
o clump the pathogens so that they cannot penetrate the host cells and reproduce properly. These
antibodies are called agglutinins

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 o mark the pathogens by binding them so that phagocytes can recognise and destroy the pathogens
easily. These antibodies are called opsonins.
T – lymphocytes
There are several types of T – lymphocytes. Two of them are
a) Killer T – cells
b) Helper T – cells
Killer T – cells (Cytotoxic cells)
- Kill cells infected with pathogens
Helper T – cells
- Direct other cells to engulf or to kill cells infected with pathogens
2. Phagocytes
- They are produced in the bone marrow and defend the body by engulfing and digesting pathogens in a
process called phagocytosis
Types of phagocytes
They include
a) Neutrophils
- They are the most abundant white blood cells.
- They are the first to arrive at the site of infection.
- They defend the body by engulfing and digesting pathogens.
- During engulfing and digestion of pathogens, some neutrophils are killed and form part of pus.
b) Monocytes
- They also engulf and digest pathogens and dead neutrophils at the site of infections
Types of immunity
The two types of immunity are
1. Natural immunity
2. Artificial immunity
1. Natural immunity
- It is the immunity that comes from within the body itself.
- It is divided into two
a) Active natural immunity
b) Passive natural immunity
Active natural immunity
- It is the type of immunity that develops after recovering from a disease.
- The organism makes its own antibodies plus memory cells as a result of contact with the pathogens.
- Once an individual recovers from the disease, the body can produce antibodies very quickly should the
pathogen invade it again.
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- In this way, the individual becomes immune to such specific pathogens.
- This immunity is long-lived.
Passive natural immunity
- It is the type of immunity that is obtained naturally by the foetus or child from the mother.
- It occurs in two ways
o Foetus gets antibodies from the mother through placenta during pregnancy period.
o Baby gets antibodies from the mother through breastfeeding milk.
- This immunity is short-lived.
2. Artificial immunity
- It is the immunity that is obtained through medical intervention
- It can also be divided into two
a) Active artificial immunity
b) Passive artificial immunity
Active artificial immunity
- It is the protection acquired by introducing antigens into the body through the use of a vaccine.
- The vaccine stimulates the body to recognize certain disease antigens so that the body can respond to them
when they get into the person`s body.
- This immunity usually last longer.
Passive artificial immunity
- It is the immunity that comes from using antibodies produced in one organism to protect another organism
against specific pathogens.
- The antibodies are usually extracted from the serum of an animal that has recovered from such a disease.
- This immunity does not last long
Body defences
- A defence system is a way that an organism protects itself from something harmful.
- The body has developed mechanisms of defending itself from harmful microorganisms. One of such defence
mechanisms is called the first line defence.
First line defence and how it works
- First line defence is the defence mechanism that prevents the entry of pathogens into the body
- The following are examples of first line defences in the human body:
o skin o mucus
o Hydrochloric acid in the stomach o blood clotting
o tears o symbiotic defense
o cilia

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The skin
- It is the largest organ in the body covering every part.
- The outermost part of the skin called the cornified layer forms a waterproof and prevents entry of
microorganisms into the body.
- The skin also secretes an oily substance called sebum that kills bacteria. The sebum also keeps the skin moist
thus preventing skin tears that would otherwise allow entry of microoganisms.
Mucus
- It is the sticky substance found in the lining of certain body openings such as nasal opening, genital openings
and alimentary canal.
- Mucus traps some microorganisms that enter into the body.
- It also contains an enzyme called lysozyme that destroys certain bacteria.
Tears
- Tears refer to the watery secretion produced by the tear glands in the eyes.
- Tears lubricate the eyes and contain lysozyme that destroys certain bacteria.
- They also wash foreign materials that get into the eye.
Hydrochloric acid in the stomach
- It is the acid by the gastric glands of the stomach walls.
- It enhances digestion by providing an acidic pH for the action of an enzyme pepsin.
- It also kills bacteria that come into the stomach with food.
Cilia
- Cilia are tiny hair like structures that line the inside of some parts of the body e.g. the respiratory tract.
- They can move back and forth to sweep mucus with trapped particles out hence prevent them from entering
into the lungs.
- The process of coughing and sneezing expels the mucus with trapped particles from the body.
Blood clotting
- The formation of a clot prevents further loss of blood and entry of pathogens into the body.
Symbiotic defence
- Symbiosis is a relationship whereby two organisms live together and benefit from each other.
- For example, the bacterium called Escherichia coli (E. Coli) lives in the small intestines of the baby and gets
nutrients in there but it also kills harmful bacteria which can be found in these intestines.
Earwax
- It is secreted by glandular cells in the ear canal
- It traps dust and germs thereby preventing the entry of pathogens through the ear.

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Vaccination
- Vaccination / immunization is the process in which vaccines are introduced into the body.
- Vaccination can be done by injection or oral method.
- A vaccine is a biological preparation that is introduced into the body of an animal to increase its ability to
produce antibodies against a particular pathogen.
- It contains weakened or killed or attenuated pathogens or toxoids.
- It works by stimulating the immune system to carry out an immune response which leads to killing of the
pathogen.
How vaccination works
- The prepared vaccine is introduced into an individual`s body in order to stimulate an immune response.
- The individual`s body then produces antibodies and memory cells that offer the required immunity against
the disease.
- The graph below shows how a vaccine works upon being introduced in the body of a person.

- During primary immune response, the immune system needs time to recognize the pathogen, activate
specific immune cells and produce antibodies.
- In secondary immune response, memory cells are already present from the initial exposure hence allowing
for a faster and more efficient response.
Diseases controlled by vaccination
o Anthrax o Mumps
o Cervical cancer o Polio
o Diphtheria o Rabies
o Hepatitis A o Rubella
o Hepatitis B o Small pox
o Haemophilus influenza type b (Hib) o Tetanus
o Human Papillomavirus (HPV) o Typhoid
o Influenza (Flu) o Tuberculosis (TB)
o Japanese encephalitis (JE) o Chickenpox
o Measles o Yellow fever

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Importance of vaccination
- It protects one from serious illnesses and complications brought about by some pathogens
- It helps to prevent the spread of some infectious diseases.
- It enables children and young people to grow strong and health
HIV and Immunity
How HIV weakens the immune system
- The HIV weakens the immune system by killing the Helper – T cells thereby making the body prone to
pathogen attack.
- It depletes Helper – T cells hence weakening the immune system leaving it susceptible to opportunistic
disease attacks.
Effects of HIV on Helper T – cells and Killer – T cells
a) Helper T – cells
- When HIV infects the body, the virus attacks the Helper T – cells. It then starts to replicate in the cell by
division. The Helper T – cell eventually dies.
- The new virus formed then leaves the dead cell to infect other Helper T – cells. The more the virus
multiplies, the more Helper T – cells get killed.
- As a result of this, the number of Helper T – cells in the victim`s body reduces drastically. Thus, they cannot
carry out their function of directing other cells to engulf pathogens in the body or kill cells that have been
infected with pathogens.
- Therefore, the body`s ability to defend itself from infection is largely lowered leading to opportunistic
infections.
b) Killer T – cells
- These cells destroy a cell that has been infected with HIV.
- They help stimulate the immune response.
The role of lymphatic system on HIV immune response
- When HIV infects the body, it responds by activating the immune response.
- The body recognizes the presence of the virus and delivers it to the lymphatic system.
- The virus infects the Helper T – cells. The killer T – cells kill the infected cells to prevent replication of the
virus. The B – lymphocytes become activated and produce millions of antibodies to destroy the virus.
Organ transplant
- It is the moving of an organ from one body to another to replace a damaged or absent organ.
- Examples of organs that can be transplanted include the heart, kidney, liver, cornea of eye, skin etc.
- One of the major difficulties of a successful organ transplant is organ rejection by the recipient body. This
can cause the transplant to fail and require the immediate removal of the organ from the recipient`s body.

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Factors to be considered before organ transplant
1. Age
- The donor and recipient must be of the same age so that the donated organ meets the needs of recipient`s
body.
2. Blood type
- The blood type of the donor and recipient must be compatible to avoid agglutination so that the donated
organ is not rejected by the recipient.
3. Organ size
- Organ size is crucial in organ transplant to ensure compatibility between the donor and recipient.
- Mismatched organ sizes can lead to complications such as poor blood flow and organ dysfunction
4. Genetic make up
- Examining the genetic make up is essential in organ transplantation to reduce the risk of rejection and
improve the long term success of the transplant.
5. Health condition of the donor
- Assessing the donor`s health helps identify potential risks and reduces the likelihood of transmitting
infections to the recipient.
The ABO and Rhesus blood systems
- The red blood cells of human beings have special type of antigens which determines the blood group of an
individual. Such antigens are antigen A and antigen B.
- People with only antigen A on their red blood cells belong to blood group A.
- People with only antigen B on their red blood cells have blood group B.
- People with both antigens A and B on their red blood cells have blood group AB.
- People with no antigens A and B on their red blood cells belong to blood group O.
Antigens and blood groups
Antigen present on red blood cell Blood group
A A
B B
A and B AB
No antigens O

- In addition to the antigens on the red blood cells, the blood also contains antibodies a and b. They occur in
the blood plasma.
- These antibodies are complementary to the antigens A and B.
- Therefore, blood group A has antibody b while blood group B has antibody a.
- Blood group AB has no antibodies while blood group O has both antibodies in the plasma.

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 Antigens, antibodies and blood groups
Blood group A B AB O
Antigen (s) A B A and B None
Antibody (s) b a None a and b

- Antigens and antibodies that correspond to each other are never found together in the same individual.
- If by accident, corresponding antigens and antibodies happen to be found in a person’s blood possibly due to
unchecked blood transfusion, a process known as agglutination (sticking together or clumping of the red
blood cells) occurs. This can block the blood vessels leading to death.
The Rhesus blood system
- Rhesus factor (Rhesus antigen or antigen D) is another antigen found on the surface of red blood cells of
some people.
- Individuals with this antigen are said to be Rhesus positive (Rh+) while those without the antigen are said to
be Rhesus negative (Rh-).
- This is why the blood is described as either positive or negative in addition to the blood type e.g. blood group
A+ or A-, B+ or B- etc.
- Unlike in the cases of antigens A and B, the antibody of the rhesus factor (anti – D) does not naturally occur
in the plasma.
- Rhesus antibody production can be stimulated by the introduction of rhesus antigens.
- When the Rh+ blood is introduced in Rh- individual, the body produces antibodies against Rh+ antigens and
cause a minor agglutination.
- If Rh- individual is given Rh+ blood for the second time, antibodies against Rh+ are already present in the
blood which causes agglutination of the coming blood. This could lead to the death of the victim.
Blood transfusion
- It is transfer of blood from one person into another person`s bloodstream.
- It is done when a person loses a lot of blood through an accident, operation or attack by diseases such as
malaria.
- Blood donor is a person who voluntarily gives blood to another person.
- Blood recipient is a person who receives donated blood.
- In the process of blood transfusion, blood is taken from the donor through a vein in the arm and passed into a
bag containing anticlotting substances called heparin.
- This blood is kept in a blood bank under suitable conditions, waiting to be given to a blood recipient.
- Donated blood is introduced into the arm of the person receiving it through a vein. It is allowed to move
slowly into the recipient`s blood.
- A successful blood transfusion is one in which the recipient`s body will accept donated blood without
agglutination.

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 Compatibility table of blood groups
Donor Blood group O Blood group A Blood group B Blood group AB
Recipient
Blood group O YES YES YES YES
Blood group A NO YES NO YES
Blood group B NO NO YES YES
Blood group AB NO NO NO YES

- A person with blood group O can donate blood to recipients of all the four blood groups. This is because
blood group O lacks antigens on the red blood cells that could be agglutinated by the antibodies from the
recipient`s plasma. Therefore, people with blood group O are described as universal donors.
- Individuals with blood group AB can receive blood from all the blood groups. This is because blood group
AB has no antibodies to agglutinate the recipient`s blood. People with blood group AB are therefore
described as universal recipients.
Factors to be considered before blood a blood transfusion
1. ABO blood group compatibility
- A recipient must be given compatible blood to their type.
- This is done to avoid agglutination which may result in blockage of blood vessels thereby disturbing oxygen
and nutrients supply.
- Compatibility of blood is determined by the rhesus antigen as well as the A and B antigens.
2. Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)
- Blood of the donor is tested for HIV before transfusion to avoid infecting the recipient.
3. Hepatitis
- Blood from individuals suffering from hepatitis should not be used for transfusion because hepatitis virus can
be transmitted through blood.
4. Syphilis
- Blood from a person suffering from syphilis should not be used for transfusion to prevent infecting the
recipient.
5. Anaemia
- It is the condition in which the number of red blood cells in blood is low.
- A person with anaemia cannot donate blood due to low red blood cell count.
6. Malaria
- Blood from a person suffering from malaria should not be used for transfusion to prevent transmitting
malaria parasites to the recipient.
7. Rhesus factor
- Rhesus factor positive individuals must not donate blood to rhesus factor negative recipients to prevent
agglutination.

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Practice Questions
1. a. Define the term “immunity” (1 mark)
b. Describe how an individual could acquire natural active immunity. (3 marks)
c. State the importance of immunity to the human body. (1 mark)
2. Figure 1 shows types of lymphocytes in a flow diagram. Use it to answer the questions that follow.

Figure 1
a. Name the T – lymphocyte X (1 mark)
b. State the difference between B – lymphocytes and T – lymphocytes (1 mark)
3. a. Mention one functional difference between the Helper T – cells and Killer T - cells? (1 mark)
b. Explain the effect of HIV on helper T-cells in the body. (2 marks)
3. a. Define a “vaccine”. (1 mark)
b. Children under five years of age are vaccinated against diseases like tetanus and tuberculosis.
i. Explain how vaccination protects children against infection. (3 marks)
ii. Why can a vaccine for tetanus not be used against tuberculosis? (1 mark)
4. a. Name the agglutinating proteins in plasma of a person with blood group O. (2 marks)
b. Explain why a person with blood group O is a universal donor. (2 marks)
5. a. Define the term “organ transplant” (1 mark)
b. Name two examples of organs that can be transplanted in the body of a human being. (2 marks)
c. (i) What problem is likely to occur if organ transplant is carried out without considering blood groups?
(1 mark)
(ii) Explain one way in which the problem in c(i) would occur. (3 marks)
6. Figure 2 is a graph showing the response of antibodies in the human body at different times. Use it to
answer the questions that follow.

a. (i) Which member cannot donate blood to the family? (1 mark)

(ii) Explain the problem that would arise if the mother received blood from the member named in a(i).(2
marks)
b. Give a difference between red blood cells in group B+ and those in group B- (1 mark)

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7. The Table below shows blood groups of members of a certain family. Use it to answer questions that follow

Figure 2
a. Why does the level of antibodies decrease between points U and V? (1 mark)
b. State what happens in the human body at points X and Y. (1 mark)
c. Why is there a rapid change in response between points V and W? (2 marks)
7. In an essay form, describe five factors which must be considered before a blood transfusion is done. (10
marks)
8. In an essay form, explain any five ways in which first line defence works.

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