VEGETATION COMMUNITIES IN EAST AFRICA

First, vegetation: it simply means all the plants in a defined area. A plant community is also a
collection or association of plant species within a designated geographical unit, which forms a
relatively uniform patch, distinguishable from neighboring patches of different vegetation types.

Biomes can be defined as the major communities of the world, classified according to their
predominant vegetation and characterized by adaptations of organisms to that particular
environment.

What Role Does Fire Play in Biomes?

There is a tendency to view fire as a destructive, sporadic event that is to be avoided at all cost.
While fires can be destructive, life in the subtropical scrub and woodland biome and grassland
biome has adapted particularly well to fire and is even dependent upon it. Fire has played a very
significant role in making of the African Savannah.

Climate, vegetation and fire are inextricably linked. The conceptual diagram below expresses the
strength and direction of the relationship between these elements through the thickness and
direction of the arrows.

Strength and direction of the relationship between vegetation, fire and climate

Within any given biome, local-scale differences in climate and vegetation will result in
differences in the prevailing fire regime.

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Major types of vegetation communities in East Africa
(i) TROPICAL RAIN FORESTS

The tropical rain forest is a forest of tall trees in a region of year-round warmth. An average of 50
to 260 inches (125 to 660 cm.) of rain falls yearly. Rain forests belong to the tropical wet climate
group. The temperature in a rain forest rarely gets higher than 93 °F (34 °C) or drops below 68 °F
(20 °C); average humidity is between 77 and 88%; rainfall is often more than 100 inches a year.
There is usually a brief season of less rain. In monsoonal areas, there is a real dry season. Almost
all rain forests lie near the equator. Rainforests now cover less than 6% of Earth's land surface.
Kakamega Forest is a good example of this type of vegetation community.

Layers of the Rainforest

There are four very distinct layers of trees in a tropical rain forest. These layers have been identified
as the emergent, upper canopy, understory, and forest floor.
Emergent trees are spaced wide apart, and are 100 to 240 feet tall with umbrella-shaped canopies
that grow above the forest. Because emergent trees are exposed to drying winds, they tend to have
small, pointed leaves.

The upper canopy of 60 to 130 foot trees allows light to be easily available at the top of this layer,
but greatly reduced any light below it. Most of the rainforest's animals live in the upper canopy.
There is so much food available at this level that some animals never go down to the forest floor.
The leaves have "drip spouts" that allows rain to run off. This keeps them dry and prevents mold
and mildew from forming in the humid environment.

The understory, or lower canopy, consists of 60 foot trees. This layer is made up of the trunks of
canopy trees, shrubs, plants and small trees. There is little air movement. As a result the humidity
is constantly high. This level is in constant shade.

The forest floor is usually completely shaded, except where a canopy tree has fallen and created
an opening. Most areas of the forest floor receive so little light that few bushes or herbs can grow
there.

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Figure 1: The four very distinct layers of trees in a tropical rain forest

Plant Life
Besides these four layers, a shrub/sapling layer receives about 3 % of the light that filters in through
the canopies. These stunted trees are capable of a sudden growth surge when a gap in the canopy
opens above them. The air beneath the lower canopy is almost always humid. The trees themselves
give off water through the pores (stomata) of their leaves. This process, called transpiration, can
account for as much as half of the precipitation in the rain forest.

Rainforest plants have made many adaptations to their environment.

With over 80 inches of rain per year, plants have made adaptations that help them shed water off
their leaves quickly so the branches don't get weighed down and break.
[The plants have adaptation of mesophytes- i.e. plants that grows in areas with abundant
amounts of water/rainfall]

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 • Many plants have drip tips and grooved leaves, and some leaves have oily coatings to
shed water.
• To absorb as much sunlight as possible on the dark understory, leaves are very large.
• Some trees have leaf stalks that turn with the movement of the sun so they always absorb
the maximum amount of light.
• Leaves in the upper canopy are dark green, small and leathery to reduce water loss in the
strong sunlight.
• Some trees will grow large leaves at the lower canopy level and small leaves in the upper
canopy.
• Other plants grow in the upper canopy on larger trees to get sunlight. These are the
epiphytes such as orchids and bromeliads.
• Many trees have buttress and stilt roots for extra support in the shallow, wet soil of the
rainforests.

Lianas start off as small shrubs that grow on the forest floor. To reach the sunlight in the upper
canopy it sends out tendrils to grab sapling trees.
Trees of the same species are very seldom found growing close together. This bio diversity and
separation of the species prevents mass contamination and die-off from disease or insect
infestation. Bio diversity also insures that there will be enough pollinators to take care of each
species' needs.

Examples of dominant plant species:

• Aningeria spp
• Antiaris spp
• Khaya spp

Animal Life
Many species of animal life can be found in the rain forest.
Common characteristics found among mammals and birds (and reptiles and amphibians, too)
include adaptations to a life in the trees, such as the prehensile tails of monkeys. Other
characteristics are bright colors and sharp patterns, loud vocalizations, and diets heavy on fruits.
Insects make up the largest single group of animals that live in tropical forests. They include
brightly colored butterflies, mosquitoes, camouflaged stick insects, and huge colonies of ants.
Examples

(ii) Deciduous Forest and Scrub

This plant community is found in wetter areas of tropical wet and dry climate. While there is
enough rain for trees to grow, the long dry season forces the trees to lose their leaves (these are
called deciduous trees), unlike the trees in the rain forest.

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The plants drop their leaves, not because it is too cold, but because there is not enough water; the
plants become dormant until rain falls and they can grow again.
Trees of a tropical deciduous forest and scrub do not grow close together (this is known as an open
canopy).
The trees are shorter and farther apart as their roots spread out in search of water. Sunlight reaches
the forest floor, which encourages an undergrowth of bushes to thrive. In areas that receive less
rainfall, there is not enough water for trees to grow, and scrub (shrubs and stunted trees) replaces
the forest. During the dry season, fires are not uncommon.
The scrub plants have adaptations to survive a drier climate - thick bark; small, fat,
evergreen leaves that store water; and protective thorns. This community represents a gradual
change from the tropical rain forest to the savanna.
(iii) Savanna

A savanna is a rolling grassland scattered with shrubs and isolated trees, which can be found
between a tropical rainforest and desert biome. Not enough rain falls on a savanna to support
forests. Savannas are also known as tropical grasslands. They are found in a wide band on either
side of the equator on the edges of tropical rainforests.

Savannas have warm temperature year round. There are actually two very different seasons in a
savanna; a very long dry season (winter), and a very wet season (summer). In the dry season only
an average of about 4 inches of rain falls. Between December and February no rain will fall at all.
Oddly enough, it is actually a little cooler during this dry season. But don't expect sweater weather;
it is still around 70° F.

East African savannas have large herds of grazing and browsing hoofed animals. Each animal has
a specialized eating habit that reduces competition for food. The East African savannas are covered
with acacia trees. The Serengeti Plains of Tanzania are some of the most well known. Here animals
like lions, zebras, elephants, and giraffes and many types of ungulates (animals with hooves) graze
and hunt. Many large grass-eating mammals (herbivores) can survive here because they can move
around and eat the plentiful grasses. There are also lots of carnivores (meat eaters) who eat them
in turn.

Plants of the savannas are highly specialized to grow in this environment of long periods of
drought.
• They have long tap roots that can reach the deep water table, thick bark to resist annual
fires, trunks that can store water, and leaves that drop of during the winter to conserve
water.
• The grasses have adaptations that discourage animals from grazing on them; some
grasses are too sharp or bitter tasting for some animals, but not others, to eat. The side

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 benefit of this is that every species of animal has something to eat. Different species will
also eat different parts of the grass.
• Many grasses grow from the bottom up, so that the growth tissue doesn't get damaged
by grazers.
• Many plants of the savanna also have storage organs like bulbs and corms for making it
though the dry season.

Plants found on the African Savanna Grasslands

There are many different types of plants found on the African savanna all of which have to be
able to withstand long periods of drought in order to survive the long dry season.
Below is a list of the most common plants found on these African landforms.

• River bushwillow (Combretum) - This shrub has leaves that change colors with the
change in the seasons. It blossoms a yellowish flower that has a poisonous fruit.
• Okra - This plant has yellow or white flowers and can grow over six feet tall. The okra
produces fruit that can be eaten.
• Bermuda Grass - This grass makes a thick mat on the ground and can survive through
droughts.
• Thorny Trees - These trees include the senegal gum acacia, umbrella thorn acacia and the
whistling thorn acacia.
• Other trees - The non-thorny trees, baobab, manketti, candelabra, and the Jackalberry tree
are also found on the African grasslands.

Animals found on the African Savanna Grasslands

There are an abundance of animals found on the grasslands that are all well equipped to
withstand the extreme conditions. These animals are dependent on each other to keep the
environment in balance. Savanna animals are all in a constant search for food and water. Some of
these animals are listed below.

• Lions - can grow up to ten feet long. They live in groups called prides. The males are
larger than the females and have a shaggy mane.
• African elephants - are the largest land mammals on earth and can weigh up to twenty
thousand pounds.
• Cheetahs- are the fastest land animals in the world. In short spurts they can reach a speed
of seventy miles per hour.
• Zebras - roam the savanna in large herds eating grass. Their senses are very keen which
helps them avoid being caught by predators.
• Cape buffalo - This aggressive large bovine is very unpredictable and dangerous. They
kill over two hundred people on average every year. It is a popular target for hunting
safaris.

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 • Giraffes - are the tallest animals in the world reaching up to twenty feet tall. Their long
necks help them reach the leaves at the tops of trees where other animals cannot reach.
One of their favorite trees to eat leaves from is the acacia.

(iv) Desert Scrub

Many plants are able to survive in a desert; indeed, very few areas on Earth have no life at all.
Desert plants have adaptations to live in the heat with little water. They are short and grow far
apart from each other, so the roots of each plant can collect and store water. Many bushes grow
and flower rapidly after a rain shower. Some plants are deciduous during the dry season; others
have leaves that remain but are adapted to minimize loss of water. Plants called succulents, which
have thick bark, swollen stems, and fat leaves to store water, do well in this harsh environment.
Other plants have spines (modified leaves) and green stems to manufacture nutrients. Oases occur
where underground water comes close to the ground surface. The vegetation is more lush here,
and oases are very attractive to wildlife.

[Plants in this community have adaptations of xerophytes- i.e. plants that thrive in water-
stressed environments]
The first adaptation has to do with their stomata and limiting water loss. Stomata are the
microscopic openings in leaves that permit gas exchange. Think of them as pores for plants. And
just like human pores release sweat, plant stomata release water in the form of water vapor.
Certain xerophytes have a waxy covering over their stomata, thus curbing water loss. Others
contain very few stomata, or stomata that only open at night when it's cooler. Each of these
adaptations limits water loss and allows the plant to survive in dry environments. An example of
this type of plant is Adam's Needle (Yucca filamentosa). This plant can survive in harsh dry
desert environments because of its waxy covering.
The second type of adaptation is focused on storing water instead of just limiting water loss.
To do this plants have developed succulent leaves, plant stems, or tubers that can store water
when it cannot be obtained directly from the environment.
Examples of plants
The vegetation consist mostly of grasses including Eragrostis (lovegrass), Aristida, and
Stipagrostis, as well as scattered trees and shrubs including Acacia, Colophospermum,
Commiphora, and Terminalia.

(v) Montane

The vegetation that grows on a mountain is very different from that of the surrounding lowlands.
Tall mountains intercept the movement of clouds, forcing rain to fall on their slopes. For example
on Mt Kenya

At the base of the mountain, tall trees form an open canopy forest; the trees are able to grow here
because there is enough water and it is not too cold. The plant communities change in response to

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the cooler temperatures at higher elevations. Vegetation gets shorter; the montane rain forest gives
way to bamboo forest and then open grassland with smaller trees and shrubs. Leaves are smaller
and the trunks of trees are twisted. As the air gets colder, short grasses, mosses, lichens, and other
plants replace the shrubs. Beyond a certain elevation it is too cold for any plants, except for hardy
lichens, to grow at all.

Figure 2. Zonation and characteristics of vegetation of Mount Kenya. The vegetation zones
around Mount Kenya interpreted from Landsat TM satellite scenes from 1976 to 1990s are
shown (after Niemela and Pellikka, 2004).

(vi) Riparian zone

Riparian zones consist of trees, shrubs, and grasses that form along streams, creating a local
environment that is more lush with vegetation that the surrounding land. Due to the presence of

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flowing water for all or part of the year, riparian zones can host a very different biome than the
surrounding region.

Riparian zones occur in many settings, such as grasslands, savannas, and various forests. They are
best expressed, however, in deserts and other arid lands, where the contrast between dry uplands
and lush valleys can be sharp. They can form even where water is not flowing but is just below the
surface. Riparian zones allow habitats for birds, shade-loving vegetation, and other organisms not
otherwise common away from the stream valley. The water and vegetation in turn attract diverse
types of animals, including frogs and other amphibians, snakes and other reptiles, and mammals,
like moose.
(vii) Mangrove

The term “mangrove” refers to an assemblage of tropical trees and shrubs that grows in the
intertidal zone. Mangroves include approximately 16 families and 40 to 50 species (depending on
classification). According to Tomlinson (1986), the following criteria are required for a species to
be designated a “true or strict mangrove”:
1. Complete fidelity to the mangrove environment.
2. Plays a major role in the structure of the community and has the ability to form pure stands.
3. Morphological specialization for adaptation to the habitat.
4. Physiological specialization for adaptation to their habitat.
5. Taxonomic isolation from terrestrial relatives.
Thus, mangrove is a non-taxonomic term used to describe a diverse group of plants that are all
adapted to a wet, saline habitat.

Reproductive Strategies
Mangroves have little capacity for vegetative propagation and are thus dependent on seedlings for
forest maintenance and spread (Tomlinson 1986). Although some species (A. germinans and L.
racemosa) can resprout from stumps (coppicing), this process is not equivalent to propagation.
Mangroves exhibit two relatively unique reproductive strategies: hydrochory and vivipary
(Tomlinson1986; Rabinowitz 1978). Hydrochory (dispersal by water) is a major means which
mangrove spreads seeds, fruit, and/or propagules. Tidal action can carry mangrove diaspores great
distances from their point
of origin. Vivipary refers to the condition in which the mangrove embryo germinates while still
attached to the parent tree.

Zonation
Spatial variation in species occurrence and abundance is frequently observed across
environmental gradients in many types of ecosystems. Zonation of plant communities in intertidal
habitats is particularly striking and often results in monospecific bands of vegetation occurring
parallel to the shoreline. Although zonation patterns are usually depicted in a manner that suggests
a rigid sequence proceeding from the shoreline to upland regions, many patterns resemble a mosaic

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with vegetational patterns occurring repeatedly where the land mass is interrupted by watercourses
or other variations in topography.

Figure 3. Zonation in a mangrove forest

Ecological Significance
Most ecologists today view mangroves as highly productive, ecologically important systems. Four
major roles of mangrove swamps are recognized:
1. Mangroves contribute to soil formation and help stabilize coastlines.
2. Mangroves act as filters for upland runoff.
3. Mangrove systems serve as habitat for many marine organisms such as fish, crabs, oysters, and
other invertebrates and wildlife such as birds and reptiles.
4. Mangroves produce large amounts of detritus that may contribute to productivity in offshore
waters.
In addition to these ecologically important roles, mangrove forests possess attributes that are
specifically important to humans:
1. Mangrove forests serve as protection for coastal communities against storms such as hurricanes.
2. Mangrove forests serve as nurseries and refuge for many marine organisms that are of
commercial or sport value. Areas where widespread destruction of mangrove has occurred usually
experience a decline in fisheries.
3. Many threatened or endangered species reside in mangrove forests.
4. Mangrove forests are also important in terms of aesthetics and tourism. Many people visit these
areas for sports fishing, boating, bird watching, snorkeling, and other recreational pursuits.

Adaptation of halophytes to survive in their environment

• High osmotic concentration of the cell sap: - The halophytes have cell sap concentration
at much higher level than that of the surrounding sea water, so that they can absorb water
from the sea. This is the single most important adaptive feature with out which they
would not live.

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 In fact, this feature is present in all the marine plants such as sea weeds and the kelps. It
is as much as 12 times higher than the one found in ordinary land plants.
• Presence of thick epidermis: - The leaf epidermis is thickly cuticularised to prevent
excessive transpiration. The stomata are less frequent or sunken on the upper epidermis
and located mostly along the lower epidermis, which is not much exposed to direct harsh
sunlight in this, they are similar to desert plants or xerophytes.
• Presence of salt excreting glands: - On the leaf surface, they have special glands through
which they get rid of the excess sea salt that accumulates in the body.
• Vivipary germination: - this is yet another feature unique to these plants, in which the
seed begins to germinate while the fruit is still attached to the parental tree. The radicle
that comes out is massive and tapering. When it the seed finally gets detached from the
parent it sinks vertically down like a dart due to this massive radicle and the radicle gets
embedded in the mud/sand. Thus, the possibility of the seed being washed away with the
tides in to deep sea and lost is entirely eliminated.
It is because of this habit, the halophytes (Mangroves) develop thick impenetrable forests
wherever they grow.
• Halophytes develop many shallow normal roots. In halophytes, in addition to normal
roots, many stilt or prop roots develop from the aerial branches of stem for efficient
anchorage in muddy or loose sandy soil. These roots grow downward and enter the deep
and tough strata of the soil.

The Flora of Tropical East Africa (FTEA) is a catalogue of all 12,104 known wild plant species
in Uganda, Kenya, and Tanzania. The project began in 1948 and was finally completed in
September 2012. Approximately 1,500 new plant species were described, by 135 botanists from
21 countries.[1]

The Flora of Tropical East Africa, a project of Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, is the largest
regional tropical Flora ever compiled. The species covered include 3-4% of the world's known
plant species. When the project began in 1948, botanists thought they would be finished in
fifteen years. Just in the last four years, 114 new species were described.[1][2]

The FTEA is an important tool for conservation of plants, wildlife, and habitat in the entire
region. Approximately 2,500 of the species are endemic, or unique, to the area. The project will
be used in collaboration with groups such as the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species in order
to protect those species threatened with habitat loss or extinction.[

Threats to flora of East Africa

The major threats to plant diversity include habitat loss, fragmentation, and degradation,
overexploitation, invasive species, pollution, and anthropogenic climate change

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What is a threatened plant species?

Threatened species are the number of species classified by the IUCN as endangered, vulnerable,
rare, indeterminate, out of danger, or insufficiently known. Some examples of Endangered plant
species in Kenya include:

NO COMMON NAME SCIENTIFIC NAME

1 Camphor Ocotea kenyensis
2 East African sandalwood Osyris lanceolata
3 Meru oak Vitex keniensis
4 Parasol tree Polyscias kikuyuensis
5 Rat aloe Aloe ballyi
6 Red stinkwood Prunus africana
7 Tana river poplar Populus ilicifolia
8 Voi cycad Encephalartos kisambo

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