1|Page

3RD QUARTER LESSON HAND- OUT IN

PRACTICAL RESEARCH 1
Ms. Jaba
Lesson 1: IMPORTANCE OF RESEARCH IN DAILY LIVES
Lesson 2: CHARACTERISTICS, PROCESSES, AND ETHICS OF RESEARCH
Lesson 3: THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH AND THE
CHARACTERISTICS, STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES, KINDS, AND IMPORTANCE OF QUALITATIVE
RESEARCH
Lesson 4: THE RESEARCH PROBLEM AND THE RESEARCH TITLE
Lesson 5: THE RATIONALE OF THE STUDY AND THE STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
Lesson 6: THE SELECTING AND SYNTHESIZING INFORMATION FROM RELEVANT LITERATURE AND
THE PLAGIARISM AND PARAPHRASING
Lesson 7: THE APA CITATION STYLE & LITERATURE REVIEW: ELEMENTS AND ETHICS
Lesson 1: IMPORTANCE OF RESEARCH IN DAILY LIVES
Etymologically, research came from “re” and “search”. "Re" is a prefix that means again
and search is a word which means to look for. Therefore, research is to look for something
(Chapman 1979).
There are two (2) things that we need to take note of in this definition.
First, research is not only about the discovery of something unknown, it is coming up with a new
explanation of something that is known.
Second, research is a process. It is a process of searching for something to solve an existing
problem or difficulty to solve.
Research is also understood as a systematic investigation or inquiry entailing collection of data,
documentation of critical information, analysis, interpretation of information (Williams 2007).
From the given definition, this highlights the manner how research is conducted. It is systematic.
The question is, how does it become systematic and what makes it systematic. The term
systematic entails the structure. To understand the word system, just imagine your body. Are
your hands located in your ears? Or is your nose located on your chin? Of course, you will reason
out that your hands are located to where it should be and your nose is located in the middle of
your face. The manner of how your body parts are structured and organized implies the system.
Research as systematic means it follows the structure or method. Therefore, whenever collecting
data, documenting information, analyzing, and interpreting information are conducted, a
particular method is used.

On the other hand, research can be also viewed as the formation of new knowledge and the
employment of previous or existing knowledge into a new and creative way (O’Donnell 2012).
Imagine these two (2) scenarios: mother giving birth to a baby and a potter molding a pot. The
creation of new knowledge can be compared to a mother giving birth. The mother stands for the
research itself and the baby is new knowledge. Thus, through research, new knowledge is born.
On the other hand, a potter molding a pot can be paralleled to the use of existing knowledge in a
new creative way. Here, the potter stands for the researcher, the clay as the existing knowledge,
and the pot itself is a new knowledge made creatively.
IMPORTANCE OF RESEARCH
Research is very significant on our lives, it has gradually changed human life through history.
Here are the five (5) importance of research to our daily lives.
1. Research aims for truth (Rolfe 2002).
2. Research improves quality of human life (Bornmann 2013).
3. Research saves life(Cancer Research UK 2019).
4. Research gathers necessary information (Igwenagu 2016).
5. Research explores humanity (Lee, Tran, and Lee 2007).

Here are some leading outputs of the researches that really changed the world and our
perspectives in lives.
1. Electricity 6. Computer
2. Engines 7. Internet
3. Telephone 8. Vaccines for Viruses
4. Rubber 9. Antibiotics
5. Modern Education 10. Modern Medicine

Lesson 2: CHARACTERISTICS, PROCESSES, AND ETHICS OF

RESEARCH

CHARACTERISTICS are features or qualities that distinguish a person, place, or thing.

 Characteristics of Research (Cristobal & Cristobal, 2017)
1. Research should be systematic.
 2|Page

- The researcher needs to carry out a series of interrelated steps in conducting the study. Such
procedure must follow a well-planned, sequential and organized structure from beginning to end.
- The research paper is divided into macrosystem and microsystem. The former refers to
different chapters labeled with main headings, while the latter consists of various elements
detailing the contents
of each part.

2. Research should be objective.

- The researcher needs to present information that are purely based on truths. It should always
be anchored on the factual basis in which the research work is founded, thus being free from any
bias or
personal opinion.
3. Research should be feasible.
- The researcher needs to consider the possibility and practicality of conducting the proposed
study. All significant factors like time, budget and access to resources must be analyzed to
determine if the research can actually be done.
4. Research should be empirical.
- The researcher needs to employ appropriate methods, either quantitatively or qualitatively, to
produce evidence-based information. They can be drawn from concrete experimentation, direct
or indirect observation, and verifiable experience.
5. Research should be clear.
- The researcher needs to use comprehensible language to present information and convey
explanation throughout the research process. The factors to be manipulated, measured or
described in the study, also known as variables, must be clarified using literature from published
and unpublished materials. They should be explained well from the introductory part of the
research paper to ensure a deeper understanding of the study to be conducted.
 THE RESEARCH PROCESS
PROCESS refers to a series of steps or actions taken to achieve a particular end or
goal.
Research process is a systematic manner in which the researcher approaches his/her area of
study to produce knowledge that the community will consider to be worthwhile within the field
(Rao, 2017). Understanding such process is an important step towards executing any study. The
following table shows the five phases of the research process along with their definition
(Whittemore & Melkus, 2008).
Research Phase Definition
Identifying the problem, reviewing the literature, formulating
Conceptual Phase the hypothesis, developing the research framework, and
determining the research purpose and objective
Design and Planning Selecting a research design, developing study procedures,
Phase and determining the sampling and data collection plan
Empirical Phase Collecting data, and preparing data for analysis
Analyzing data, interpreting the results, and making
Analytic Phase
conclusions
Communicating results to appropriate audience, and
Dissemination Phase
utilizing the findings

Now, here’s the simplified flow of the significant steps you need to take in conducting a study as
presented by Rao (2017):

1. Define the research problem.

To begin your research, you must look at a significant real-life problem. Factors like area of
interest, availability of fund, socio-economic significance of the study, and the safety measures
to be undertaken should be considered in finding and defining the research problem. The
researcher identifies English language proficiency as a problem of aspiring maritime students in
qualifying for admission to prestigious maritime institutions.
2. Review the literature.
 3|Page

Read various publications or surf the internet to become aware of the previous works already
done about the chosen topic. You may utilize different resources like science books, magazines,
journals, newspapers, or even in the internet. The researcher reviews previous studies
conducted about English
language proficiency and the experienced difficulties of aspiring maritime
students.
3. Formulate hypothesis.
A hypothesis is a theoretical statement in solving a logical relationship between variables. It
should be based on the problem being solved. The researcher hypothesizes that the
implementation of English-Only
Policy (EOP) in the classroom can improve the English language proficiency of Pre-Baccalaureate
Maritime students.

4. Prepare the research design.

Identify what is the best means to collect and analyze data in the study to clarify and improve
the research problem, purpose, and questions. The researcher uses an experimental design on
exploring the experiences
of the students in implementing EOP.
5. Collect data.
Use an appropriate data collection method to elicit the needed information. The researcher
collects data through interview and focus group discussion.
6. Analyze data.
Utilize strategies and methods that make sense of the data to answer the research problem. The
researcher analyzes the data by drawing patterns and themes from the generated data.
7. Interpret and report the findings.
Put the information in perspective and present the solution to the proposed problem based on
the findings of the investigation. The researcher interprets and reports the findings based on the
collected and analyzed data to solve the research problem.

 THE ETHICS IN RESEARCH

You also need to know the importance of ethics because it will guide you in considering
the ethical codes and policies you have to follow in writing and conducting a research.

ETHICS is a branch of knowledge that deals with moral principles on governing a person’s
behavior in the conduct of any activity.

Importance of Ethics in Research

Resnik (2015), in his article, “What is Ethics in Research & Why is it important?”, as cited by
Cristobal & Cristobal (2017), enumerates the following reasons why it is important to follow
ethical principles in writing and conducting a research:
1. It promotes the aims of research.
Ethics guides the researchers in obtaining knowledge, truth, and avoidance of error by
prohibiting fabrication, falsification and misrepresentation of research data.
2. It upholds values that are essential to collaborative work.
Many researchers who are working in different disciplines and institutions cooperate and
coordinate to accomplish a particular research. With ethics in mind, they also maintain trust,
accountability, mutual respect, and fairness.
3. It ensures that researchers can be held accountable to the public.
Ethical norms guarantee the public that researchers are deemed
responsible for committing any form of research misconduct.
4. It builds public support for research.
People express and lend their support by all means if they can trust the
quality and integrity of research.
5. It promotes a variety of moral and social values.
Ethical principles help the researcher avoid practices that can adversely
harm the research subjects and the community. Thus, it encourages social
responsibility, human rights, animal welfare, compliance with the law, and
public health and safety.
Ethical Codes and Policies for Research
Cristobal & Cristobal (2017), in their book, “Practical Research 1 for Senior High School”, lists the
following ethical codes and policies that the researcher needs to consider in conducting a study:
1. Honesty
The researcher should strive to truthfully report data in whatever form of communication all
throughout the study.
2. Objectivity
The researcher should avoid being biased. The study should not be influenced by his/her
personal motives, beliefs and opinions.
3. Integrity
 4|Page

The researcher should establish credibility through the consistency of his/her thought and action.
He/she should act with sincerity especially on keeping agreements.
4. Care
The researcher should never neglect even the smallest detail of the study. All information should
be critically examined. Records of research activities should be properly and securely kept.

5. Openness
The researcher should be willing to accept criticisms and new ideas for the betterment of the
study. Research results and findings should be shared to the public.
6. Respect for intellectual property
The researcher should not plagiarize. Credit should be given to who or where it is due. All authors
cited and sources used in the study should be properly acknowledged.
- Plagiarism refers to the act of illegally using another person’s ideas, works, processes, and
results. Thus, it constitutes claiming an intellectual property as one’s own that can be penalized
through Republic Act 8293 known as the Intellectual Property Code of the Philippines.
7. Confidentiality
The researcher should take steps to protect all confidential communications or documents from
being discovered by others.
8. Responsible publication
The researcher should ensure that his/her work is clear, honest, complete, accurate, and
balanced, thus avoiding wasteful and duplicate publication. It should likewise refrain from
selective, misleading, or ambiguous reporting.
9. Responsible mentoring
The researcher should teach responsible conduct of research and share professional knowledge
and skills especially to new or less experienced researchers.
10. Respect for colleagues
The researcher should show courtesy to his/her colleagues by treating them equally and fairly.
11. Social responsibility
The researcher should promote social good by working for the best interests and benefits of the
environment and society as a whole.
12. Non-discrimination
The researcher should not discriminate based on sex, race, ethnicity, or any factor relating to
scientific competence and integrity. Thus, research should be open to all people or entities who
will participate in research.
13. Competence
The researcher should possess necessary knowledge and skills in conducting a study. He/she
should be equipped with a sense of professionalism and expertise to ensure competent results.
14. Legality
The researcher should know and abide by relevant laws, institutional and government policies
concerning the legal conduct of research.
15. Human Subject Protection
The researcher should protect human lives by preventing and minimizing harms and risks.
He/she should always uphold the human dignity, privacy, and autonomy of human subjects to be
used in the study.

 Rights of Research Participants

In every aspect of life, rights and responsibilities are inseparably linked to one another. This
means that both the researcher and the participant have necessary obligations to perform as a
prerequisite of their privileges in conducting research. According to Trochim (2006), Smith
(2003) and Polit (2006), the following are some of the rights of research participants, as cited by
Cristobal & Cristobal (2017):

1. Voluntary participation
The research participants must be given the privilege to exercise them free will whether to
participate or not. They have the right to refuse involvement in the study. Thus, any person
should not be forced to take
part in any research undertaking.
2. Informed consent
The research participants must be provided with sufficient information about the procedures and
risks involved in the research. It serves as an initial guide on why and how the study will be
conducted. Hence, the researcher must ensure that they fully understood and agreed upon the
study.
3. Risk of harm
 5|Page

The research participants must be protected from any type of harm whether it may be physical,
psychological, social, or economic. The researcher must avoid, prevent, or minimize threats
especially when they are exposed and engaged in invasive and risky procedures.
4. Confidentiality
The research participants must be assured of their privacy particularly on personal information.
The researcher must secure that all information disclosed by them will not be used without
authorized access.
5. Anonymity
The research participants must remain anonymous or unidentified throughout the study even to
the researchers themselves. They have the right to keep their identities secret as they
participate especially in case sensitive studies.

Lesson 3: THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE

RESEARCH AND THE CHARACTERISTICS, STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES, KINDS,
AND IMPORTANCE OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

 Quantitative and Qualitative Research (Cristobal & Cristobal, 2017)

There are two broad categories of research methodology: quantitative research and qualitative
research. The method to be used in conducting a research will determine the approach the
researcher takes in identifying relevant data, and collecting and analyzing the information
gathered in the research. Choosing either a quantitative or qualitative approach will affect the
components of the research. For instance, a researcher may decide to undertake a scientific
research. If he/she takes a quantitative approach, he/she will use statistical data to provide an
explanation of the phenomenon. On the other hand, if the researcher chooses qualitative
approach, the goal of the study will be to discuss and analyze the underlying concepts and
theories related to the research topic.
For you to easily understand the similarities and differences between the two research methods,
here is a short definition of terms that you have to be familiar with.

• contact time – the period when the researcher interacts with the research subjects or
participants to
obtain relevant information
• hypothesis – a statement usually predicting the relationship between variables that can be
tested by
scientific research
• outlier – a statistical observation in a set of data that is inconsistent with the majority of the
data
• output replicability – capable of repetition, imitation or reproduction
• research instrument – a measurement tool designed to obtain, measure and analyze data
from research
subjects around the research topic
• sample size – the number of subjects to be taken from the target population of the study
• trend – an assumed development in the future that will have a long-term and lasting effect;
prevailing
style or preference
• validity – the functional quality of research instrument on obtaining data and producing
results based on the purpose of the study
• variable – any characteristic that can have different values or traits that may vary across
research participants
Now, study the following table cited by Cristobal & Cristobal (2017) from the Social Science
Research Extension Institute (SSREI), University of the Philippines (UP)-Baguio (2009).

QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

Involves processes, feelings, and motives
(the why’s and the how’s) and produces in-
Aims to characterize trends and patterns
depth and
holistic data
Usually starts with either a theory or Usually concerned with generating
hypothesis about the relationship between hypothesis from data rather than testing a
two or more variables hypothesis
 6|Page

Uses structured research instruments like

Uses either unstructured or semi structured
questionnaires or schedules
instruments
Uses large sample sizes that are
Uses small sample sizes chosen purposely
representatives of the population

Has high validity

Has high output replicability
Used to gain greater understanding of
Used to gain greater understanding of group
individual differences in terms of feelings,
similarities
motives, and experiences
Uses more flexible processes
Uses structured processes
Methods include census, survey, experiment,
Methods include field research, case study,
and secondary analysis
and secondary analysis

Generally, quantitative and qualitative research differs on the type of data they produce. The
former dwells on the collection of numerical data analyzed by statistical analysis, while the latter
deals with descriptive, in-depth and holistic data analyzed by summarizing, categorizing and
interpreting. On this note, you need to use quantitative research if you want to confirm or test a
theory or hypothesis and use qualitative research if you want to understand concepts, thoughts
and experiences.

Here is a simple example on how you can apply two methods differently on the same research
question, “How satisfied are students with their studies?”

QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

You may survey 250 students at your You may conduct in-depth interviews with 15
school and ask them a question, “On a scale students and ask them open-ended
from 1-5, how satisfied are you with your questions such as: “How satisfied are you
studies?” Then, you can perform statistical with your studies?”, “What is the most
analysis on the data and draw conclusions positive aspect of your study program?”, and
such as: “On average, students rated their “What can be done to improve the study
studies 4.1”. program?” Based on their answers, you can
ask follow up questions to clarify things.
Furthermore, you can transcribe all
interviews and try to find patterns and
commonalities.

 THE CHARACTERISTICS, STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES, KINDS, AND

IMPORTANCE OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

To help you better understand qualitative research as a separate discipline, the following should
be explored: characteristics, strengths and weaknesses, kinds, and importance in varied fields.

CHARACTERISTICS OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

Qualitative research can be easily characterized by carefully observing how some research
elements such as: research design, data collection procedure, and data analysis have been put
into considerations. As cited from Spalding University Library (2020), these three key elements
will guide the researcher to properly conduct a qualitative research study. To further understand
this kind of research, its characteristics are presented as follows:

1. Qualitative research is naturalistic. A study to be conducted by the researcher should be

based on real-life situations. Likewise, the researcher should also unfold the study in a natural
manner, that is, the findings are derived from the analysis of authentic data gathered from the
participants. Such a concept makes qualitative research known for its non-controlling
characteristic.
2. Qualitative research is purposeful. In conducting a qualitative type of study, the
researcher should select the participants in a purposive manner, that is, they will be selected
because they either have easy access to the information needed or simply have the knowledge
to provide a great deal of information needed to the study. Hence, these participants are called
“information rich” in the context of research. This type of participant selection will validate the
concept that qualitative study focuses on rich insights regarding the phenomenon rather than on
mere numerical data simply obtained from surveys and questionnaires.
 7|Page

3. Qualitative research is detailed. A thick description of gathered data from the participants
makes this type of study a detailed one. It is important that the researcher should capture the
direct quotations of the responses of the participant/s from the conducted interview or
observation.
4. Qualitative research requires engagement and neutrality . Direct contact with the
people, situation, and phenomenon under investigation should be established by the researcher.
Immersing oneself would enable the researcher to acquire personal experiences and insights
which are essential to better understand the phenomenon. Further, the researcher should also
be neutral in the responses and observations he/she may get while engaging with the
participant/s. The researcher should likewise show openness, sensitivity, and respect.
5. Qualitative research follows an inductive procedure . As the researcher immerses
himself/herself in the phenomenon under investigation, specific details and data will be gathered
from the target participant/s. These data then can be used to discover emerging patterns and
themes. Following an inductive procedure, the researcher will start from exploring the
phenomenon and will end to confirming findings of the works.
6. Qualitative research is viewed in a holistic perspective. A study in a qualitative type
cannot be simply done in a linear and cause and effect relationship approach. Rather, it requires
the researcher to view the whole phenomenon under investigation in a complex system, that is,
different variables can either cause or effect the phenomenon.

STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESS OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

It is known that a qualitative type of research focuses more on explaining why subjects under
investigation think and behave in certain ways. With such purpose, it can be observed that there
are corresponding strengths and weaknesses aqualitative research may have once it is
employed by the researcher. As cited from University of Denmark Library (2020), this type of
research has its strengths and weaknesses presented as follows:

Strengths:
1. Qualitative research complements quantitative data . Interview and observation are the
common instruments used in the conduct of a qualitative study. Such instruments can provide
qualitative data that can be utilized as a support for any quantitative data appearing in a study,
hence, a more reliable result will be ensured.
2. Qualitative research provides more detailed information to explain complex issues . Since this
type of research study requires the researcher to immerse himself/herself in the phenomenon
under investigation,

This topic on the different views about politics from the work of Heywood (2007) will help you
gain a deeper understanding about politics.
A. Politics as the art of government
Politics is viewed as an art or practical application of knowledge for attaining a particular
objective. Considered as the classical definition of politics: the art of government or exercise of
control in society through making and enforcement of collective or group decisions.
Here are the additional features of this view about politics:
 8|Page

➢ This view was developed in Ancient Greece. Remember, the word politics is derived from
the ancient Greek word polis, meaning city-state. Politics can be studied by referring it to the
affairs or concerns of the polis or its modern meaning what concerns the state.
➢ If you are studying politics, you are studying the government. Two aspects are under this
setting: Government personnel or the people in government and government machinery or the
different government departments, offices, or agencies.
➢ Politics happens in cabinet official meetings, legislative chambers, and government
departments.
➢ To study politics is to study the exercise of authority defined as legitimate power.
Legitimate means it is acceptable for the people.
➢ Politics is engaged in by a limited and specific group, notably politicians, civil servants and
lobbyists.
B. Politics as public affairs
This second view looks at politics as what happens in the public sphere of life. It is important that
you remember the distinction between ‘the political’ and ‘the nonpolitical’. It coincides with the
division between what is public and what is private. If it happens in the public sphere, it is
political.

To clarify, the distinction between public and private conforms to the division between the state
and civil society. The institutions of the state (the government offices, departments and
agencies) can be regarded as ‘public’ because they are responsible for the collective
organization of community life. Moreover, they are funded at the public’s expense through
taxation. In contrast, civil society consists of institutions such as private businesses, trade
unions, clubs, community groups and so on that are ‘private’ in the sense that they are set up
and funded by individual citizens to satisfy their own interests, rather than those of the larger
society.
C. Politics as compromise and consensus
The third view about politics focuses on the way how decisions are made. Politics is seen as a
particular means of resolving conflict: that is, by compromise, conciliation and negotiation, rather
than through the use of force and naked power. Describing a solution to a problem as a
‘political’ solution implies peaceful debate and arbitration, as opposed to what is often called a
‘military’ solution. This is anchored on the perspective that society is characterized by consensus
and not by irreconcilable conflict. Disagreements that exist can be resolved without resort to
intimidation and violence. This view of politics has a positive character. Members of society
should be encouraged to respect politics as an activity, and they should be prepared to engage
in the political life of their own community.
D. Politics as power
The fourth view sees politics as something that is present in all social activities, at every level of
social interaction; it can be found within our families and amongst our small groups of friends
just as much as amongst nations and on the international or global stage. What makes a specific
social activity or behavior political is the presence of power. Politics under this view is in essence
the power or ability to achieve a desired end, through any way possible. Politics is viewed as a
struggle over limited resources, and power can be seen as the means through which this
struggle is conducted. In politics, power is usually thought of as a relationship: that is, as the
ability to influence the behavior of others. It is referred to in terms of having ‘power over’ people.
Remember, politics may be defined as: the art of government, public affairs, compromise and
consensus, and power.
 Government and Governance
The Government and its Purposes
According to Mendoza (1999), government is the term generally used in referring the formal
institutions through which a group of people is ruled or governed and the term extends to
include the people and organizations that make, enforce, and apply political decisions for a
society.
Government as explained by De Leon (1991) is created for the benefit of the people governed
and it accomplishes services or functions that are beyond the capabilities of any individual or
enterprise. He enumerated the important purposes of government which are:
(1) the maintenance of peace and order;
(2) the protection of persons and property;
(3) the administration of justice;
(4) the promotion of education;
(5) the preservation of the state from external danger and;
(5) the advancement of the physical, economic and social and cultural well-being of the people.
 Governance
Governance according to Tamayo (2014) is commonly defined as the exercise of power or
authority by political leaders for attainment of the well-being of their country’s citizens or
inhabitants. He added that it is a complex process in which some sectors of society exercise
power and create public policies that directly affect the members of society.
 9|Page

Anne Mette Kjaer (2004) as cited by Tamayo (2014) clarifies the following features about
governance:
- Governance is broader than government because other sectors are included in it: the
government (also called the public sector) is always the main actor in governance but it is not
the only actor.
- Governance is based on the reality that the government cannot do everything for the
people on its own.
- The main role of the government is to set an enabling environment for other actors of
governance to participate and respond to the pursuit of the common good.

- All actors other than the government are called the “civil society.”
- The civil society includes non-governmental organizations, and other community-based
and sectoral organizations that are private in nature but have public functions or objectives.
Indicators of Good Governance
Good governance according to Kio Sheng (2010) and Tamayo (2014) is understood through its
eight indicators or characteristics: (1) Participatory; (2) Rule of Law; (3) Effective and Efficient;
(4) Transparent; (5) Responsive; (6) Equitable and Inclusive; (7) Consensus Oriented; and (8)
Accountability.
1. Participatory
Good governance necessarily requires participation of the different sectors of society.
Participation means active involvement of all concerned and interested sectors in the decision-
making process. It requires an enabling environment. Governance should no longer be
government monopoly but government management or inter-sectoral participation.
2. Rule of Law
Good governance is fundamentally adherence to the rule of law. Rule of law requires that the
people give habitual obedience to the law. The government acts within the limits of the powers
and functions prescribed by the law. Under this indicator, laws should be responsive to the needs
of the society.
3. Effectiveness and Efficiency
Good governance requires that the institutions, processes, and actors deliver and meet the
needs of society in a way that available resources are used well. Service delivery in public sector,
especially of front-line agencies, must promptly and adequately serve the needs of the citizens
instituting simplified government procedures and inexpensive transaction costs.
4. Transparency
Transparency means that people can access information regarding decision making process and
the implementation of decisions. Information on matters of public concern are made available to
the citizens or those who will be directly affected.
5. Responsiveness
Responsiveness means that institutions and processes should serve all the stakeholders in
timely and appropriate way. Interests of all citizens must be well protected in a prompt and
appropriate manner so that each of them can appreciate and take part in the process of
governance.
6. Equity and Inclusiveness
Equity and inclusiveness mean that all members of society, especially the most vulnerable ones
must be taken into consideration. Everyone has a stake in society; no one should feel alienated
from it. Those who have less in life should have more in law. Good governance demands that the
actors must give preferential treatment to the conditions of the poor.
7. Consensus Oriented
Governance is consensus oriented when decisions are made after taking into consideration the
different perspectives. A procedure for conflict resolution must be in place because it is possible
that conflict will arise from competing interests of the actors. Governance is based on the
partnership of the actors of the society in providing public services.
8. Accountability
Accountability refers to answerability or responsibility for one’s action, based on the principle
that each person or group is responsible for their actions most especially when their acts affect
public interest. Actors have an obligation to explain and be answerable for the consequences of
decisions and actions they have made on behalf of the society it serves.
Lesson 2: Political Ideologies
Meaning of Ideology
Ideology according to Heywood (2007) refers to a system of beliefs about how society should
function, behave, and operate. He further explains that from a social-scientific viewpoint, an
ideology is a more or less coherent set of ideas that provides a basis for organized political
action, whether this is intended to preserve, modify or overthrow the existing system of power
relationships.

Functions of Political Ideology

 10 | P a g e

Political ideologies are very important in a society. Heywood (2007) also described the following
functions of political ideology:
(1) It offers an account of the existing order by examining what works and what does not
work, as well as other various issues and problems that the state and the broader society are
confronted with.
(2) It provides a model of a desired social order, a vision of the Good Society.
(3) It outlines how political change or the desired social order can be achieved.
Major Political Ideologies
There are many political ideologies. On this module we will concentrate more on these three
major political ideologies. These are the Liberalism, Conservatism, and Socialism. Heywood
(2007) explained the key ideas under these ideologies. Read his explanations below:
Liberalism
Liberalism pertains to set of political beliefs emphasizing
individual rights and liberties. Its key ideas are the following:
Key Ideas of Liberalism
1. Individualism: It is the core principle of liberal
ideology. Individualism is further explained as:
❖ belief in the supreme importance of the
human
❖ human beings are seen with equal moral
worth; they possess separate and unique
identities
❖ the liberal goal is to construct a society within which individuals can flourish
and develop
2. Freedom: Individual freedom or liberty is the core value of liberalism. Under freedom are
the following features:
❖ desire to ensure that each person is able to act as he or she pleases or chooses
❖ advocate ‘freedom under the law’, as they recognize that one person’s liberty may
be a threat to the liberty of others
3. Reason: Liberals believe that the world has a rational structure, and that this can be
uncovered through the exercise of human reason and by critical enquiry. Furthermore, the
key idea of reason favors the following:
❖ faith in the ability of individuals to make wise judgments;
❖ individuals as the best judges of their own interests;
❖ belief in progress and the capacity of human beings to resolve their differences
through debate and argument, rather than bloodshed and war.
4. Equality: This refers to the belief that individuals are ‘born equal’, at least in terms of
moral worth. Liberalism has strong commitment to equal rights namely:
❖ legal equality (‘equality before the law’);
❖ political equality (‘one person, one vote; one vote, one value’).
5. Toleration: It means willingness to allow others to think, speak and
act in ways which they disapprove. This promotes debate and
intellectual progress.
6. Consent: It will advocate that authority and social relationships
should always be based on consent or willing agreement. Under this
idea, the government must therefore be based on the ‘consent of the
governed’. Authority is always grounded in legitimacy.
Conservatism
Conservatism refers to set of political beliefs based on
preservation of customs and traditions that define the
character of a society. Here are the key ideas of
conservatism:
Key Ideas of Conservatism
1. Tradition: It is the central theme of conservative
thought or ‘the desire to conserve’. It respects
established customs and institutions that have
endured through time. Tradition reflects the
accumulated wisdom of the past, and institutions and practices that have been ‘tested
by time’, and it should be preserved for the benefit of the living and for generations yet
to come.
2. Pragmatism: It is the belief that action should be shaped by practical
circumstances and practical goals, that is, by ‘what works’.
3. Human imperfection: In this view, human beings are limited, dependent, and
security-seeking creatures, drawn to the familiar and the tried and tested. Human
beings are needing to live in stable and orderly communities. The
maintenance of order requires a strong state, the enforcement of
strict laws, and stiff penalties.
4. Authority: Conservatives hold that, to some degree, authority is
always exercised ‘from above’, providing leadership, guidance and
support for those who lack the knowledge, experience or education
 11 | P a g e

to act wisely in their own interests. Authority and leadership are seen as resulting from
experience and training.
5. Property: Conservatives see property ownership as being vital because it gives
people security and a measure of independence from government, and it encourages
them to respect the law and the property of others.
Socialism
Socialism is defined as set of political beliefs emphasizing community and social equality that
adheres to the following ideas:
Key Ideas of Socialism
1. Community: The core of socialism is the vision of
human beings as social creatures linked by the
existence of a common humanity. It highlights the
importance of community, and the degree to which
individual identity is fashioned
by social interaction and membership of social groups
and collective bodies. Socialists are inclined to
emphasize nurture over nature, and to explain
individual behavior mainly in terms of social factors,
rather than innate qualities.
2. Fraternity: It is sharing a common humanity. Humans are bound together by a
sense of comradeship or fraternity (literally meaning ‘brotherhood’, but broadened in
this context to embrace all humans). Socialism prefers cooperation over competition
and favors collectivism over individualism.
Cooperation enables people to harness their collective
energies/strengthens the bonds of community.
3. Social equality is the central value of socialism: It
emphasizes equality of outcome as opposed to equality of
opportunity. The measure of social equality is looked upon as
guarantee of social stability and cohesion.

4. Need is of primary importance in Socialism: It is the belief

that material benefits should be distributed on the basis of need, rather than simply on
the basis of merit or work: ‘From each according to his ability, to each according to his
need’. The satisfaction of basic needs (hunger, thirst, shelter, health, personal security
and so on) is a prerequisite for a worthwhile human existence and participation in
social life.
5. Social class: Socialism has traditionally been associated with the interests of an
oppressed and exploited working class - regarded the working class as an agent of
social change. The socialist goal is the eradication of economic and social inequalities,
or their substantial reduction.
6. Common ownership: The socialist case for common ownership is that it is a means of
harnessing material resources to the common good, with private property being seen
to promote selfishness, acquisitiveness and social division.
Insert other discussed POLITICAL IDEOLOGIES
- Anarchism
- Communism
- Marxism
- Fascism
- Feminism

Lesson 3: Power: Nature, Dimensions, Types and Consequences

Defining Power
Power in its broadest sense, as stated by Heywood (2007) is the ability to achieve a desired
outcome and is sometimes seen as the ‘power to’ do something. He further explained that in the
context of politics and governance, power is usually thought of as a relationship: the ability to
influence the behaviour of others or having ‘power over’ people and the ability to punish or
reward.
Dimensions or Faces of Power
According to Heywood (2007), the following are the various ways how power is exercised by
members of society. These are called dimensions or faces of power: Power as Decision-Making,
Power as Agenda Setting and Power as Thought Control.
Power as Decision-Making
This face of power consists of conscious actions that in some way influence the content of
decisions. Identifying who has power is done by analysing decisions in the light of the known
preferences of the actors involved. The implication of this view of power is that the most
powerful actors in society are those whose opinion are considered and upheld in the decision
making. The powerful are able to get what they want and make others behave the way they
 12 | P a g e

wanted them to. According to Boulding (1989) as cited by Heywood (2007), decisions can be
influenced in a variety of ways distinguished between the use of force or intimidation (the stick),
productive exchanges involving mutual gain (the deal), and the creation of obligations, loyalty
and commitment (the kiss).
Power as Agenda Setting
The second face of power as further discussed by Heywood (2007) is the ability to prevent
decisions being made: that is, in effect, ‘non-decision-making’. This according to him involves the
ability to set or control the political agenda, thereby preventing issues or proposals from being
aired in the first place.
Power as Thought Control
The third face of power, still according to Heywood (2007) is the ability to influence another by
shaping what he or she thinks, wants, or needs. This is power expressed as ideological
indoctrination or psychological control. In political life, the exercise of this form of power is seen
in the use of propaganda and, more generally, in the impact of ideology.

Types of Power
Power Taxonomy
Types of Power Description
Reward power The target person complies in order to obtain rewards he
or she believes are controlled by the agent.

The target person complies in order to avoid punishments

Coercive power
he or she believes are controlled by the agent.
The target person complies because he or she believes
Legitimate power the agent has the right to make the request and the
target person has the obligation to comply.
The target person complies because he or she believes
Expert power that the agent has special knowledge about the best way
to do something.
The target person complies because he or she admires or
Referent power identifies with the agent and wants to gain the agent’s
approval.

Consequences of Power
There are three consequences of power according to Yukl (1989): compliance,
commitment and resistance. He further stressed that employing certain types of power in
particular ways may result into these consequences. Study his explanations below:
Compliance means readiness or act of agreeing to do something.
The two types of power most likely to cause compliance are legitimate or position power and
reward power.
➢ Compliance with the order may occur if it is perceived to be within the leader’s scope of
authority.
➢ Compliance is most likely to happen if the reward is something valued by the target
person.
Commitment is an even more desirable outcome because of the trust and emotional
pledge that it causes. It is perceived as loyalty or a sense of dedication or devotion. Commitment
is most likely to be the consequence when the powers used are referent and expert.
➢ The common way to exercise referent power is merely to ask someone with whom one has
a friendship to do something.
➢ Expert power may result to commitment if the leader presents logical arguments and
supporting evidence for a particular proposal, order or policy. It will depend on the leader’s
credibility and persuasive communication skills in addition to technical knowledge and logical or
analytical ability.
Commitment is a very unlikely consequence if coercive power is employed.
Resistance means to refuse or to oppose. It is the most likely outcome when coercive
power is used in a hostile or manipulative way. (Yukl 1989)
According to Heywood (2007), it is best to use coercion power in preventing behaviour that is
harmful to the society and well-being of the people such as illegal and violent activities.

Lesson 4: States, Nations, and Globalization

 13 | P a g e

Meaning of State
According to De Leon (2009), as stated by Liao (2014) a state is a community of nations more
or less numerous, permanently occupying a definite portion of territory, having a government of
their own to which the great body of inhabitants render obedience and enjoying freedom from
external control.

Elements of a State
Liao (2014) further explains that states are created based on the elements mentioned below.
According to him, if these requirements are not followed or if there is a conflict or issue in one of
the elements, the legitimacy of the state is always challenged. He further emphasized that it is
important that a state is recognized by the international community, because without
recognition, its existence, authority and power are always in doubt.
1. People is the organization of human beings living together as a community.
2. Territory refers to the territorial domains over which the state exercises control or
sovereignty which includes all the land, sea and airspace the state exercises jurisdiction on.
3. Government is an agency to which the political ideology of the state is expressed and
carried out.
4. Sovereignty it is the power of the state to enforce the law over its people within its
jurisdiction and demand obedience from them.

Two Types of Sovereignty

There are two types of sovereignty according to Liao (2014).
1. Internal Sovereignty - the power of the state to command authority within its
jurisdiction.
2. External Sovereignty - the power and freedom of the state to carry out its activities
without foreign domination or control.

Duties of the State

According to Liao (2014) the following are the concerns of the state which are also considered
as its duties or responsibilities.
1. Peace and order and national security
2. Political harmony or good laws
3. Social justice
4. Economic development
5. Individual and collective development of people

Meaning of Nation
A nation is a group of people bound together by certain characteristics and shares the
same history, ancestry, culture, and language. Liao (2014)

Anderson (2006) asserted, as mentioned by Liao (2014) that nations were “imagined
communities” - it is imagined because even though people do not know each other or do not
meet all the members, they share the same common history, culture, language and tradition
that are practiced by every member; they have the same feelings of belongingness and talk
the same events that were part of their history even though they were miles away from one
another.
State and nation are often used interchangeably. Although many people think they are the
same, in context and concept the words nation and state are vastly different from one
another. State and nation’s functionalities and attributes can be used to analyse the
difference between the two terms.

Lesson 5: Evolution of Philippine Politics and Governance

1. Pre-Spanish Government
As stated by Buenaflor (2016), the Philippines was occupied by people from nearby islands
and form themselves into barangay. He mentions that the barangay was the local
government unit headed by a Rajah or Datu. Maginoos who act as the Council of
Elders assisted the Datu in implementing rules pass judgment and penalties to
maintain peace and order.

 The Spanish Government until the Japanese Military Administration

To learn more about the evolution of Philippine politics and government, read the
explanations below from Agoncillo (2012), Garcia (2015) and Buenaflor (2016).
 14 | P a g e

2. The Spanish Government

According to Agoncillo (2012), Spain established a centralized colonial government
in the Philippines that was composed of a national government and the local
governments that administered provinces, cities, towns and municipalities. He further
mentions that the governor general, as the King's representative and the highest-ranking
official in the Philippines exercised certain legislative powers: he issued proclamations to
facilitate the implementation of laws.
On the setting of local government, Agoncillo (2012) states that the Spaniards created local
government units to facilitate the country’s administration.

The two types of local government units were the alcadia and the corregimiento.
The alcadia, led by the alcalde mayor, governed the provinces that had been fully
controlled by the Spaniards. According to Garcia (2015), the corregimiento, headed by the
corregidor, governed the provinces that were not yet entirely under Spanish control).

The alcalde mayores represented the Spanish king and the governor general in their
respective provinces. Each province was divided into several towns or pueblos headed by
Gobernadorcillos, whose main concerns were efficient governance and tax collection.
(Agoncillo 2012)

3. The Katipunan Government

Agoncillo (2012) narrates that the Katipunan was a secret society that led the
revolution on August 26, 1896. It was organized by Andres Bonifacio with a structure that has a
central government vested in a Supreme Council. Referring to the other aspects of Katipunan
structure, Garcia (2015) mentions that in each province there was Provincial Council; in each
town a
Popular Council; and the Judicial Power was exercised by a Judicial Council. The Katipunan was
replaced by another government whose officials headed by Gen. Emilio Aguinaldo as President
were elected in Tejeros Convention on March 22, 1897. (Agoncillo 2012)

Biak-na-Bato Republic
On November 1, 1897, a republic was established by Gen. Emilio Aguinaldo in Biak-na-Bato (now
San Miguel de Mayumo, Bulacan) through the Biak-na-Bato Constitution. (Garcia 2015)
Biak-na-Bato Republic declared that the aim of the revolution was the “separation of the
Philippines from the Spanish monarchy and their formation into an independent state”. The Biak-
na-Bato Republic lasted up to December 15, 1897 with conclusion of the “Pact of Biak-na-Bato”-a
peace agreement between the Spanish Government and the revolutionary forces. (Agoncillo
2012)
Emilio Aguinaldo’s Dictatorial Government
The “Pact of Biak-na-Bato” failed and Gen. Emilio Aguinaldo returned to the Philippines and
resumed the fighting against the Spaniards. With military victories under his leadership,
according to Agoncillo (2012), Aguinaldo decided that it was time to establish a Filipino
government. He formed the Dictatorial Government on May 24, 1898. The most important
achievements of Dictatorial Government were the Proclamation of the Philippine Independence
in Kawit, Cavite on June 12, 1898 and the reorganizations of local governments. (Agoncillo 2012)
4. The American Colonial Period
Three kinds of government were created during the American Occupational Period: (1) military
government; (2) civil government; and (3) commonwealth government. (Buenaflor 2016).
Agoncillo (2012), Garcia (2015) and Buenaflor (2016) further explains the following:
• American Military Government
According to Buenaflor (2016), the American military rule in the Philippines began on April 4,
1898. Garcia (2015) explains that under this setting, the President of the United States had the
power to establish a military government in the Philippines, as Commander -in-Chief of all Armed
Forces of the
United States. His authority was delegated to the military governor who exercised all powers of
the government as long as the war lasted (Garcia 2015). First was Wesley Merritt, the second
was General Elwell Otis and the third and last was Major General Arthur MacArthur (Buenaflor
2016).
• Civil Government
Pursuant to the so-called Spooner Amendment (on the Army appropriation act passed in the US
Congress on March 3, 1901) which ended the military regime in the Philippines, the Civil
Government was inaugurated in Manila on July 4, 1901 (Garcia 2015). The position of the Civil
Governor was created on October 29, 1901 and exercised Legislative powers. He remained as
President of Philippine Commission, the sole law-making body of the government from 1901 to
1907(Agoncillo 2012).
 15 | P a g e

From 1907 to 1916, the Philippine Commission acted as the upper house of the Legislative
branch with the Philippine Assembly serving as the lower house. After the passage of the
Spooner Law in 1916, these two bodies gave way to the Philippine Legislature. The Philippines
was represented in the United States by two Resident Commissioners who were elected the
Philippine Legislature (Garcia 2015).

• The Commonwealth Government

The next chapter on the political development of the country was the establishment of the
Commonwealth government of the Philippines. Agoncillo (2012), Garcia (2015) and Buenaflor
(2016) explains that in pursuant to an act of United States Congress on March 24, 1934,
commonly known was the Tydings Mc Duffie Law, the law provided for a transition period of ten
years during which the Philippine Commonwealth would operate and at the expiration of the said
period on July 4, 1946, the independence of the Philippines would be proclaimed and established.
The Commonwealth Government of the Philippines was inaugurated on November 15, 1935,
following the first national election held on September 12, 1935 under the 1935 Constitution.
Manuel L. Quezon and Sergio Osmeńa, won as President and Vice President respectively.
(Agoncillo 2012)

5. The Japanese Military Administration

It was established in Manila on January 3, 1942, one day after its occupation by the Japanese
forces. Under a proclamation issued by the Japanese High Command, the sovereignty of the
United States over the Philippines was declared terminated. (Buenaflor 2016)

According to Buenaflor (2016), civil government known as the Philippine Executive Commission
composed of Filipinos was organized by the Japanese with Jorge B. Vargas as chairman of the
said commission. The Commission exercised both the executive and legislative powers.
Buenaflor 2016) clarifies that the laws enacted were, however, subject to the approval of the
Commander-in-Chief of the Japanese Forces. The Judiciary continued in the same form as it was
under the Commonwealth although it functioned without the independence which it had
traditionally enjoyed (Buenaflor 2016). In this government, Jose P. Laurel became the President
of the second Philippine Republic on October 14, 1943 (Agoncillo 2012).
 Lesson 2: The Third to Fifth Republic of the Philippines

You learned in Lesson 1 the evolution of Philippine government and governance from Pre-
Spanish to Japanese Colonial rule. In this lesson, your journey about the history of
government and politics in the Philippines will continue. According to Mendoza and Melegrito
(2016), the Philippines has more experience with democratic institutions compared with its
Asian neighbors. They further stated that Filipinos had witnessed both the promise of
democracy and the challenges of making democratic structures work for the benefit of all
members of society.

The Third Republic

As posted on the Official Gazette webpage of the Philippine Government as of July 20, 2020
the following are the Presidents of the Philippines with discussion about their administrations
from the Third Republic to Fourth Republic:
The Roxas Administration (May 28, 1946 – April 15, 1948)
President Manuel Roxas, became the first president of the independent
Republic of the Philippines. In an effort to solve the massive socio-economic
problems of the period, President Roxas reorganized the government, and
proposed a wide-sweeping legislative program.
His administration was marred by graft and corruption; moreover, the abuses
of the provincial military police contributed to the rise of the left-wing
Hukbalahap (Huk) movement in the
countryside. His heavy-handed attempts to crush the Huks led to widespread
peasant disaffection.
The Quirino Administration (April 17, 1948 – December
30, 1953)
President Elpidio Quirino’s goal as chief executive, as stated in his first
State of the Nation Address, revolved around strengthening the people’s
confidence in the government and the restoration of peace. In order to
achieve these, the Chief Executive travelled around the country to inspect
first-hand the condition of the nation.

President Quirino’s six years’ administration were marked by notable post-war reconstruction,
general economic gains, and increased economic aid from the United States. Basic social
 16 | P a g e

problems, however, particularly in the rural areas, remained unsolved; Quirino’s administration
was tainted by widespread graft and corruption.
The Magsaysay Administration (December 30, 1953 – March 17, 1957)
To help the rural masses was the focal point of the populist administration
of President Ramon Magsaysay. In his first Executive Order, he established the
Presidential Complaint and Action Commission, which investigated various
citizen complaints and recommended remedial actions through different
government agencies. The Commission served to boost the nation’s
confidence with its government; it was seen as a fulfilment of President
Magsaysay’s promise, to become a
President for the people. The principles of the Magsaysay
administration were codified in the Magsaysay Credo, and became the theme
of leadership and public service.
The Garcia Administration (March 18, 1957 – December 30, 1961)
Carlos P. Garcia’s administration promoted the “Filipino First” policy, whose
focal point was to regain economic independence; a national effort by Filipinos
to “obtain major and dominant participation in their economy.” ] The
administration campaigned for the citizens’ support in patronizing Filipino
products and services, and implemented import and currency controls
favourable for Filipino industries. In connection with the government’s goal of
self-sufficiency was the “Austerity Program,” which President Garcia described
in his first State of the Nation
Address as “more work, more thrift, more productive investment, and more
efficiency” that aimed to mobilize national savings. The Anti-Graft and Corrupt
Practices Act, through Republic Act No. 301, aimed to prevent corruption, and
promote honesty and public trust.
The Macapagal Administration (December 30, 1961- December 30, 1965)
President Diosdado Macapagal, during his inaugural address on December 30,
1961, emphasized the responsibilities and goals to be attained in the “new era”
that was the Macapagal administration. He reiterated his resolve to eradicate
corruption, and assured the public that honesty would prevail in his presidency.
President Macapagal, too, aimed at self-sufficiency and the promotion of every
citizen’s welfare, through the partnership of the government and private sector,
and to alleviate poverty by providing solutions for unemployment.
In the field of foreign relations, the Philippines became a founding member of
Maphilindo, through the Manila Accord of 1963. The regional organization of
Malay states strove for “Asian solutions by Asian nations for Asian problems,”
and aimed to solve national and regional problems through regional diplomacy.
The Marcos Administration - Fourth Republic (December 30, 1965 – February 25, 1986)
The last president of the Third Republic of the Philippines was President Ferdinand E. Marcos.
Prior to the events of Martial Law, the first term of the Marcos administration,
as emphasized in his inaugural address on December 30, 1965, focused on
“the revival of the greatness of the nation.”
President Marcos, was the first president to be re-elected, in 1969, although
the election was tainted by violence and allegations that Marcos used the
treasury to fund his campaign. However, significant protests, such as the First
Quarter Storm,
the communist and Moro insurgencies, and civil unrest, heightened. This made
Marcos in 1972 declare martial law and suspend the constitution. A new
constitution calling for a semi-presidential government was approved in 1973,
but Marcos still ruled by decree until 1978, when the Interim Batasang
Pambansa was elected. However, opposition groups, whose leaders mostly had already left in
exile, boycotted the election, and Marcos still allowed martial law to continue. Marcos did end
martial law in 1981, but opposition groups still boycotted the 1981 presidential election, which
Marcos easily won.

Opposition leader Benigno Aquino Jr. was slain upon his return to the country in 1983. By this
time, the government was marred by alleged rampant corruption and allegations of human
rights violations. The opposition participated in the 1984 parliamentary election and won several
seats, but not enough to topple Marcos' KBL. To counter growing opposition, Marcos called a
snap election in 1986, the opposition nominated Benigno's widow Corazon as their candidate.
Marcos was declared the winner, but the opposition refused to accept the result, alleging that
the election was rigged. The People Power Revolution drove Marcos from power, and Aquino
became president. Aquino ruled by decree in 1987 when a new constitution restoring the
presidential system was approved. In the ensuing legislative election, the pro-Aquino parties won
most of the seats in Congress.
 17 | P a g e

Fifth Republic (1986–Present Time)

As of July 20, 2020, according to the webpage of 5 th Philippine Republic Philippine History and
according to Mendoza and Melegrito (2016), the following are the Philippine Presidents from
1986 to present:
President Corazon Cojuangco-Aquino-the 11th president of the Philippines
and the first woman to become president of the country. The political
landscape of the country at that time did not look any better. To resolve this,
Aquino commissioned a referendum that would be the framework for the new
government. Released in February 1987, the new charter easily won the
approval of the public. Cory Aquino can be praised for a notable political reform
made during her tenure that aimed to decentralize political power in the
government - the 1991 Local Government Code (Mendoza and
Melegrito 2016)
As of July 20, 2020, according to the webpage of 5 th
Philippine Republic-Philippine History, Fidel V. Ramos took office in 1992 and
immediately worked on the country’s recovery and initiated the Social Reform
Agenda or SRA that was oriented towards alleviating poverty. He also led the
implementation of BuildOperate-Transfer (BOT) law which resulted into
improved public infrastructure and deregulated several industries that
liberalized the economy. Under his term, the country also had improvements in
its relations to secessionist Moro Islamic Liberation Front or
MNLF. He was the first Asian recipient of UNESCO Peace Award this effort. He
also came to be known as the ‘Centennial’ President for his successful
supervision of the 100th anniversary of the country’s independence from the
Spanish rule celebrated in June 12, 1998.
As of July 20, 2020, according to the webpage of 5 th Philippine Republic-
Philippine History Joseph Ejercito Estrada became the 13th president in 1998 after
Ramos finished his term. Estrada was the previous mayor in the municipality of
San Juan, Metro Manila and vice president of Ramos. He gained support in the
election for his promise to begin a pro-poor administration that his predecessors
failed to promote in their respective platforms and won with a wide margin. This
support spiralled down as his administration was accused with corruption. Critics
branded him
of failing to live up to his promises due to the resurfacing of cronyism in the
government.
According to Mendoza and Melegrito (2016), Gloria Macapagal
Arroyo became the president after Estrada was ousted thru People Power 2
uprising. In the 2004 Philippine National Elections, Arroyo run and
won the presidential race - she was seated into office for the second time.
Because of this, Mendoza and Melegrito (2016) further explained that she
became the second longest sitting president in the country. As of July 20, 2020,
according to the webpage of 5th Philippine Republic-
Philippine History Arroyo pushed for a “Stronger Republic” geared toward
vigorous economic reforms under her administration. However, her
administration was bombarded with several controversies and impeachment
attempts in the last five years. Discontentment lead to frequent protesters expressing their
disappointment and had their rallies at the streets.

As of July 20, 2020, according to the webpage of 5 th Philippine Republic-

Philippine History, Benigno Simeon Cojuangco Aquino III, a.k.a Noynoy and
PNoy, was proclaimed as the 15th president of the republic on June 30, 2010.
The same website added that Aquino's 6-year term is remembered for both
positive and negative events: he has been criticized for his government's slow
response to help the victims of Super Typhoon Yolanda, the Mamasapano
massacre and other crisis. In spite of these negative impressions, Aquino left
the presidency with a stable democracy and a higher credit rating. Fighting
corruption was a major objective in his administration to realize his election
campaign slogan “Daang Matuwid” or “Straight Path” (Mendoza and Melegrito
2016).

As of July 20, 2020, according to the webpage of 5 th Philippine Republic-

Philippine History, Rodrigo "Digong" Roa Duterte (a.k.a. Rody) takes oath as the
16th president of the Philippines at Malacanang Palace in Manila at 12 noon, June
30, 2016. The same website mentions that Duterte is a lawyer and politician; he
is the former mayor and former 1st district congressman of Davao City in
Mindanao -an island in the southern Philippines where Muslim insurgents are
based. He is the first president to come from Mindanao. Duterte is clamouring for
a change in the constitution from a presidential to a federal form of government.
Duterte won the presidential race as an outspoken, strong-willed crime fighter. He
 18 | P a g e

is however criticized for his alleged support of vigilante groups involved in extra-judicial killings
to fight crime.

Present President:
Insert details of FERDINAND ROMUALDEZ MARCOS JR.
Lesson 6: The Executive Branch of Government-The Role of the
Philippine President
As you learned from Module 1, the concept of government refers to the formal institutions
through which a group of people is ruled or governed. You must also remember the important
purposes of the government namely: maintenance of peace and order, protection of persons and
property, administration of justice, promotion of education, preservation of the state from
external danger and the advancement of the physical, economic and social and cultural well-
being of the people.
The focus of this lesson is on the Executive Branch of the Philippine Government, specifically
on the chief executive also called the President. Before you proceed with the lesson, list 9
important characteristics a president should possess. Each characteristic should start with each
letter in the word PRESIDENT. Write your answers on a separate sheet of paper.

The Philippine Government

The government of a country exercises three major functions: making of rules,
implementation of rules and adjudication or interpretation of rules in settling disagreements.
According to Garcia (2015), in the Philippine context, the national government consists of three
co-equal, interdependent and coordinated branches namely: The Executive for rule
implementation; The Legislative for rule-making and; The Judiciary for rule-adjudication or
interpretation.
As of July 15, 2020, the webpage of The Official Gazette of the Philippine Government
mentioned the following essential features of the different branches of the Philippine
Government:

The primary role of the Executive branch is to

execute or implement laws. It is headed by the
President who is elected by direct popular vote. The
Constitution grants the President authority to appoint
his Cabinet. These departments form a large portion
of the country’s bureaucracy.

The Legislative branch is authorized to make laws,

alter, and repeal them through the power vested in
the Philippine Congress. This institution is divided into
the Senate and the House of Representatives.

The Judicial branch

holds the power to settle controversies involving rights that
are legally demandable and enforceable. It is made up of a
Supreme Court and lower courts.

The Chief Executive of

Government: The President
The official title of the president is the “President of
the Philippines” with honorific “Your Excellency,” or
“His/Her Excellency.” Garcia (2015)
Official residence and office of the
President of the Philippines is at the Malacañang Palace located
in the country’s capital - Manila City.

According to Article VII of the 1987 Philippine Constitution as

cited in the webpage of The Official Gazette of the Philippine Government as of July 15, 2020, the
President of the Philippines is elected by direct vote by the people for a term of six years. He
may only serve for one term, and is ineligible for re-election. The term of the President of the
Philippines starts at noon of the 30th day of June after the election. The regular election for
President shall be held on the second Monday of May on the last year of the present president’s
term. The President is required to take the following oath before his/her assumption to office:
I do solemnly swear that I will faithfully and conscientiously fulfil my duties as President of the
Philippines, preserve and defend its Constitution, execute its laws, do justice to every man, and
consecrate myself to the service of the Nation. So help me God.
 19 | P a g e

Powers of the President

As of July 15, 2020, according to the webpage of The Official Gazette of the Philippine
Government and Garcia (2015), the following are the powers of the President of the
Philippines:
Executive Power. The power to enforce and administer laws.
Power of Appointment. The president has the power to appoint government officials in the
following posts:
1. Heads of executive departments
2. Members of the Constitutional Commissions
3. Ambassadors, public ministers and consuls
4. Officers of the Armed Forces of the Philippines (AFP) from the rank of colonel or
navy captain
Power of Control. As head of the government, the president is the chief executive who has the
responsibility to carry out government decisions. The President has control over all executive
departments, bureaus, and offices.

Military Power. As the Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces of the Philippines (AFP), one
of the military powers of the President is that he can order the AFP to prevent or suppress
lawless violence, invasion or rebellion exercised through the Department of National Defense.
Diplomatic or Foreign Relations Power. As head of the State, the President is the chief
diplomatic officer of the country.
Qualifications for Election into Office
As posted on the Official Gazette webpage of the Philippine Government as of July 17, 2020,
the qualifications for an individual aspiring to become the President of the Philippines are
outlined in Article VII, Section 2 of the 1987 Constitution. According to this reference, an
individual may become
President provided he meets the following criteria:
1. natural born Filipino;
2. a registered voter;
3. must be able to read and write;
4. 40 years of age at the day of the election; and
5. must have resided in the Philippines ten years before the election is held.

Lesson 7: The Legislative Branch of Government - The Philippine

Senate and The House of Representatives
As you learned from the previous module, the government of a country has three major
functions: rule-making, rule-implementation and rule adjudication or rule interpretation. You
learned in Module 6 the role and powers of the President of the Philippines or the country’s chief
executive. In this module, you will learn the features of another branch of gov Essential Features
of the Legislative Branch of Philippine Government
As of July 15, 2020, the webpage of The Official Gazette of the Philippine Government
mentioned the following essential features of the Legislative Branch or Philippine Congress as
indicated in Article VI of the 1987 Philippine Constitution:
- Legislative power shall be vested in Philippine Congress.
- It is a bicameral legislature consisting of two chambers or houses-the Upper House
known as the Senate and the Lower House which is also called the House of
Representatives.
- By a vote of two-thirds of both Houses in joint session assembled, voting separately,
Philippine Congress shall have the sole power to declare the existence of a state of war.
- The Senate shall elect its President and the House of Representatives its Speaker,
by a majority vote of all its respective Members.
- The Senate and the House of Representatives shall each have an Electoral Tribunal
which shall be the sole judge of all contests relating to the election, returns, and
qualifications of their respective Members.
- The Senate or the House of Representatives or any of its respective committees
may conduct inquiries in aid of legislation in accordance with its duly published rules of
procedure.
- Philippine Congress confirms or rejects Presidential appointments.
Composition of the Philippine Senate
As of July 15, 2020, according to the webpage of The Official Gazette of the Philippine
Government, the following pertain to the composition of the Philippine Senate as indicated in
Article VI of the 1987 Philippine Constitution:
- Lawmakers in the Senate are called Senators.
- The Senate shall be composed of twenty-four (24)
Senators who shall be elected at large or nationwide
through popular election by the qualified voters of the
Philippines, as may be provided by law.
 20 | P a g e

- Through synchronized elections, 12 senators are elected every three (3) years.

Terms of Office of Philippine Senators

- The term of office of the Senators shall be six years and shall commence, unless
otherwise provided by law, at noon on the thirtieth day of June next following their
election.
- No Senator shall serve for more than two consecutive terms.
- The regular election of the Senators shall be held on the second Monday of May.
- In case of vacancy in the Senate, a special election may be called to fill such
vacancy in the manner prescribed by law, but the Senator thus elected shall serve only for
the unexpired term.
Qualifications of Senator
1. a natural-born citizen of the Philippines;
2. at least thirty-five years old;
3. is able to read and write
4. a registered voter; and
5. a resident of the Philippines for not less than two years before election day.
Composition of the House of Representatives
As of July 15, 2020, according to the webpage of The Official Gazette of the Philippine
Government, the following pertain to the composition of the House of Representatives as
indicated in Article VI of the 1987 Philippine Constitution:
- Lawmakers composing the House of
Representatives are called
Representatives or
Congressmen/Congresswomen.
- The House of Representatives shall be
composed of not more than two hundred and
fifty members, unless otherwise
fixed by law, who shall be elected from
legislative districts apportioned among the
provinces, cities, and the Metropolitan Manila
area in accordance with the number of their
respective inhabitants. The party-list
representatives shall constitute twenty per centum of the total number of representatives
including those under the party list.

Terms of Office of Members of House of Representatives

- A Representative can serve for not more than three consecutive terms.
- The Members of the House of Representatives shall be elected for a term of three
years which shall begin, unless otherwise provided by law, at noon on the thirtieth day of
June next following their election.
- No Member of the House of Representatives shall serve for more than three
consecutive terms.
- The regular election of the Members of the House of Representatives shall be held
on the second Monday of May.
- In case of vacancy in the House of Representatives, a special election may be called
to fill such vacancy in the manner prescribed by law, but the Member of the House of
Representatives thus elected shall serve only for the unexpired term.

Qualifications of Member of the House of Representatives

1. a natural-born citizen of the Philippines;
2. at least twenty-five years old;
3. is able to read and write; and
4. except the party-list representatives, a registered voter and a resident for at least
one year in the district where s/he shall be elected.

Legislative Process
According to The Official Gazette of the Philippine Government as of July 15, 2020, the
Philippine Congress is responsible for making enabling laws. This role is important to ensure that
the spirit of the constitution is upheld in the country and laws are essential in regulating the
interactions of people among themselves and with the government. The legislative body comes
out with two main documents in order to craft laws: bills and resolutions.
Resolutions convey principles and sentiments of the Senate or the House of Representatives.
These resolutions can further be divided into three different elements:
 21 | P a g e

- Joint Resolutions — require the approval of both chambers of Congress and the
signature of the President, and have the force and effect of a law if approved.
- Concurrent Resolutions — used for matters affecting the operations of both
chambers of Congress and must be approved in the same form by both houses, but are
not transmitted to the President for his signature and therefore have no force and effect of
a law.
- Simple Resolutions — deal with matters entirely within the prerogative of one
chamber of Congress, are not referred to the President for his signature, and therefore
have no force and effect of a law.

Bills are laws in the making. They pass into law when they are approved by both houses
and the President of the Philippines. A bill may be vetoed by the President, but the House of
Representatives may overturn a presidential veto by garnering a 2/3rds vote. If the President
does not act on a proposed law submitted by Congress, it will lapse into law after 30 days of
receipt.
Exclusive Role of Philippine Congress
The Philippine Congress has an exclusive and a very important role concerning the
accountability of public officers as indicated in Article XI of the 1987 Philippine Constitution which
can be found at the webpage of The Official Gazette of the Philippine Government. Specifically,
the role pertains to the process of removing the President, the Vice-President, the Members of
the Supreme Court, the Members of the Constitutional Commissions, and the Ombudsman in
their respective positions. This process is called impeachment and shall be grounded on the
culpable violation of the Constitution, treason, bribery, graft and corruption, other high crimes, or
betrayal of public trust by the above-mentioned public officials.
All cases of impeachment shall be initiated at the House of Representatives. The Senate tries
and shall decide on all cases and if the President of the Philippines is facing the impeachment
case, the Chief Justice of the Philippine Supreme Court will preside but shall not vote. If the case
involves the Vice-President, the Members of the Supreme Court, the Members of the
Constitutional Commissions, and the Ombudsman, the Senate President shall preside. No person
shall be convicted without the concurrence of two-thirds of all the Members of the Senate.
Lesson 8: The Judicial Branch of Government- The Philippine
Judiciary

As you learned from the previous module, the government of a

country has three major functions: rule-making, rule-
implementation and rule adjudication or rule interpretation. You
learned in Module 7 the roles and responsibilities of the lawmaking
branch of Philippine government, the legislature. In this module, you
will learn the features of another branch of government in charge
with the adjudication or interpretation of laws in the country-the
Philippines Judiciary.

Essential Features of the Judicial Branch of Philippine Government

As indicated in Article VIII of the 1987 Philippine Constitution as of
July 15, 2020 at the webpage of The Official Gazette of the Philippine
Government, the judicial power shall be vested in one Supreme Court
and in such lower courts as may be established by law. As defined in the
same article, judicial power includes the duty of the courts of justice to
settle actual controversies involving rights which are legally demandable
and enforceable, and to determine whether or not there has been a
grave abuse of discretion amounting to lack or excess of jurisdiction on
the part of any branch or instrumentality of the Government. The role of
judiciary is important because this branch interprets the meaning of
laws, applies laws to individual cases, and decides if laws violate the
Constitution.
According to the Judiciary Organization Act of 1980, the Philippine
judicial system is composed of lower courts and
the highest court.
I. Lower Courts
Municipal Trial Courts and Municipal Circuit
Trial Court
Every municipality in the Philippines has
a municipal trial court. It is called municipal court if
 22 | P a g e

it covers only one municipality; it is called municipal circuit court if it covers two or more
municipalities.
Metropolitan Trial Courts and Municipal Trial Courts in Cities
Municipal trial courts inside the Metropolitan Area are called Metropolitan trial courts.
Municipal trial courts in cities outside Metropolitan Manila are called Municipal trial courts in
cities.
Regional Trial Courts (RTC)
Regional Trial Courts are called second level courts and are divided into thirteen (13) judicial
regions (further subdivided into several branches). RTCs are called appellate courts because
these courts hear appeals and review the decisions of lower courts.
Shari’a Courts
Shari’a Courts settle legal conflicts between Muslim Filipinos in the sphere of customary and
personal laws.
Court of Appeals
Court of Appeals has jurisdiction over appeals from the decision of the Regional Trial Courts.
Sandiganbayan
This is a special court that has exclusive jurisdiction on committed violations of anti-graft and
corruption laws by public officials and employees in relation to their position and office.
II. Highest Court
Supreme Court
The Supreme Court is the highest court in the Philippines.
It is the final court that decides in any and all judicial issues. It
can review, revise, reverse, modify, or affirm, final judgments
and orders of the lower court. The most common reason by
which a case reaches the Supreme Court is through an appeal
from a decision rendered by a lower court. Appealed cases
generally originate from cases tried in the trial courts. The
Supreme Court does not entertain cases originally filed before
it that should have been filed first with the trial courts.

Functions of the Supreme Court

There are two categories in the functions of the Supreme Court: administrative and judicial.
Administrative Functions
- Supervision and control over the judicial branch of the government and its
employees.
- Declare rules for the admission into the practice of law, for legal assistance to the
underprivileged, and the procedural rules to be observed in all courts throughout the
country.
Judicial Functions
- Settlement of actual controversies involving rights which are legally demandable
and enforceable.
- Judicial Review or the power of the Supreme Court to inquire into the
constitutionality of the acts of both the executive and legislative branches of government.
Composition of Supreme Court
As indicated in Article VIII of the 1987 Philippine Constitution, the Supreme Court is composed
of one (1) Chief Justice and fourteen (14) Associate Justices. The Philippine President appoints
members of the judiciary from a list submitted by the Judicial and Bar Council which is under the
supervision of the Supreme Court.
Qualifications
The following are the requirements to be appointed to the Supreme Court:
- Natural-born citizen of the Philippines
- At least 50 years old at the time of appointment
- Must have been a judge of a lower court or engaged in the practice of law in the country
for 15 years or more
- Must be a person of proven competence, integrity, probity and independence.
Tenure of Service
The term of office of Supreme Court members is not fixed. Their tenure during good behavior
is until they reach seventy years old or become incapacitated to perform their duties. They can
be removed from their position only through impeachment.
III. Katarungang Pambarangay
As of July 15, 2020, The Official Gazette of the Philippine Government mentioned under the
topic of Philippine Judiciary the existence of Katarungang Pambarangay. Through Katarungang
Pambarangay Law (Presidential Decree No. 1508), a system of amicably settling disputes at the
barangay level was established. It aims to promote the speedy administration of justice by
easing the congestion of court dockets. The court does not take cognizance of cases filed if they
are not filed first with the Katarungang Pambarangay.

End of the lesson

23 | P a g e