Topic - Physiography

Q 1.Describe briefly the role of the role of the Himalayas in the resource development of the
country
Ans The Himalayas play a crucial role in the resource development of the country in several
ways:
1. Water Resources: They are the source of major rivers like the Ganga, Brahmaputra, and
Indus, providing water for irrigation, hydroelectric power, and drinking purposes.
2. Forest Resources: The Himalayan forests supply timber, fuelwood, medicinal plants, and
other forest products, supporting industries and local livelihoods.
3. Mineral Resources: The region has deposits of minerals like limestone, copper, lead, zinc,
and gypsum, which contribute to industrial growth.
4. Agriculture and Horticulture: The fertile valleys and terraced farming support the
cultivation of crops like rice, wheat, and maize, along with fruits such as apples, walnuts, and
oranges.
5. Tourism and Economy: The Himalayas attract tourists for adventure sports, pilgrimage,
and ecotourism, generating revenue and employment.
6. Climate Regulation: They act as a climatic barrier, influencing monsoons and protecting
northern plains from cold winds, which supports agriculture and biodiversity.
7. Biodiversity and Medicinal Plants: The Himalayas are home to diverse flora and fauna,
including rare medicinal plants used in pharmaceuticals and traditional medicine.

Thus, the Himalayas significantly contribute to the country's economic, environmental, and
social development.

Q2.Name the main Physiographic divisions of india and give the salient features of each
division.
Ans India is divided into six main physiographic divisions, each with distinct geographical
and geological features:
1. The Northern Mountains (Himalayas):
•Extend from Jammu & Kashmir to Arunachal Pradesh.
•Comprise three parallel ranges: Greater Himalayas (Himadri), Lesser Himalayas
(Himachal), and Shivaliks.
•Act as a climatic barrier and a source of major rivers.
•Rich in biodiversity, forests, and mineral resources.
2. The Northern Plains:
•Stretch from Punjab to Assam, formed by the deposition of alluvium by rivers like the
Ganga, Indus, and Brahmaputra.
•Highly fertile and densely populated, making it an agricultural hub.
•Divided into three sections: Punjab Plains, Ganga Plains, and Brahmaputra Plains.
3. The Peninsular Plateau:
•The oldest landmass of India, formed by igneous and metamorphic rocks.
•Bordered by the Western and Eastern Ghats, with Deccan Plateau in the south and the
Central Highlands in the north.
•Rich in minerals like iron, coal, and manganese, supporting industries.
4. The Indian Desert (Thar Desert):
•Located in Rajasthan, extending into Gujarat and Haryana.
•Characterized by arid climate, sand dunes, and low rainfall.
•Sparse vegetation, with camel-based transportation and traditional water conservation
systems.
5. The Coastal Plains:
•Stretch along the Arabian Sea (Western Coastal Plains) and the Bay of Bengal (Eastern
Coastal Plains).
•Western Coastal Plains are narrow and have backwaters (Kerala).
•Eastern Coastal Plains are wider and have deltas of major rivers like the Godavari, Krishna,
and Mahanadi.
Important for agriculture, ports, and fishing industries.
6. The Islands:
•Lakshadweep Islands in the Arabian Sea are coral atolls and reefs.
•Andaman and Nicobar Islands in the Bay of Bengal have volcanic origin, dense forests, and
strategic importance.
•Support tourism, biodiversity, and marine resources.
•These physiographic divisions shape India’s climate, economy, and way of life.

Q3.What is the exclusive economic zone of india? Why has it been constituted?
Ans. Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) of India
India's Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) extends up to 200 nautical miles (about 370 km)
from its coastline into the sea, as per the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea
(UNCLOS). India has an EEZ of about 2.37 million square kilometers, covering the Arabian
Sea, Bay of Bengal, and the Indian Ocean.
Why has the EEZ been constituted?
The EEZ has been constituted to grant India special rights over marine resources and
activities, including:
1. Resource Exploration & Utilization – India has exclusive rights to explore and exploit
natural resources like oil, gas, minerals, and marine biodiversity.
2. Fishing & Aquaculture – It ensures sustainable fishing practices and protects Indian
fishermen’s rights.
3. Scientific Research – Supports oceanographic and climatic research, contributing to
environmental and disaster management.
4. Energy Production – Allows India to harness offshore wind, tidal, and wave energy.
5. Security & Maritime Control – Helps in monitoring naval activities, combating piracy, and
protecting India’s maritime interests.
Thus, the EEZ strengthens India’s economic, strategic, and environmental interests in its
surrounding waters.

Q4. What is the importance of Indian Ocean for India?

Ans.The Indian Ocean is vital for India's economic growth, national security, and geopolitical
influence.
Importance of the Indian Ocean for India
1. Economic Importance:
•Trade & Commerce: Over 90% of India’s trade by volume and nearly 70% by value is
carried through the Indian Ocean.
•Energy Security: India imports a large portion of its oil and natural gas through this ocean.
•Fishing Industry: Supports millions of livelihoods and contributes significantly to India’s
economy.
•Mineral & Hydrocarbon Reserves: Rich in oil, gas, and polymetallic nodules, essential for
industrial growth.
2. Strategic & Security Importance:
•Maritime Security: Protecting vital sea lanes is crucial for India’s trade and defense.
•Naval Power Projection: India maintains a strong naval presence with bases in the
Andaman & Nicobar Islands to counter threats like piracy and foreign military activities.
•Geopolitical Influence: India plays a key role in regional organizations like the Indian Ocean
Rim Association (IORA) and SAGAR (Security and Growth for All in the Region).
3. Climatic & Environmental Significance:
•Monsoon Regulation: The Indian Ocean influences India’s climate and rainfall, which is
crucial for agriculture.
•Disaster Management: Early warnings for cyclones, tsunamis, and rising sea levels help
protect coastal populations.
4. Connectivity & Diplomacy:
•Blue Economy Development: Promotes coastal tourism, port development, and sustainable
ocean resource utilization.
•International Relations: Strengthens India’s diplomatic ties with Indian Ocean nations
through initiatives like Project Mausam and SAGAR.
Conclusion
The Indian Ocean is a strategic and economic lifeline for India. Its proper utilization and
security are essential for India's long-term development and global influence.
Q5.Write notes of Tarai Region.
Ans. The Tarai region is a lowland belt located at the foothills of the Himalayas, stretching
across Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and West Bengal in India and extending into
Nepal.
Salient Features:-
1. Location & Geography:
•Lies between the Bhabar region (north) and the Gangetic Plains (south).
•Characterized by marshy lands, dense forests, and high groundwater levels.
2. Soil & Agriculture:
•The soil is fertile and alluvial, making it suitable for rice, wheat, sugarcane, and maize
cultivation.
•The region has a high water table, leading to swampy and waterlogged conditions in many
areas.
3. Flora & Fauna:
•Home to tropical moist deciduous forests and national parks like Dudhwa National Park in
Uttar Pradesh.
•Supports diverse wildlife, including tigers, elephants, and rhinoceroses.
4. Economic & Social Importance:
•Agriculture & Forestry: Major source of livelihood, with timber and medicinal plants being
important resources.
•Industries: Sugar mills, paper mills, and agro-based industries thrive due to the availability
of raw materials.
•Settlement: Densely populated due to fertile land and favorable conditions for agriculture.
5. Challenges:
•Floods & Waterlogging: Frequent during monsoons due to poor drainage.
•Deforestation: Rapid urbanization and agriculture have led to loss of forest cover.
•Wildlife Conservation Issues: Human-wildlife conflicts are common due to habitat
destruction.
Conclusion
The Tarai region is a fertile, resource-rich area that plays a key role in India’s agriculture,
biodiversity, and economy, but it also faces challenges like deforestation and waterlogging
that need sustainable solutions.
Q6. Examine the causes and the extent of desertification in India and suggest remedial
measures.
Ans.Desertification is the process of land degradation in arid, semi-arid, and dry sub-humid
regions, resulting in loss of soil fertility and vegetation. It occurs due to climatic factors and
human activities, making land unsuitable for agriculture and habitation.
Causes of Desertification in India
1. Natural Causes:
•Climate Change – Rising temperatures and erratic rainfall increase aridity.
•Droughts – Prolonged dry spells reduce soil moisture and vegetation.
•Soil Erosion – Wind and water erosion remove fertile topsoil.
2. Human-Induced Causes:
•Deforestation – Clearing forests for agriculture and urbanization leads to soil erosion.
•Overgrazing – Excessive grazing damages grasslands, reducing soil fertility.
•Over-Cultivation – Continuous farming depletes soil nutrients.
•Excessive Irrigation – Leads to salinization and waterlogging.
•Urbanization & Mining – Expanding cities and industries degrade land.
Desertification knows no climate boundaries :
●​ According to Food and Agricultural Organisation (FAO), desertification affects about
two-thirds of the countries of the world and one-third of the earth’s land surface, on
which approximately one billion people live.
●​ Desertification is a worldwide phenomenon. It does not concern only the natural
deserts, and can occur on such lands which are vulnerable to the desertification
process.
●​ Two-thirds of the African continent is desert or drylands. The region is affected by
frequent droughts, which have been particularly severe in recent years in the Horn of
Africa and the Sahel.
●​ 30% of India’s land (96.4 million hectares) is affected (ISRO’s Desertification Atlas).
●​ Most affected states: Rajasthan, Gujarat, Punjab, Haryana, Maharashtra, Madhya
Pradesh, Karnataka, and Tamil Nadu.
Impacts of Desertification:
1. Loss of Arable Land – Decreases soil fertility, reducing agricultural productivity and food
security.
2. Biodiversity Loss – Destroys habitats, endangering plant and animal species.
3. Water Scarcity – Reduces groundwater recharge, causing droughts and water shortages.
4. Climate Change Acceleration – Decreases carbon absorption, increasing greenhouse gas
emissions.
5. Poverty and Migration – Forces people to migrate due to declining livelihoods.
6. Dust Storms – Increases air pollution, affecting health and visibility.
7. Livelihood Loss – Affects farmers, herders, and dependent industries.
8. Infrastructure Damage – Sand encroachment impacts roads, settlements, and irrigation
systems.
Remedial Measures:
•Afforestation & Agroforestry – Planting trees to prevent erosion.
•Sustainable Agriculture – Crop rotation, organic farming, contour plowing.
•Water Conservation – Rainwater harvesting, drip irrigation.
•Land Management – Controlled grazing, restoring pastures.
•Government Initiatives – Desert Development Programme (DDP), National Action Plan to
Combat Desertification (NAPCD).
Conclusion
Desertification threatens agriculture, biodiversity, and livelihoods. Sustainable practices and
conservation efforts are crucial to prevent further degradation.

Q7. What are the causes of landslides and what impact? Bring out the causes for more
frequent occurrence of landslides in the Himalayas than in the Western Ghat and also
discuss mitigation.
OR
Differentiate the causes of landslides in the Himalayas region and western ghats.
Ans.A landslide is the rapid downward movement of rock, soil, and debris on a slope,
triggered by rainfall, earthquakes, or deforestation.
Causes of Landslides:
1. Geological Factors – Weak rock formations, fractures, and weathered slopes make areas
prone to landslides.
2. Seismic Activity – Earthquakes and tremors trigger slope failures.
3. Heavy Rainfall – Intense rainfall loosens soil, causing landslides.
4. Deforestation – Loss of vegetation reduces slope stability.
5. Human Activities – Construction, mining, and road cutting weaken slopes.
Impacts of Landslides:
1. Loss of Life and Property – Destroys homes, infrastructure, and causes fatalities.
2. Road and Rail Disruptions – Blocks transportation, affecting connectivity.
3. Soil Erosion – Leads to loss of fertile land.
4. River Blockage – Causes floods and changes river courses.
5. Environmental Damage – Destroys forests and disrupts ecosystems.
Why More Frequent in the Himalayas than Western Ghats?
1. Young Fold Mountains – Structurally weak compared to stable Western Ghats.
2. High Seismic Activity – Frequent earthquakes trigger landslides.
3. Steep Slopes – Higher elevation differences increase risks.
4. Heavy Rainfall & Snowmelt – Increases soil instability.
5. Deforestation & Construction – Human activities worsen the situation.
Mitigation Measures:
1. Slope Stabilization – Use of retaining walls, terraces, and reinforcement techniques to
stabilize slopes.
2. Afforestation – Planting vegetation to enhance soil cohesion and reduce water runoff.
3. Drainage Systems – Installation of proper drainage to reduce water saturation and soil
erosion.
4. Land Use Planning – Restricting construction in high-risk landslide zones to avoid human
loss.
5. Seismic Monitoring – Early detection of seismic activity to provide warnings in vulnerable
areas.
6. Education and Awareness – Educating communities about landslide risks and
preparedness.
Conclusion – The Himalayas experience more landslides due to geology, seismic activity,
steep slopes, and human interference, unlike the Western Ghats.

Q8.There is no formation of deltas by the rivers of Western ghats.why?

Ans. Rivers of the Western Ghats do not form deltas primarily due to the following reasons:
1. Steep Gradient – The rivers flow through steep slopes, leading to faster water movement
that doesn’t allow sediment deposition to build up a delta.
2. Short Length – The rivers are relatively short, not providing enough distance for significant
sediment accumulation.
3. Limited Sediment Load – The rivers carry less sediment compared to larger rivers,
reducing the potential for delta formation.
4. Direct Flow into the Sea – Many Western Ghats rivers flow directly into the sea without
forming large estuaries, limiting the formation of deltas.
5. Tidal Influence – Strong tidal action along the western coast prevents
sediment from accumulating at river mouths, further hindering delta formation.

Thus, the steep terrain, short rivers, and tidal effects contribute to the absence of delta
formation.

Q9 Why are the world's fold mountain systems located along the margins of the continents?
Bring out the association between the global distribution of fold mountains and the
earthquakes and the volcanoes
Ans Fold mountains are mountain ranges formed by the folding of Earth's crust due to
tectonic forces at convergent plate boundaries.
Why are the world's fold mountain systems located along the margins of the continents?
1. Plate Tectonics and Convergence:
Fold mountains form at convergent boundaries where tectonic plates collide.
Example: The Himalayas (Indian Plate vs. Eurasian Plate) and the Andes (Nazca Plate vs.
South American Plate).
2. Subduction and Accretionary Wedges:
When an oceanic plate subducts beneath a continental plate, sediments accumulate and
fold.
Example: The Andes formed due to the subduction of the Nazca Plate under South America.
3. Presence of Ancient Geosynclines:
Many fold mountains originate from geosynclines, where thick sediments were deposited
before compression uplifted them
Association Between Fold Mountains, Earthquakes, and Volcanoes
1. Earthquakes and Fold Mountains:
High seismic activity occurs along fold mountain belts due to compressional stress.
Example: The Himalayas, Andes, Rockies experience frequent earthquakes.
The Alpide Belt and Ring of Fire coincide with major fold mountain systems.
2. Volcanoes and Fold Mountains:
Fold mountains near subduction zones often have active volcanoes.
Example: The Andes and the Cascade Range (USA) have volcanic activity due to
subduction.
Conclusion
Fold mountains form along continental margins due to plate convergence. Their distribution
aligns with major earthquake-prone and volcanic regions, highlighting the role of tectonic
activity in shaping the Earth’s landscape.

Q10 Define mantle plume and explain its role in plate tectonics.
Ans A mantle plume is an upwelling of hot, buoyant rock that rises from deep within the
Earth's mantle to the surface. These plumes originate near the core-mantle boundary and
move upward in a cylindrical shape, carrying heat and magma. When the plume reaches the
lithosphere, it can cause volcanic activity and influence plate movements.
Role of Mantle Plumes in Plate Tectonics
1. Formation of Hotspots and Volcanic Islands:
Mantle plumes create hotspots, which are fixed areas of volcanic activity independent of
plate boundaries.
Example: The Hawaiian Islands formed as the Pacific Plate moved over a stationary hotspot.
2. Plate Motion and Rifting:
Rising plumes weaken the lithosphere, causing continental rifting and plate movement.
Example: The East African Rift System is associated with mantle plume activity.
3. Large Igneous Provinces (LIPs):
Intense mantle plumes cause large-scale volcanic eruptions, forming LIPs like the Deccan
Traps in India.
4. Supercontinent Cycle:
Mantle plumes contribute to the breakup of supercontinents by initiating thermal weakening
and rifting.
Example: The Pangea breakup was influenced by plume activity.
Conclusion
Mantle plumes play a crucial role in plate tectonics by driving volcanic activity, influencing
plate movements, and contributing to continental breakups. Their impact extends beyond
plate boundaries, shaping Earth’s geological history.

Q11 How can the mountain ecosystem be restored from the negative impact
of development initiatives and tourism?
AnsThe mountain ecosystem is a crucial and sensitive part of the
environment, delicate and complex, and they are affected by human
activities such as development initiatives and tourism. Some activities can
cause a wide range of negative impacts on the ecosystem, habitat
destruction, soil erosion, pollution, and the displacement of native species.
Body:
Major threats to mountainous ecosystems include:
●​ Climate change: Rising temperatures can cause glacial melting, altered
precipitation patterns, and changes in the timing of seasonal events.
○​ E.g. Loss of the West Antarctic ice sheet, sea level rise would
approach 10.5 meters [34 feet].
●​ Deforestation: Deforestation can result in soil erosion, habitat loss, and
changes in water availability. Human–animal conflicts are common. E.g The
 Amazon rainforest has suffered from deforestation, causing soil
erosion, habitat loss, and human-animal conflicts.
●​ Mining: Mining activities can cause habitat destruction, soil erosion, and
water pollution. E.g. Landslide in Joshimath in India.
●​ Infrastructure development: The construction of dams, roads, and other
infrastructure can result in habitat loss, soil erosion, and fragmentation of
ecosystems.
●​ Agricultural practices: Unsustainable agricultural practices can lead to soil
erosion, habitat loss, and water pollution. E.g Punjab and Haryana Region in
India.
●​ Tourism: Tourism activities can cause habitat destruction, pollution, and the
displacement of native species.
Some of the measures that can be taken:
●​ Conduct Environmental Impact Assessments [EIA] before starting any
development or tourism activity.
●​ Limit the number of tourists to reduce pressure on the ecosystem.
●​ Encourage sustainable tourism practices that minimize waste, conserve
energy, and reduce water consumption.
●​ Restore degraded areas through planting native species, reducing soil
erosion, and reducing pollution.
●​ Protect wildlife by reducing human-wildlife conflicts, protecting endangered
species, and preserving their natural habitats.
●​ Promote sustainable land use practices such as organic farming, reducing
deforestation, and reducing soil erosion.
●​ Educate the public about the importance of the mountain ecosystem and the
negative impacts of development and tourism.
Conclusion:
Restoring the mountain ecosystem from the negative impact of
development initiatives and tourism requires a collaborative effort to protect
the ecosystem’s delicate balance. We can restore and preserve the
mountain ecosystem. It is essential to prioritize sustainable development
practices and promote responsible tourism to ensure that the ecosystem is
protected for future generations.

Q12 . Discuss the geophysical characteristics of Circum-Pacific Zone.

AnsThe Circum-Pacific Belt, also referred to as The Ring of Fire, is a path
along the PacificOcean characterized by active volcanoes and frequent
earthquakes.
Basic characteristics:
●​ Location: A nearly continuous chain of volcanoes surround the
Pacific Ocean. The chain passes along the west coast of North and
 South America, from the Aleutian Islands To the south of Japan, from
Indonesia to the Tonga Islands, and New Zealand.
●​ Formation: This Circum-Pacific chain of volcanoes and the mountain
ranges associated with it owe their formation to the repeated
subduction of the oceanic lithosphere beneath the continents and the
islands that surround the Pacific Ocean. The Ring of Fire is the result
of plate tectonics (Convergent, Divergent Plate Boundary, Transform
Plate Boundary).
●​ Formation of Hot Spots: The Ring of Fire is also home to hot spots,
areas deep within the Earth’s mantle from which heat rises. This heat
facilitates the melting of rock in the brittle, upper portion of the
mantle. The melted rock, known as magma, often pushes through
cracks in the crust to form volcanoes. The examples of volcanoes
include Mount Fuji of Japan, Aleutian Islands of US, Krakatau Island
of Indonesia, etc.
●​ Harbors Majority of Volcano & Earthquakes: 75% of Earth’s
volcanoes are located along the Ring of Fire. 90% of earthquakes
occur along its path, including the planet’s most violent and dramatic
seismic events.
As the Circum-Pacific Belt harbors the majority of global Volcanic eruptions
& Earthquakes, it holds immense significance regarding the study of the
earth’s interior.

Q13 Why is India considered as a subcontinent? Elaborate your answer.

Ans India is referred to as a subcontinent because of its distinct
geographical, climatic, and cultural identity within the Asian continent. The
following factors justify this classification:
1. Large Landmass:
°India covers 3.28 million km², making it one of the largest countries in the
world.
°It is physically distinct from the rest of Asia due to its size and
geographical diversity.
2. Natural Boundaries:
°Surrounded by the Himalayas in the north, the Indian Ocean in the south,
the Bay of Bengal in the east, and the Arabian Sea in the west, India has
well-defined natural borders.
°These boundaries create a separate climatic and ecological zone.
3. Climatic Diversity:
°India experiences tropical, temperate, and alpine climates, unlike most of
Asia, which has predominantly cold or dry climates.
°The monsoon system significantly impacts India’s agriculture and
economy, distinguishing it from other regions.
4. Geological Uniqueness:
°India was once part of the Gondwana landmass and later drifted
northward, colliding with the Eurasian plate to form the Himalayas.
°This tectonic history makes India geologically distinct from mainland Asia.
5. Cultural and Linguistic Diversity:
°India is home to multiple religions, languages, and traditions, making it
culturally unique.
°It has more than 1,600 languages and dialects, diverse ethnic groups, and
a rich historical heritage.
Conclusion
India is considered a subcontinent due to its large size, natural boundaries,
climatic diversity, geological uniqueness, and rich cultural heritage, making
it distinct from the rest of Asia.

Q14 Describe the characteristics and types of primary rocks.

Ans.Igneous rocks are called primary rocks because they are the first one
to be formed in the rock cycle and they do not leave any organic remains.
They form when hot, molten rock crystallizes and solidifies.
Depending upon where the molten rock solidifies, they can be divided into
two types:
•Intrusive Igneous Rocks: They form when magma is trapped deep inside
the Earth where it cools very slowly over many thousands or millions of
years until it solidifies. Slow cooling means the individual mineral grains
have a very long time to grow, so they grow to a relatively large size. These
rocks have a coarse-grained texture. Example - Diabase, Granite,
Pegmatite and Peridotite.

•Extrusive Igneous Rocks: They are produced when magma exits and
cools above (or very near) the Earth's surface. These rocks form at
erupting volcanoes, so molten rock erupts on the surface, the magma cools
and solidifies almost instantly when it is exposed to the relatively cool
temperature of the atmosphere. Quick cooling means that mineral crystals
don't have much time to grow, so these rocks have a very fine-grained or
even glassy texture. Hot gas bubbles are often trapped in the quenched
lava, forming a bubbly, vesicular texture. Example - Basalt, Pumice,
Obsidian and Andesite.

Q15 How are the fjords formed? Why do they constitute some of the most
picturesque areas of the world?
Ans.Fjords are long, narrow, and deep inlets of the sea that are surrounded
by steep cliffs or mountains. They are formed by the erosion of glacial ice,
and are found in regions where the sea level has risen after the ice age.
Some countries that have fjords are Norway, Chile, New Zealand, and the
U.S. state of Alaska.
Fjords are some of the most picturesque areas because of their unique and
dramatic landscape features. Some of the reasons are:
•The contrast between the calm, blue water and the rugged, snow-capped
mountains.
•The reflection of the mountains and the sky on the water surface.
The interplay of light and shadow on the water and the cliffs.
•The biodiversity of the fjords supports a variety of marine and terrestrial life
forms, such as seals, penguins, dolphins, whales, seabirds, and plants.
•Fjord culture embodies centuries of history, with farms, villages,churches,
and monuments harmonizing with the stunning natural surroundings.
•The recreational opportunities of the fjords attract tourists. Some of the
activities include hiking, kayaking, fishing, skiing, and cruising.

Therefore, fjords are remarkable examples of how nature and culture can
create some of the most picturesque areas of the world

Q16 Comment on the resource potentials of the long coastline of India and
highlight the status of natural hazard preparedness in these areas.
Ans.India's long coastline, stretching over 11098 kilometers along the
Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal, presents a wealth of resource
potentials as well as significant challenges related to natural hazard
preparedness.
Resource Potentials of India's Coastline:
●​ Fisheries: India's coastline is abundant in marine life, making it a
crucial hub for fisheries. It supports a thriving fishing industry,
contributing significantly to the country's food security.
●​ Ports and Shipping: The coastline hosts several major ports, such as
Mumbai, Chennai, and Kolkata, facilitating trade and commerce.
 ●​ Tourism: Coastal regions, including Goa, Kerala, and Andaman and
Nicobar Islands, are popular tourist destinations due to their scenic
beauty and cultural attractions.
●​ Mineral Resources: Coastal areas are often rich in mineral resources,
including sand, salt, and minerals like ilmenite, garnet, and monazite.
●​ Renewable Energy: India's coastline has immense potential for
renewable energy generation, particularly through offshore wind and
tidal energy projects.
Status of Natural Hazard Preparedness:
●​ While India's coastline offers significant opportunities, it is also highly
vulnerable to natural hazards, including cyclones, tsunamis, and
sea-level rise:
●​ India has been actively monitoring sea-level changes, bolstering
coastal infrastructure resilience, conserving mangroves, and
engaging in urban planning.
●​ This includes establishing the National Disaster Management
Authority (NDMA) and State Disaster Management Authorities
(SDMAs) to coordinate disaster response and preparedness at
national and state levels.
●​ Early warning systems, particularly for cyclones, have been
improved, saving countless lives.
●​ India has established an advanced Indian Tsunami Early Warning
Centre (ITEWC), which is operated by the Indian National Centre for
Ocean Information Services (INCOIS).
●​ The INCOIS and National Institute of Ocean Technology (NIOT) are
key agencies for monitoring and understanding trends and variations
in sea levels.
India's vulnerable coastal regions require ongoing efforts in disaster
preparedness, infrastructure development, and climate adaptation for
sustainable growth

Q17.Mention the global occurrence of volcanic eruptions in 2024 and their

impact on the regional environment.
Ans.A volcano is an opening or rupture in the earth’s surface that allows
magma (hot liquid and semi-liquid rock), volcanic ash and gases to escape.
The volcanic eruption could have implications for the local and regional
environment like earthquakes, landslides, lahars (mudflows), ash and
thunderstorms.
 ●​ 2024 witnessed several volcanic eruptions viz. Mount
Kanlaon(Philippines),Mount Etna (Italy),Fagradalsfjall(Iceland),Mount
Lewotobi Laki-laki(Indonesia)
Impact of volcanic eruption on the environment:
●​ Volcanic eruptions are responsible for forming new rock on the
Earth’s surface.
●​ The gases and dust particles thrown into the atmosphere during
volcanic eruptions have influences on climate.
●​ Volcanoes have also caused global warming over millions of years
during times in Earth’s history when extreme amounts of volcanism
occurred, releasing greenhouse gases into the atmosphere.
●​ Even though volcanoes are in specific places on Earth, their effects
can be more widely distributed as gases, dust, and ash get into the
atmosphere
●​ Volcanic eruptions are generally preceded by increased seismic
activity.
Most of the active volcanoes on earth occur on the Circum-Pacific Belt,
also referred to as the Ring of Fire. Volcanoes are a natural exogenic
phenomenon that cannot be avoided, but developing disaster risk resilience
will surely be a step in the right direction.

Topic- Climate

Q1 Why are India Undertaking expeditions to Antarctica? Describe the

influence of Antarctica Ocean climate of India and on the nutrient and
energy supply to the Indian .ocean
Ans.India conducts Antarctic expeditions for scientific research, climate
studies, and geopolitical presence under the Antarctic Treaty System. The
key reasons include:
1. Climate Research: Antarctic ice core studies help understand past
climate and monsoon patterns.
2. Oceanic and Weather Studies: Research on Southern Ocean currents
improves monsoon and cyclone forecasting.
3. Biodiversity Research: Studying marine life supports global conservation
efforts.
4. Space & Environmental Studies: Antarctica’s extreme climate aids Mars
simulation research.
5. Strategic Interests: India’s research stations (Maitri, Bharati) strengthen
its global scientific role.
Influence of Antarctic Ocean Climate on India:
1. Monsoon Regulation: Antarctic currents influence Indian monsoons.
2. ENSO & IOD Effects: El Niño, La Niña, and IOD impact India’s rainfall.
3. Cyclones: Southern Ocean regulates Indian Ocean temperatures,
affecting cyclones.
4. Western Disturbances: Cold Antarctic air influences North India’s winter
rains.
Influence on Indian Ocean Nutrients & Energy:
1. Nutrient Transport: Antarctic currents support Indian Ocean fisheries.
2. Thermohaline Circulation: Supplies oxygen and nutrients to the Indian
Ocean.
3. Carbon & Heat Regulation: Southern Ocean absorbs CO₂, controlling
Indian Ocean warming.
Conclusion
India’s Antarctic expeditions aid climate research, monsoon studies, and
marine biodiversity conservation.

Q2.Mention the agro climatic regions of India stating the basis of

classification
Ans.The Planning Commission of India (1989) classified India into 15
agro-climatic regions based on soil type, climate, rainfall, temperature,
topography, and cropping patterns.
Basis of Classification
1. Climate: Temperature, rainfall, humidity, and growing season.
2. Soil Type: Alluvial, black, red, laterite, desert, etc.
3. Topography: Plains, plateaus, coastal, and hilly regions.
4. Water Availability: Surface and groundwater resources.
5. Cropping Patterns: Dominant crops and farming systems.
Agro-Climatic Regions
1. Western Himalayan Region – J&K, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand.
2. Eastern Himalayan Region – Arunachal Pradesh, Sikkim, parts of
Assam.
3. Lower Gangetic Plain Region – West Bengal, parts of Bihar and Assam.
4. Middle Gangetic Plain Region – Eastern UP, Bihar.
5. Upper Gangetic Plain Region – Western UP.
6. Trans-Gangetic Plain Region – Punjab, Haryana, Delhi, Chandigarh.
7. Eastern Plateau and Hills Region – Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Odisha,
Maharashtra.
8. Central Plateau and Hills Region – Madhya Pradesh, parts of Rajasthan
and Maharashtra.
9. Western Plateau and Hills Region – Maharashtra, parts of MP,
Karnataka.
10. Southern Plateau and Hills Region – Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu,
Karnataka, Telangana.
11. East Coast Plains and Hills Region – Coastal AP, Tamil Nadu, Odisha.
12. West Coast Plains and Hills Region – Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka,
Kerala.
13. Gujarat Plains and Hills Region – Gujarat.
14. Western Dry Region – Rajasthan (Thar Desert).
15. The Islands Region – Andaman & Nicobar, Lakshadweep.
Conclusion
This classification helps in regional planning, sustainable agriculture, and
resource management based on climatic and soil conditions.

Q3 Bring out of the significance of various activities of the Indian

meteorological department.
Ans.The India Meteorological Department (IMD) plays a crucial role in
weather forecasting, climate monitoring, disaster management, and
scientific research. Its activities impact multiple sectors, including
agriculture, aviation, disaster preparedness, and water resources.
1. Weather Forecasting & Early Warning Systems:
•Monsoon Forecasting: IMD provides long-range monsoon predictions,
crucial for agriculture and water management.
•Cyclone Warnings: Tracks cyclones in the Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea,
issuing timely alerts to coastal regions.
•Extreme Weather Alerts: Provides forecasts for heatwaves, cold waves,
thunderstorms, and heavy rainfall, aiding disaster preparedness.
2. Climate Monitoring & Research:
•Climate Change Studies: Monitors temperature trends, rainfall variations,
and oceanic changes, helping in climate adaptation strategies.
•El Niño & La Niña Tracking: Helps predict monsoon variability and drought
risks.
3. Aviation & Marine Services:
•Provides weather updates for air traffic management, reducing risks due to
fog, storms, and turbulence.
•Issues marine weather forecasts for fishermen and shipping industries.
4. Agriculture & Water Resource Management:
•Agrometeorological Services: Offers weather-based advisories to farmers,
improving crop yield and reducing losses.
•Drought & Flood Forecasting: Helps water resource planning and irrigation
management.
5. Seismology & Earthquake Monitoring- Operates a seismological network
to detect earthquakes and tsunamis, aiding disaster response.
Conclusion
IMD plays a vital role in national security, economic stability, and disaster
resilience by providing accurate meteorological data to multiple sectors,
ensuring public safety and sustainable development.

Q4 Write brief but precise note on frontogenesis and frontlysis.

Ans Frontogenesis and Frontolysis
1. Frontogenesis – It is the process of formation or intensification of a
weather front due to the convergence of air masses with different
temperature, humidity, and density.
•Occurs when cold and warm air masses meet and strengthen the
temperature gradient.
•Leads to cloud formation, precipitation, and storms.
•Common in mid-latitudes, where warm tropical air interacts with cold polar
air.
2. Frontolysis – It is the weakening or dissipation of a front due to the
mixing of air masses and loss of temperature contrast.
•Occurs when air masses become homogeneous in temperature and
humidity.
•Leads to clearing weather conditions.
•Happens in regions where winds diverge or external influences disrupt the
front.
Conclusion
Frontogenesis creates weather disturbances, while frontolysis leads to
stable atmospheric conditions.

Q5 Bring out the causes for the formation of heat islands in the urban
habitat of the world
Ans.Urban Heat Islands (UHIs) occur when cities experience higher
temperatures than surrounding rural areas due to human activities and
urbanization. The main causes include:
1. Land Use and Surface Modifications:
•Concrete & Asphalt Surfaces: Roads, buildings, and pavements absorb
and retain more heat than natural surfaces.
•Loss of Vegetation: Trees and green spaces, which provide natural cooling
through evapotranspiration, are replaced by urban infrastructure.
2. Waste Heat from Human Activities:
•Industrial and Vehicular Emissions: Factories, vehicles, and air
conditioners release heat and pollutants into the environment.
•Air Conditioning & Energy Use: Cooling systems expel hot air, further
increasing local temperatures.
3. Reduced Air Circulation:
•Urban Geometry (Canyon Effect): Tall buildings trap heat and reduce wind
flow, preventing cooling.
•Dense Construction Materials: Urban materials retain heat for longer,
keeping cities warm even at night.
4. Air Pollution and Greenhouse Effect:
•Pollutants & Smog: Trap outgoing heat, creating a localized greenhouse
effect.
5. Water Bodies and Impermeable Surfaces:
•Loss of Water Bodies: Reduction in lakes and ponds eliminates natural
cooling effects.
•Impermeable Surfaces: Reduce moisture availability, limiting evaporative
cooling.
Conclusion
Urban Heat Islands are caused by infrastructure, pollution, energy use, and
lack of green spaces. Sustainable urban planning with green roofs,
reflective materials, and afforestation can help mitigate UHI effects.

Q6 Explain the factors responsible for the origin of ocean currents. How do
they influence regional climates,fishing, and navigation?
Ans.Ocean currents are like river flow in oceans. They represent a regular
volume of water in a definite path and direction.
Ocean currents are influenced by two types of forces i.e. Primary Force,
which initiates the movement of water while the secondary force influences
the currents to flow.
These forces are:
1 Primary Force:
●​ Heating by Solar Energy: It causes the water to expand which causes
water to spread from hot to cold regions.
 ●​ Wind: Wind blowing on the ocean surface pushes the water to move
on.
●​ Gravity: Gravity tends to pull the water down the pile and create
gradient variation.
●​ Coriolis Force: It causes the water to move to the right in the northern
hemisphere and to the left in the southern hemisphere.
Secondary Force:
●​ Landmass: Interaction of ocean with landmass results in change in
direction of ocean current. For example: Brazil Ocean Current.
●​ Salinity: Water with high salinity is denser than water with low salinity,
leading to variation in ocean currents as denser water tends to sink,
while relatively lighter water
tends to rise.
Influence of Ocean Currents
fishing industries:
●​ Creation of Fishing Zones: Meeting of cold and warm ocean currents
forms fishing zones in the ocean.
Prominent examples are North East Pacific Zone, Newfoundland
(Labradour & Gulf Stream), North West Pacific Zone along Japan
(kuroshio and oyashio current) etc.
●​ Movement of Planktons: Planktons are the organisms that come with
ocean currents. They act as the base of the marine food chain and
attract the fish populations towards them, leading to accumulation of
fishes in a particular zone.
●​ Upwelling is a process in which currents bring deep, cold water to the
surface of the ocean. The deeper water that rises to the surface
during upwelling is rich in nutrients.
These nutrients “fertilize” surface waters, encouraging the growth of
plant life, including phytoplankton.
●​ Long Shelf Life: Fishes in cold ocean currents have longer shelf life
as compared to warm ocean currents, leading to non-perishable fish
products.
Regional Climate:
•Warm Currents (e.g., Gulf Stream): Increase coastal temperatures and
bring humid conditions (e.g., Europe’s mild winters).
•Cold Currents (e.g., California Current): Lower temperatures, create dry
conditions, and contribute to deserts (e.g., Atacama Desert).
•Monsoon Influence: Indian Ocean currents affect monsoon winds,
impacting rainfall in India.
Navigation & Trade:
•Faster Shipping Routes: Ships use ocean currents for fuel efficiency (e.g.,
North Atlantic Drift aids Europe-bound trade).
•Hazardous Conditions: Unpredictable currents cause shipwrecks and alter
iceberg movements (e.g., Titanic disaster due to Labrador Current).
Conclusion
Ocean currents shape climates, ecosystems, and human activities.
Understanding them is vital for weather prediction, fisheries, and global
trade.

Q7 How far do you agree that the behaviour of the Indian monsoon has
been changing due to humanising landscape? Discuss.
Ans The Indian monsoon, driven by oceanic and atmospheric interactions,
is increasingly influenced by human activities. Several factors suggest that
land-use changes, urbanization, and industrial activities are altering its
behavior.
1. Changing Rainfall Patterns:
•Deforestation & Land Use Change: Large-scale deforestation for
agriculture and urban expansion has reduced evapotranspiration,
disrupting local rainfall patterns.
•Urban Heat Island Effect (UHI): Cities experience higher temperatures,
altering wind patterns and affecting local monsoon circulation.
•Desertification & Soil Degradation: Loss of vegetation increases surface
reflectivity (albedo), impacting monsoon moisture availability.
2. Rising Greenhouse Gas Emissions:
•Global Warming: Increased CO₂ emissions alter sea surface temperatures
(SSTs), affecting monsoon winds and rainfall.
•El Niño & Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD): Industrial emissions contribute to
climate variations, intensifying droughts or excessive rainfall.
3. Aerosol Pollution & Cloud Formation:
•Industrial & Vehicular Pollution: Aerosols from factories and vehicles
impact cloud condensation, leading to delayed or uneven monsoon rainfall.
•Black Carbon Effect: Soot deposits on Himalayan glaciers accelerate
melting, affecting monsoon moisture availability.
4. Extreme Weather Events:
•More Intense Cyclones & Floods: Rising Indian Ocean temperatures fuel
stronger cyclones and heavy monsoon rains.
•Erratic Monsoon Onset & Withdrawal: The monsoon’s traditional pattern is
becoming unpredictable, impacting agriculture and water security.
Conclusion
The humanization of landscapes—deforestation, pollution, and
urbanization—has altered the Indian monsoon’s behavior. While natural
factors still play a role, climate change, land-use changes, and
industrialization are making the monsoon more erratic and extreme,
affecting agriculture, water resources, and livelihoods.

Q8 How does the cryosphere affect global climate?

Ans. Cryosphere is the frozen water part of the Earth system - snow cover,
permafrost, sea ice. It impacts global climate in a variety of ways:
●​ Snow and ice have a high albedo, reflecting back a significant
amount of solar radiation back into space. In this way, cryosphere
acts as an important cooling factor in the global climate system.
●​ Snow and ice act as an insulating layer over land and ocean
surfaces, holding in heat and moisture that would otherwise escape
into the atmosphere. This insulation, then, also acts to cool the global
climate.
●​ Since cold polar seawater is dense due its high salinity and sinks to
the bottom of the ocean, spreading out across the globe and acting
as a pump which drives oceanic circulation that transfers energy
between the equator and the poles – acting as a conveyor belt.

The cryosphere is highly vulnerable to global warming. Therefore, any

change in its composition is likely to have great side-effects on the global
climate.

Q9 Briefly mention the alignment of major mountain ranges of the world

and explain their impact on local weather conditions, with examples.
Ans.The major mountain ranges of the world, such as the Himalayas, Andes, Alps,
Rockies, and others, typically run in north-south or east-west directions. Their
alignment has a significant impact on local weather conditions due to the way
mountains interact with air masses and influence the movement of moisture.
1. Himalayas (North-South):
°The Himalayas are a major barrier between the Indian subcontinent and the Tibetan
Plateau. They block the monsoon winds, causing heavy rainfall on the southern
slopes (e.g., India) and dry conditions on the northern side (e.g., Tibet).
°Impact: They create a distinct wet and dry region, leading to the monsoon season in
India, while the northern areas remain arid.
2. Andes (North-South):
°The Andes run along the western edge of South America, influencing the coastal
climate by blocking moisture from the Pacific Ocean.
°Impact: The western side experiences a dry desert climate (e.g., Atacama Desert),
while the eastern side receives significant rainfall, contributing to lush forests in
areas like the Amazon Basin.
3. Rockies (North-South):
°The Rockies affect the weather patterns of North America by causing rain shadows
and directing weather systems.
°Impact: The western side gets more precipitation, while the eastern side, such as
parts of Colorado, has drier conditions.
4. Alps (East-West):
°The Alps are located in Europe and create a barrier between Mediterranean
climates in the south and colder, wetter climates to the north.
°Impact: The south experiences warmer, drier conditions, while the northern side
receives more precipitation and experiences colder weather.
Conclusion
Mountain ranges can significantly affect rainfall patterns, temperature distribution,
and the local climate, creating different ecosystems on each side (windward and
leeward).

Q10.How do the melting of the Arctic ice and glaciers of the Antarctic differently
affect the weather patterns and human activities on the Earth? Explain.
Ans.Many glaciers around the world have been rapidly melting. Human activities are
at the root of this phenomenon. Specifically, since the industrial revolution, carbon
dioxide and other greenhouse gas emissions have raised temperatures, even higher
in the poles, and as a result, glaciers are rapidly melting, calving off into the sea and
retreating on land.
Consequences of melting:
●​ The Arctic and Antarctic act like the world’s refrigerator. They balance out
other parts of the world that absorb heat. The loss of ice and the warming
waters will affect sea levels, salinity levels, and current and precipitation
patterns.
●​ The global average sea level has risen by about 7-8 inches since 1900, and
it’s getting worse. Rising seas endanger coastal cities and small island
nations by exacerbating coastal flooding and storm surge.
●​ Permafrost in the Arctic region (ground that is permanently frozen) stores
large amounts of methane, which is a greenhouse gas that contributes to
climate change. As more quickly the ice is lost, more rapidly permafrost will
melt. This will result in a vicious cycle that may result in a climate catastrophe.
●​ The melting of ice also puts the region’s vibrant biodiversity under serious
threat. Many land and sea animals rely on glaciers as their natural habitats
and as they disappear, so does the rich ecological life they shelter.
The solution to all of this is obvious. Climate change mitigation policies need to be
implemented stringently. If CO2 emissions can be reduced over the next ten years,
then glaciers can still be saved. More targeted measures may also be required.

Q11.Discuss the meaning of colour-coded weather warnings for cyclone prone areas
given by India Meteorological Department
Ans.The IMD uses four colour-coded weather warnings to signify the intensity of the
weather situation and alert people about possible widespread disruption or danger to
life:
●​ Green (All is well): No advisory is issued.
●​ Yellow (Be Aware): Yellow indicates severely bad weather spanning across
several days. It also suggests that the weather could change for the worse,
causing disruption in day-to-day activities.
●​ Orange (Be prepared): The orange alert is issued as a warning of extremely
bad weather with the potential of disruption in commute with road and rail
closures, and interruption of power supply.
●​ Red (Take Action): When extremely bad weather conditions are certainly
going to disrupt travel and power and have significant risk to life, the red alert
is issued.
In Cyclone prone areas, the IMD issues cyclone warnings to state government
officials in four stages:
●​ Pre-Cyclone Watch - It is issued 72 hours prior and contains early warning
about the development of a cyclonic disturbance in the north Indian Ocean.
●​ Cyclone Alert - It is issued at least 48 hours prior to the expected
commencement of adverse weather over the coastal areas.
●​ Cyclone Warning - It is issued at least 24 hours in advance. Landfall point is
forecast at this stage.
●​ Post Landfall Outlook - it is issued at least 12 hours in advance of the
expected time of landfall. It gives the likely direction of movement of the
cyclone after its landfall.

Q12 Troposphere is a very significant atmosphere layer that determines weather

processes. How?
Ans.The troposphere is the lowest layer of the atmosphere, extending 8-15 km
above Earth’s surface. It plays a crucial role in weather processes due to the
following reasons:
1. Weather Phenomena Occur Here
•Nearly all weather activities like clouds, rainfall, storms, and winds take place in
the troposphere.
•It holds 75-80% of the atmosphere’s mass and almost all water vapor, essential
for precipitation.
2. Temperature Gradient and Convection
•Temperature decreases with altitude at about 6.5°C per km.
•This gradient drives convection currents, leading to cloud formation, storms, and
winds.
3. Interaction of Air Masses
•The troposphere facilitates the movement of warm and cold air masses, forming
cyclones, anticyclones, and weather fronts.
•The jet streams at the tropopause influence global weather patterns.
4. Role in the Water Cycle
•Water evaporates, condenses, and precipitates within the troposphere, driving
the hydrological cycle.
5. Human Influence
•Pollution and greenhouse gases (CO₂, CH₄) accumulate, impacting climate
change.
•Weather modification techniques like cloud seeding operate here.
Thus, the troposphere is the most dynamic atmospheric layer, determining
weather and climate worldwide.

Q13.Discuss the consequence of Climate change on the food security in tropical

countries.
Ans.Tropical countries, heavily dependent on agriculture, fisheries, and livestock,
are particularly vulnerable to climate change. Rising temperatures, erratic rainfall,
and extreme weather events disrupt food production, leading to shortages,
inflation, and malnutrition.
Consequence of Climate change on the food security:
1. Decline in Agricultural Productivity
•Higher temperatures reduce the yields of key staple crops like rice, wheat, and
maize.
•In India, heatwaves have decreased wheat production, leading to export bans.
•In Africa, droughts have reduced maize yields in Kenya and Ethiopia, worsening
food scarcity.
2. Unpredictable Rainfall and Droughts
•Changing rainfall patterns cause water shortages and crop failures.
•The Sahel region (Africa) experiences frequent droughts, affecting millet and
sorghum production.
•In Brazil, irregular rainfall has impacted coffee plantations, reducing global coffee
supply.
3. Extreme Weather Events
•Cyclones and floods destroy farmlands and disrupt food supply chains.
•In Bangladesh, Cyclone Amphan (2020) damaged rice fields, reducing production.
•The Philippines, a major rice producer, frequently suffers typhoon-induced crop
losses.
4. Pest and Disease Outbreaks
•Warmer temperatures increase pest infestations and crop diseases.
•In East Africa, rising temperatures have intensified desert locust swarms,
threatening food security.
5. Rising Food Prices and Economic Strain
•Reduced agricultural output leads to higher food prices, impacting low-income
populations.
•In Sri Lanka, crop failures have forced costly food imports, worsening the
economic crisis.
6. Malnutrition and Health Issues
•Lower food diversity leads to malnutrition, especially among children.
•In South Asia, declining fish stocks affect protein intake in coastal communities.
7. Impact on Fisheries and Livestock
•Coral bleaching and ocean acidification reduce fish populations.
•In Indonesia, declining fish stocks hurt coastal economies.
•In Mali, extreme heat reduces cattle productivity, affecting dairy and meat supply.
Conclusion
Climate change is intensifying food insecurity in tropical countries. Urgent
measures like climate-resilient crops, water conservation, and disaster
preparedness are needed to mitigate risks.

Q14 Why is the South-West Monsoon called ‘Purvaiya’ (easterly) in Bhojpur

Region? How has this directional seasonal wind system influenced the cultured
ethos of the region?
Ans. The South-West Monsoon, active from June to September, delivers
substantial rainfall to India. When these monsoon winds encounter various
mountain ranges, they alter course, creating easterly 'Purvaiya' winds in the
Bhojpur region. This distinct wind pattern significantly shapes Bhojpur's cultural
identity, spanning parts of India and Nepal.
Influence of Purvaiya on Cultural Ethos of Bhojpur:
●​ Agriculture and Festivals: Purvaiya starts the planting season and is
celebrated with festivals like Teej.
●​ Rituals and Beliefs: People worship rain gods like Indra and Parjanya for
good harvests. Madhushravani involves worshiping Vishahara and Gosaun.
●​ Traditional Cuisine: Purvaiya enables the growth of rice, vegetables, and
fruits, influencing the region’s cuisine. Also, special dishes like Pua are
made during this season.
●​ Folklore: ‘Purvaiya’ appears in proverbs, songs, and poems that express
the winds’ importance and emotions. Proverbs like “Purvaiya chale to khet
khile” and folk songs like ‘Birha’ are examples.
Therefore, Purvaiya winds are essential to Bhojpur’s culture, shaping its
traditions, rituals, and daily life.

Q15. What is sea surface temperature rise? How does it affect the formation of
tropical cyclone?
Ans. Sea Surface Temperature (SST)is defined as the temperature of the
uppermost layer of the ocean.The rise in sea surface temperature is primarily
driven by human-induced climate change, with significant contributions from
greenhouse gas emissions.SSTplays a crucial role in influencing weather
patterns, especially in the formation of tropical cyclones.
Impact of SST Rise on Tropical Cyclone Formation :
 ●​ Energy Source:Rising sea surface temperatures provide the necessary heat
and moisture, which are crucial for the formation and intensification of
tropical cyclones.
●​ Convection:Higher SSTs enhance convection processes, leading to the
development of tropical cyclones.
●​ Development Threshold:If SSTs are below the 26°C threshold, the energy
available for cyclone development is insufficient.
●​ Intensity:Warmer SSTs not only initiate cyclone formation but also
contribute to the intensification of existing storms, potentially increasing
their wind speeds and destructive capacity.
●​ Frequency:Rising global temperatures may increase the frequency and
intensity of tropical cyclones by raising sea surface temperatures.
●​ Changing Tracks: As SSTs rise globally, tropical cyclones may form in new
regions or shift their paths, affecting areas previously unaffected.
Conclusion
To safeguard marine ecosystems from rising sea surface temperatures, it is
essential to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and develop
climate-resilient infrastructure. At the same time, conserving marine
ecosystems through sustainable practices and improving forecasting
capabilities will enhance the region's resilience to extreme weather events

Q16.What is the phenomenon of cloudbursts? Explain.

Ans.A cloudburst is an extreme sudden rainfall event where a large amount of rain
(typically 100 mm or more within an hour) falls over a small area. This intense
precipitation overwhelms the land’s absorption capacity, leading to flash floods
and landslides.
Causes of Cloudbursts:
1. Orographic Effect: When monsoon winds hit mountains, air rises rapidly, cools,
and condenses, causing heavy rainfall.
2. Moisture Overload: Warm, moisture-laden air condenses quickly, leading to
localized torrential rain.
3. Thermal Convection: Intense surface heating causes strong upward air
currents, trapping moisture that later falls as a cloudburst.
4. Climate Change: Rising global temperatures increase the amount of water
vapor in the air, making cloudbursts more frequent and intense.
Impacts of Cloudbursts
1. Flash Floods & Landslides - Excessive rainfall causes river overflow, damaging
villages and roads.
Example: In August 2024, cloudbursts followed by flash floods wreaked
widespread destruction in Himachal Pradesh.
2. Loss of Life & Property -Sudden floods kill people, damage homes, and
displace populations.
Example: Leh cloudburst (2010) killed over 200 people.
3. Infrastructure Disruption - Roads, bridges, and power lines get destroyed,
isolating affected regions.
4. Agricultural Damage- Crops are washed away, affecting farmers and food
security.
5. Glacial Lake Outburst Floods (GLOFs) - In mountains, cloudbursts can trigger
GLOFs, leading to massive floods.
Conclusion
Cloudbursts are becoming more frequent due to climate change. Early warning
systems, afforestation, and better drainage planning can help mitigate their
impact.

Q17.Assess the impact of global warming on the coral life system with examples.
Ans.Coral life system harbour the highest biodiversity of any ecosystem globally
and directly support over 500 million people worldwide.
However, over the last three years, coral reefs ecosystem around the world have
suffered from mass coral bleaching events. They are now among the most
threatened ecosystems on Earth, largely due to unprecedented global warming
and climate changes, combined with growing local pressures.
Impact of global warming on the coral life system:
●​ As temperature rises, mass coral bleaching events and infectious disease
outbreaks are becoming more frequent. The bleaching of the Great Barrier
Reef in 2016 and 2017, for instance, killed around 50% of its corals.
●​ Bleached corals are likely to experience reduced growth rates, decreased
reproductive capacity, increased susceptibility to diseases and elevated
mortality rates.
●​ Ocean acidification, or increased CO2 levels has reduced calcification rates
in reef-building and reefassociated organisms, causing their skeletons to
become weaker and growth to be impaired.
●​ Sea level rise may lead to increases in sedimentation for reefs located near
land-based sources of sediment. Sedimentation runoff can lead to the
smothering of coral.
●​ Changes in storm patterns, due to climate change, may lead to stronger
and more frequent storms that can cause the destruction of coral reefs.
●​ Changes in coral ecosystem also affect the species that depend on them,
such as the fish and invertebrates that rely on live coral for food, shelter, or
recruitment habitat.
●​ Changes in precipitation result in increased runoff of freshwater, sediment,
and land-based pollutants contribute to algal blooms and cause murky
water conditions that reduce light.
●​ Altered ocean currents lead to changes in connectivity and temperature
regimes that contribute to lack of food for corals and hampers dispersal of
coral larvae.
●​ It is also expected that there will be a gradual decrease in the quantity of
marine plants such as phytoplankton in warmer waters, effectively reducing
the amount of nutrients available to animals further along the food chain.
In addition, the collapse of coral life system due to global warming can have direct
impacts on tourism, aquaculture, and pharmaceutical industries as well as reduce
the overall resilience of coastal communities.
Way forward:
Limiting global average temperature to well below 2°C above pre-industrial levels,
addressing local pollution and destructive fishing practices provide chance for
the survival of coral life system globally. Also, transformation of mainstream
economic systems towards circular economic practices can help in mitigating
rising global temperatures.
According to UNESCO, the coral reefs in all 29 reef-containing World Heritage
sites would cease to exist by the end of this century if global warming is not
reduced. Reinforcing commitments to the Paris Agreement may be mirrored in all
other global agreements such as the Sustainable Development Goals. SDG 13, for
instance, calls for urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts.

Q18Most of the unusual climatic happenings are explained as an outcome of the

EL-Nino effect. Do you agree?
Ans.El Niño is a climatic phenomenon characterized by the warming of sea
surface temperatures in the central and eastern Pacific Ocean. It disrupts global
weather patterns, leading to extreme climatic events.
Impact of El Niño on Climate:
●​ Droughts: Weakens monsoon circulation, causing droughts in India,
Australia, and Africa.
●​ Floods: Increases rainfall in South America and parts of the U.S., leading to
floods.
●​ Extreme Weather: Triggers heatwaves, wildfires, cyclones, and hurricanes.
●​ Agricultural Losses: Alters crop yields due to erratic rainfall and
temperature changes.
●​ Marine Disruptions: Causes coral bleaching and affects fish populations
due to ocean warming.
Other Causes of Unusual Climate Events:
●​ La Niña: The cooling phase, which also influences extreme weather
patterns.
●​ Climate Change: Rising global temperatures intensify storms, heatwaves,
and sea level rise.
●​ Arctic Ice Melt & Jet Stream Shifts: Affect global weather independently of
El Niño.
Conclusion:
While El Niño plays a significant role in unusual climatic happenings, it is not the
sole cause. Other factors like La Niña, climate change, and shifting atmospheric
patterns also contribute to extreme weather events.

Q19.Tropical cyclones are largely confined to the South China Sea, Bay of Bengal
and Gulf of Mexico. Why?
Ans.Tropical cyclones require specific conditions to form, and these regions
provide the ideal environment for their development. The key reasons are:
Warm Ocean Waters:
●​ Tropical cyclones develop over warm waters (above 26°C).
 ●​ The South China Sea, Bay of Bengal, and Gulf of Mexico have consistently
high sea surface temperatures, providing the necessary heat and moisture.
High Humidity:
●​ These regions have high humidity levels, which sustain cloud formation
and cyclone development.
Coriolis Effect:
●​ The Coriolis force, caused by Earth's rotation, helps cyclones form.
●​ These regions lie between 5°–30° latitude, where the Coriolis effect is
strong enough to generate cyclonic rotation.
Low Wind Shear:
●​ Cyclones need low vertical wind shear (difference in wind speed/direction
with height).
●​ These regions generally have favorable atmospheric conditions for cyclone
intensification.
Large Oceanic Area:
●​ The presence of vast open seas allows cyclones to gather strength without
early landfall.
Conclusion:
The combination of warm waters, high humidity, the Coriolis effect, low wind
shear, and large oceanic areas makes the South China Sea, Bay of Bengal, and
Gulf of Mexico prime locations for tropical cyclones.

Q.20 Bring out the relationship between the shrinking Himalayan glaciers and the
symptoms of climate change in the Indian sub – contine.
Ans.The Himalayan glaciers are a crucial source of freshwater for millions in the
Indian subcontinent. Their rapid shrinking due to climate change has severe
environmental and socio-economic consequences.
Rising Temperatures and Glacier Melt:
●​ Global warming has led to increased temperatures in the Himalayas,
causing accelerated glacier retreat.
●​ Studies indicate that Himalayan glaciers are shrinking at an alarming rate,
threatening water availability.
Impact on River Systems:
●​ Major rivers like the Ganges, Indus, and Brahmaputra originate from these
glaciers.
●​ Excessive melting initially increases water flow, causing floods.
●​ In the long term, reduced glacier mass will lead to water shortages,
affecting agriculture and drinking water supply.
Increased Frequency of Floods and Droughts:
●​ Glacier melt contributes to glacial lake outburst floods (GLOFs),
threatening downstream settlements.
●​ Irregular monsoon patterns and declining snow cover disrupt traditional
farming cycles, leading to droughts.
Threat to Biodiversity and Livelihoods:
●​ Changing temperatures impact Himalayan ecosystems, endangering
species adapted to cold environments.
 ●​ Communities dependent on glacier-fed rivers for agriculture and
hydropower face economic distress.
Conclusion
The shrinking Himalayan glaciers are a direct symptom of climate change,
influencing water security, agriculture, and weather patterns in the Indian
subcontinent. Urgent measures are needed to mitigate climate change and protect
these vital ice reserves.

Q21.How are tropical cyclones named across the world? Give example
Ans.Tropical cyclones are named by different regional meteorological
organizations under the World Meteorological Organization (WMO). Naming helps
in effective communication, disaster preparedness, and public awareness.
Regional Naming Systems:-
Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea:
●​ Named by the India Meteorological Department (IMD).
●​ Names are contributed by 13 countries, including India, Bangladesh,
Pakistan, and Myanmar.
Example: Cyclone Amphan (2020, named by Thailand), Cyclone Biparjoy
(2023, named by Bangladesh).
North Atlantic:
●​ Named by the National Hurricane Center (NHC), USA.
●​ Uses a six-year rotating list, excluding Q, U, X, Y, and Z.
Example: Hurricane Katrina (2005), Hurricane Harvey (2017).
Eastern North Pacific:
●​ Also named by the NHC using a six-year rotating list.
●​ Affects coastal areas of North and Central America.
Example: Hurricane Patricia (2015), Hurricane Otis (2023).
Western North Pacific:
●​ Named by the Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA).
●​ Uses names contributed by 14 countries, including Japan, China, and the
Philippines.
Example: Typhoon Haiyan (2013), Typhoon Goni (2020).
Southwest Indian Ocean:
●​ Named by the Regional Specialized Meteorological Center (La Réunion,
France).
●​ Uses a four-year rotating list.
Example: Cyclone Idai (2019), Cyclone Freddy (2023).
Rules for Naming:
●​ Names are pre-approved by regional meteorological bodies.
●​ If a cyclone is particularly destructive, its name is retired and replaced.
●​ Names are easy to pronounce to ensure clear communication.
Conclusion:
The systematic naming of tropical cyclones helps in better disaster management.
Different regions follow their own lists, but the process is globally coordinated by
the WMO to ensure consistency.
Q22.Discuss the concept of air mass and explain its role in macro-climatic
changes.
Ans.An air mass is a large volume of air in the atmosphere that is mostly uniform
in temperature and moisture. Air masses can extend thousands of kilometers
across the surface of the Earth, and can reach from ground level to the
stratosphere—16 kilometers (10 miles) into the atmosphere.
Air masses form over large surfaces with uniform temperatures and
humidity, called source regions. Low wind speeds let air remain stationary
long enough to take on the features of the source region, such as heat or
cold. Meteorologists identify air masses according to their place of origin.
There are four categories of air masses: arctic, tropical, polar and
equatorial. Arctic air masses form in the Arctic region and are very cold.
Tropical air masses form in low-latitude areas and are moderately warm.
Polar air masses take shape in high-latitude regions and are cold.
Equatorial air masses develop near the Equator, and are warm.
Role of Air mass in Macro Climate Changes:
●​ The properties of an air mass which influence the accompanying weather
are vertical distribution temperature (indicating its stability and coldness or
warmness) and the moisture content.
●​ The air masses carry atmospheric moisture from oceans to continents and
cause precipitation over landmasses.
●​ They transport latent heat, thus removing the latitudinal heat balance.
Most of the migratory atmospheric disturbances such as temperate cyclones and
storms originate at the contact zone between different air masses and the weather
associated with these disturbances is determined by characteristics of the air
masses involved.

Topic- Vegetation

Q1. What is the wasteland ? write note on prospects of wasteland development in

India.
Ans.Wasteland refers to land that is not currently being used for any productive
purpose, such as agriculture, forestry, or urban development. This can include
land that is degraded, barren, or damaged due to natural or human-induced
factors.
Types of Wasteland
1. _Barren and uncultivable land_: Land that is not suitable for cultivation due to
factors like soil erosion, salinity, or alkalinity.
2. _Degraded forests_: Forests that have been degraded due to over-exploitation,
deforestation, or other human activities.
3. _Mining wasteland_: Land that has been damaged due to mining activities, such
as coal mining or iron ore mining.
4. _Industrial wasteland_: Land that has been contaminated due to industrial
activities, such as chemical plants or textile mills.
Prospects of Wasteland Development in India
India has a significant amount of wasteland, estimated to be around 63.4 million
hectares. Developing these wastelands can have numerous benefits, including:
1. _Increased agricultural productivity_: By developing wastelands, India can
increase its agricultural productivity, reducing dependence on imported food
grains.
2. _Employment generation_: Wasteland development can create employment
opportunities in rural areas, reducing migration to urban centers.
3. _Environmental benefits_: Afforestation and reforestation efforts on wastelands
can help to reduce soil erosion, increase biodiversity, and mitigate climate
change.
4. _Economic benefits_: Wasteland development can generate revenue through
the sale of forest products, such as timber and non-timber forest products.
Initiatives for Wasteland Development in India:
1. _National Wasteland Development Board_: Established in 1985 to promote
wasteland development in India.
2. _National Afforestation Programme_: Launched in 2000 to promote
afforestation and reforestation efforts on wastelands.
3. _Green India Mission_: Launched in 2010 to promote sustainable forest
management and increase forest cover in India.
4. _Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana_: Launched in 2015 to promote
irrigation and water conservation in agriculture, including wasteland development.
Overall, wasteland development in India has significant prospects for improving
agricultural productivity, generating employment, and promoting environmental
sustainability.

Q2.What are the mangroves forests occur in India? Describe their main
characteristics.
OR

Discuss the causes of depletion of mangroves and explain their importance in

maintaining coastal ecology.

Ans.Mangrove forests are vital coastal ecosystems located in the intertidal zones
where saltwater and freshwater meet. India has extensive mangrove forests along
its coasts, especially on the eastern and western sides.

Key Mangrove Forests in India:

1. Sundarbans Mangroves (West Bengal):

Location: In West Bengal, extending into Bangladesh.

Significance: The world’s largest mangrove forest, a UNESCO World Heritage Site,
and a habitat for the Royal Bengal Tiger.

2. Gulf of Kutch (Gujarat):

Location: Along Gujarat’s western coast.

Significance: Known for biodiversity and as a coastal protective barrier.

3. Pichavaram Mangroves (Tamil Nadu):
Location: Near Chidambaram, Tamil Nadu.
Significance: One of India’s largest mangrove ecosystems.
4. Muthupet Mangroves (Tamil Nadu):
Location: South of Chennai, Tamil Nadu.
Significance: Unique for its biodiversity.
5. Andaman and Nicobar Islands:
Location: Bay of Bengal.
Significance: Rich in diverse mangrove species.
Main Characteristics of Mangrove Forests:
1. Salt Tolerance: Mangroves can thrive in saline water through specialized root
and leaf adaptations.
2. Waterlogged Roots: Their aerial roots, like pneumatophores, allow respiration in
oxygen-poor soil.
3. Species Diversity: Includes Rhizophora, Avicennia, and Bruguiera species.
4. Ecological Importance: Protects against erosion, storm surges, and provides
critical habitats for wildlife.
5. Carbon Sequestration: Mangroves act as carbon sinks, helping in climate
change mitigation.
6. Nutrient Cycling: Traps organic matter that supports marine food chains.
7. Breeding Grounds: Essential for the reproduction of fish, shrimp, and crabs,
supporting fisheries.
Causes of Depletion of Mangroves
Mangrove ecosystems are being increasingly threatened by various human and
natural factors:
1. Urbanization and Industrialization:
Coastal development, including urban expansion, tourism, and industrial projects,
leads to the destruction of mangrove habitats. Land reclamation and construction
of ports and infrastructure significantly affect mangrove areas.
2. Deforestation and Logging:
Unsustainable logging for timber, fuelwood, and charcoal is a major cause of
mangrove depletion. In regions where communities rely on mangrove resources,
deforestation occurs rapidly, diminishing the ecosystem.
3. Aquaculture:
The conversion of mangrove areas into shrimp farms and other aquaculture
operations damages these forests by altering natural hydrology and destroying
essential habitats.
4. Pollution:Coastal pollution from sewage, industrial waste, and agricultural
runoff harms mangrove health, leading to the degradation of these valuable
ecosystems.
5. Climate Change:
Rising sea levels, increased storm frequency, and changes in temperature and
rainfall patterns adversely affect mangrove growth and regeneration, making them
more vulnerable to degradation.
Conclusion:
India’s mangrove forests play a key role in biodiversity conservation, coastal
protection, and climate regulation. Their unique characteristics are vital for
maintaining ecological balance along the coast.

Q2.Discuss the wetlands and their role in ecological conservation in India.

Ans.Wetlands are ecosystems where water covers the land, including marshes,
swamps, lakes, and coastal areas. They provide vital ecosystem services and play
a crucial role in environmental conservation.
Key Wetlands in India:
1. Sundarbans (West Bengal): Largest delta wetland, a UNESCO World Heritage
Site, and home to the Royal Bengal Tiger.
2. Keoladeo National Park (Rajasthan): Known for its migratory bird population.
3. Chilika Lake (Odisha): Asia’s largest brackish water lagoon, supporting
biodiversity.
4. Vembanad Lake (Kerala): Vital for fisheries and agriculture.
5. Wular Lake (Jammu & Kashmir): Large freshwater lake, crucial for water
regulation.
Role in Ecological Conservation:
1. Biodiversity: Wetlands support diverse species, including birds, fish, and
plants.
2. Water Regulation: Improve water quality and regulate flow, preventing floods.
3. Carbon Sequestration: Store carbon, mitigating climate change.
4. Flood Control: Absorb excess water, preventing damage.
5. Livelihoods: Support agriculture, fisheries, and tourism.
Threats to Wetlands in India:
●​ Urbanization and Industrialization: Urban growth and industrial
development encroach upon wetland areas, causing habitat loss.
●​ Pollution: Industrial waste, agricultural runoff, and untreated sewage
pollute wetland ecosystems.
●​ Encroachment: Expansion of agriculture and infrastructure often degrades
wetland areas.
●​ Climate Change: Rising temperatures, altered rainfall patterns, and sea
level rise threaten wetland ecosystems, particularly coastal wetlands.
Conservation Measures:
●​ Ramsar Convention: India is a signatory, with several wetlands recognized
as Ramsar Sites, helping protect these vital ecosystems.
●​ Community Involvement: Local communities play an essential role in
conserving wetlands through sustainable practices.
●​ Government Programs: Initiatives like the National Wetlands Conservation
Programme focus on the protection, restoration, and sustainable
management of wetlands.
Conclusion:
Wetlands in India play a crucial role in biodiversity conservation, water regulation,
and climate change mitigation. Their protection is vital for maintaining ecological
balance, supporting livelihoods, and ensuring sustainable development. Efforts
for the conservation and sustainable management of wetlands are essential for
India’s environmental health and resilience.

Q3 Examine the status of forest resources of India and its resultant impact on
climate change.
Ans.Status of Forest Resources in India (2025)
1. Forest and Tree Cover:
●​ As of 2025, India’s total forest and tree cover is approximately 25.17% of its
geographical area, equating to 827,357 square kilometers. This includes
715,343 square kilometers of forest cover (21.76%) and 112,014 square
kilometers of tree cover (3.41%).
2. Increase in Forest Cover:
●​ From 2021 to 2025, India’s forest and tree cover increased by 1,446 square
kilometers. Forest cover rose by 156 square kilometers (0.2%), while tree
cover increased by 1,289 square kilometers (1.16%).
3. Carbon Sequestration:
●​ India’s forests sequester significant amounts of carbon dioxide. In 2020,
India’s forests absorbed around 522 million tonnes of CO₂, which
represents about 22% of India’s total emissions that year.
4. Forest Fires and Climate Change:
●​ Forest fires have been increasing in India, with more than a quarter of the
forest cover being fire-prone. Rising temperatures and climate change are
contributing to the frequency and intensity of forest fires, threatening the
stability of forest ecosystems.
5. Biodiversity and Plantation Issues:
●​ While India has increased its green cover, much of the expansion comes
from plantations, which may not offer the same ecological benefits as
natural forests. There are concerns about the loss of biodiversity-rich
areas, which are vital for the health of ecosystems.
Impact on Climate Change:
1. Mitigation Role:
●​ India’s forests continue to play a crucial role in mitigating climate change
by sequestering carbon and regulating the climate. The ongoing expansion
of forest cover helps to absorb carbon dioxide and mitigate the effects of
climate change.
2. Challenges:
●​ Despite increasing forest cover, challenges like forest fires, biodiversity
loss, and the ecological limitations of plantations undermine the full
potential of forests to combat climate change. More efforts are needed to
address these issues for sustainable forest management.
Conclusion
●​ India's forest resources are crucial for climate change mitigation, but forest
fires, biodiversity loss, and the ecological role of plantations pose
 significant challenges. Proper management and restoration strategies are
essential to maximize the role of forests in combating climate change.

Q4.Identify and discuss the factors responsible for diversity of natural vegetation
in India. Assess the significance of wildlife sanctuaries in rainforest regions of
India.
Ans.India's natural vegetation exhibits remarkable diversity owing to a myriad of
geographical, climatic, and ecological factors.
Factors Responsible for Diversity of Natural Vegetation in India:
●​ Geographic Variation: India's extensive and varied geography, spanning
from the northern Himalayas to the southern coast, results in diverse
ecosystems and vegetation due to a wide range of climatic conditions.
●​ Climatic Variation: India's diverse climates, from tropical in the south to
temperate in the north, directly impact regional vegetation patterns.
●​ Monsoon Winds: The monsoon winds deliver substantial rainfall, leading to
the growth of tropical rainforests in certain areas and supporting
xerophytic vegetation in arid regions.
●​ Altitude: India's diverse altitudes, from the Himalayas to lower regions,
contribute to varied vegetation, with alpine flora at higher altitudes and
temperate forests at lower ones.
●​ Soil Types: India's diverse soil types, including alluvial, red, laterite, and
desert soils, impact plant species and its distribution through varied
vegetation support.
Significance of Wildlife Sanctuaries in Rainforest Regions of India:
●​ Biodiversity Conservation: It provides protected habitats for a wide variety
of plant and animal species, some of which may be endangered or endemic.
●​ Research and Education: These sanctuaries serve as living laboratories for
researchers and conservationists to study and understand complex
ecosystems.
●​ Tourism and Economic Benefits: Well-managed wildlife sanctuaries can
attract ecotourism, providing economic benefits to local communities.
●​ Carbon Sequestration: Rainforests are vital in sequestering carbon dioxide
from the atmosphere.
●​ Ecological Balance: Rainforests play a vital role in ecological balance,
providing essential ecosystem services like water purification, soil fertility,
and pollination.
India's diverse natural vegetation results from geography, climate, altitude, soil,
and biodiversity, while rainforest wildlife sanctuaries are crucial for conservation,
research, tourism, carbon sequestration, and ecological health.

Topic- Soil

Q1 What are the causes of soil erosion?What need for soil conservation.what are
the major measures taken by the government towards conserving soil in India?
Ans.Soil erosion occurs when the top layer of soil is removed by natural forces or
human activities, leading to land degradation.
1. Natural Causes:
•Water Erosion: Heavy rainfall, floods, and river currents wash away the topsoil
(e.g., sheet, rill, and gully erosion).
•Wind Erosion: Strong winds blow away loose, dry soil, especially in deserts and
semi-arid regions.
•Glacial Erosion: Movement of glaciers removes soil in cold regions.
•Landslides: Sudden mass movement of soil, often caused by earthquakes, heavy
rains, or deforestation.
2. Human-Induced Causes:
•Deforestation: Cutting trees weakens soil stability, making it prone to erosion.
•Overgrazing: Excessive grazing by animals damages vegetation cover, leaving
soil exposed.
•Unsustainable Farming Practices: Excessive tilling, monocropping, and improper
irrigation lead to soil depletion.
•Urbanization & Mining: Construction activities disturb the soil, while mining leads
to loss of topsoil and vegetation cover.
Need for Soil Conservation :
•Sustaining Agriculture: Protects soil fertility and ensures long-term crop
productivity.
•Preventing Land Degradation: Reduces desertification and loss of arable land.
•Controlling Floods & Droughts: Healthy soil retains water, reducing flooding and
improving groundwater recharge.
•Preserving Biodiversity: Supports plant and animal life by maintaining ecosystem
balance.
•Improving Water Quality: Prevents siltation of rivers and lakes, reducing water
pollution.
Major Soil Conservation Measures by the Government of India
1. Legislative & Policy Measures:
•Soil Conservation Act (1952): Regulates activities causing soil erosion and
promotes sustainable land use.
•Environment Protection Act (1986): Controls deforestation and industrial
pollution affecting soil quality.
2. Government Programs & Schemes:
•Watershed Development Programme (WDP): Focuses on managing water and soil
resources in hilly and degraded areas.
•National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture (NMSA): Promotes soil health
management, organic farming, and water conservation.
•Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana (RKVY): Provides financial assistance for soil and
water conservation projects.
•Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana (PMKSY): Aims at improving irrigation
efficiency and preventing soil erosion due to poor water management.
•Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA):
Supports soil conservation through afforestation, bund construction, and water
conservation projects.
•Soil Health Card Scheme: Provides farmers with information about soil fertility,
promoting better land management.
3. Afforestation & Agroforestry Initiatives:
•Green India Mission (GIM): Focuses on increasing forest cover to reduce soil
erosion.
•Social Forestry & Agroforestry Programs: Encourages tree planting on farmlands
to prevent soil degradation.
4. Physical Soil Conservation Techniques:
•Contour Plowing: Plowing along land contours to reduce water runoff and soil
loss.
•Terracing: Creating step-like fields on slopes to slow down water flow and
prevent erosion.
•Check Dams & Gully Plugging: Small barriers built in eroded areas to slow down
water flow and trap sediment.
•Mulching & Cover Cropping: Using organic materials or vegetation to cover soil
and reduce erosion.
•Strip Cropping: Growing alternating rows of different crops to minimize wind and
water erosion.
5. Watershed Management & Soil Erosion Control Projects:
•Integrated Watershed Management Programme (IWMP): Focuses on restoring
degraded land through soil conservation techniques.
•Desert Development Programme (DDP): Aims to combat desertification in arid
and semi-arid regions.
•National Afforestation Programme (NAP): Promotes reforestation to restore
degraded forest lands.
Conclusion
Soil conservation is crucial for sustainable agriculture, water conservation,
and environmental protection. The Indian government has implemented
various programs, including afforestation, watershed management, and
sustainable farming practices, to prevent soil erosion and restore degraded
land.

Topic- Drainage

Q1 Describe the different methods of irrigation practiced in India and bring out
their relative importance in the view of recent developments in irrigation.Discuss
government initiatives.
Ans.Irrigation is essential for agriculture in India, especially in areas with
unreliable rainfall. The methods of irrigation practiced can be categorized into
traditional and modern systems:
1. Traditional Methods:-
~Canal Irrigation:
•Water from rivers or lakes is diverted through canals to irrigate fields.Important in
regions like the Indo-Gangetic plains with large river systems.
•Recent Development: Canal systems have been modernized to reduce water loss
and improve water distribution.
~Well and Tubewell Irrigation:
•Water is drawn from underground sources using manual or mechanical
pumps.Crucial in areas with insufficient surface water, such as Uttar Pradesh and
Punjab.
•Recent Development: Over-extraction of groundwater is a growing concern,
requiring better regulation and rainwater harvesting initiatives.
~Tank Irrigation:
•Small ponds or tanks are built to collect rainwater for irrigation.Common in
southern India and drought-prone areas.
•Recent Development: Many traditional tanks are being revived to improve water
conservation and storage.
2. Modern Methods
~Drip Irrigation:
•Water is delivered directly to plant roots through a system of pipes and
emitters.Ideal for water-intensive crops like fruits and vegetables.
•Recent Development: Widely promoted by the government in water-scarce areas
to reduce water wastage and increase yield.
~Sprinkler Irrigation:
•Water is sprayed over crops through pipes and sprinklers.Suitable for regions
with uneven terrain.
•Recent Development: Increasing use in regions with groundwater availability,
encouraged through government subsidies.
~Rainwater Harvesting:
•Collecting and storing rainwater for use in irrigation.Important in arid regions
with limited water sources.
•Recent Development: The government is promoting rainwater harvesting through
various programs.
~Smart Irrigation Systems:
•Uses sensors and automated controls to optimize irrigation based on weather
and soil moisture.Helps conserve water and increase efficiency.
•Recent Development: Gaining popularity in precision farming and supported by
government initiatives.
Government Initiatives:
•Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana (PMKSY):Focuses on water conservation
and efficient irrigation.
•National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture (NMSA):Promotes water-efficient
systems like drip and sprinkler irrigation.
•Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana (RKVY): Provides financial assistance for irrigation
infrastructure development.
•Watershed Development Programs:Promotes sustainable water management and
rainwater harvesting.
conclusion
modern irrigation systems are becoming increasingly essential for efficient water
use in agriculture, with government support promoting their widespread adoption.

Topic- Agriculture
Q1. Government of India has given high priority to oil seeds development
programme .what strategy has been adopted to accelerate the efforts for
increasing their production? Name important oil seeds cultivated in India with
their distribution.
Ans.The Government of India has prioritized the development of oilseeds to
reduce dependence on edible oil imports and boost domestic production.
Various strategies have been adopted to enhance oilseeds production:
1. National Mission on Edible Oils – Oil Palm (NMEO-OP): Launched in 2021, this
mission aims to promote oil palm cultivation in regions like the Northeast and
Andaman & Nicobar Islands. The initiative is targeted at reducing the import of
edible oils by increasing domestic oil palm production.
2. National Mission on Oilseeds and Oil Palm (NMOOP): NMOOP is aimed at
improving the productivity and expanding the area under oilseeds cultivation. The
government provides financial assistance, high-yielding seed varieties, and
technology to farmers.
3. Promotion of High-Yielding Varieties: High-yielding and hybrid varieties of
oilseeds are promoted to increase production. Research efforts are directed
towards improving seed quality and pest resistance.
4. Subsidies for Inputs: The government offers subsidies on inputs such as seeds,
fertilizers, and machinery to reduce the cost of oilseeds cultivation and encourage
farmers to increase their yield.
5. Incentives for Irrigation and Technology: To improve irrigation efficiency, the
government promotes modern techniques like drip and sprinkler irrigation.
Additionally, advanced technologies are introduced to enhance farm productivity.
6. Research and Development: The government focuses on R&D to develop
disease-resistant, drought-tolerant, and high-yielding oilseed varieties, ensuring
long-term sustainability.
7. Post-Harvest Technology and Processing: Investment in post-harvest
processing units helps reduce wastage, improve oil quality, and create
value-added products.
Important Oilseeds Cultivated in India with Their Distribution:
1. Groundnut (Peanut):
•Distribution: Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka.
•Significance: Largest oilseed produced, widely used for oil extraction and
consumption.
2. Soybean:
•Distribution: Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh.
•Significance: High-protein oilseed used for edible oil and animal feed.
3. Rapeseed and Mustard:
•Distribution: Rajasthan, Punjab, Haryana, Madhya Pradesh.
•Significance: Key source of edible oil, especially mustard oil.
4. Sunflower:
•Distribution: Karnataka, Maharashtra, Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh.
•Significance: Produces healthy cooking oil, rich in polyunsaturated fats.
5. Sesame (Til):
•Distribution: Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat, Rajasthan, West Bengal, Maharashtra.
•Significance: Oil extracted for cooking and traditional foods.
6. Cottonseed:
•Distribution: Gujarat, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka.
•Significance: By-product of cotton, used for oil extraction in cooking.
7. Safflower:
•Distribution: Maharashtra, Karnataka, Rajasthan.
•Significance: Oil used in cooking and pharmaceutical industries
8. Linseed:
•Distribution: Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Maharashtra.
•Significance: Used for industrial purposes and medicinal oil.
Conclusion:
The government’s strategic efforts to promote oilseeds cultivation through
initiatives like the National Mission on Oilseeds, subsidies, and R&D are critical in
reducing India’s reliance on oil imports. These initiatives will help India achieve
greater self-sufficiency and bolster its agricultural economy.

Q2.What is dry farming and give example? Discuss it's relevance in augmenting
the food supply in India.
Ans. Dry farming is an agricultural practice used in areas with low or erratic
rainfall, where crops are grown primarily relying on natural moisture from
precipitation rather than irrigation. It involves techniques that maximize water
conservation in the soil and optimize crop yield despite the scarcity of water. Dry
farming uses drought-resistant crops, soil moisture conservation practices, and
proper timing of planting to ensure the sustainability of agriculture in arid and
semi-arid regions.
Example of Dry Farming in India:
●​ An example of dry farming in India is the cultivation of millets such as Bajra
(Pearl Millet), Jowar (Sorghum), and Ragi (Finger Millet) in states like
Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, and Karnataka. These crops are
naturally drought-tolerant and thrive in dry conditions with limited or erratic
rainfall. For instance, in Rajasthan, where the climate is arid, Bajra is grown
using dry farming techniques like moisture conservation, deep plowing,
and water-efficient cropping systems to retain soil moisture and reduce
water loss.
Relevance of Dry Farming in Augmenting Food Supply in India:
1. Water Conservation: In water-scarce regions, dry farming helps reduce reliance
on irrigation, conserving precious water resources. This is especially critical in
regions facing groundwater depletion.
2. Sustainability: By growing drought-resistant crops like millets, pulses, and
oilseeds, dry farming supports sustainable agriculture, as these crops require
minimal water and are well-suited to dryland conditions.
3. Enhanced Food Security: Dry farming plays a crucial role in ensuring food
security in drought-prone areas by providing a reliable source of food even in
regions where irrigation systems are not feasible.
4. Economic Viability for Farmers: In arid regions, where irrigation is costly or
unavailable, dry farming enables farmers to grow crops economically, ensuring
their livelihood and reducing dependence on external water sources.
5. Adaptation to Climate Change: Dry farming techniques help adapt to climate
change by cultivating crops that can survive and thrive in unpredictable rainfall
patterns, contributing to long-term food production stability.
Conclusion:
Dry farming is an essential practice in India, particularly in regions with low
rainfall. By promoting the cultivation of drought-tolerant crops and implementing
water-conserving farming techniques, dry farming can significantly contribute to
enhancing food supply, ensuring food security, and supporting sustainable
agriculture in arid and semi-arid areas of India.

Q3. Elaborate the steps taken by the government for regionally differentiated
approach to increase crop production and diversification in the country
Ans.The Government of India has recognized the need for a regionally
differentiated approach to increase crop production and ensure agricultural
diversification based on the unique agro-climatic conditions of various regions.
Here are the key steps taken:
1. National Mission on Agricultural Extension and Technology (NMAET): Focuses
on region-specific technologies and agricultural extension to improve productivity
and diversification.
2. Promotion of Diversified Crops: Encourages growing drought-resistant crops
like millets in arid regions and horticultural crops in favorable areas.
3. Agro-Climatic Zones and Crop Diversification: Policies are tailored based on
agro-climatic zones to promote crops suited to local soil, rainfall, and
temperature.
4. Soil Health Management (SHM): Soil Health Card Scheme provides
region-specific soil health recommendations to ensure crop suitability.
5. Integrated Farming Systems (IFS): Promotes diversified farming practices
combining crops, livestock, and agroforestry for enhanced income.
6. National Food Security Mission (NFSM): Targets increased production of
pulses, oilseeds, and coarse cereals in suitable regions.
7. Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana (PMKSY): Promotes water-efficient
irrigation in water-scarce regions for crop diversification.
8. State-Specific Schemes: Introduces regionally focused schemes to promote
specific crops, like apples in Himachal Pradesh and vegetables in Uttarakhand.
Conclusion:
These steps ensure region-specific agricultural development, promoting
diversified and sustainable farming practices across India.

Q4 Why did the green revolution in India virtually bypass the eastern region
dispite fertile soil and good availability of water ?
Ans.The Green Revolution in India largely bypassed the eastern region, despite its
fertile soil and good water availability, due to several key factors:
1. Lack of Proper Infrastructure: The eastern region lacked essential agricultural
infrastructure such as irrigation systems, roads, and market access, which were
better developed in areas like Punjab and Haryana.
2. Slow Adoption of Technology: Farmers in the eastern states were slow to adopt
high-yielding varieties (HYVs), fertilizers, and pesticides, as traditional farming
practices remained dominant, limiting the impact of Green Revolution
technologies.
3. Land Fragmentation: The region had significant land fragmentation, resulting in
small landholdings, which made it economically unfeasible for farmers to adopt
capital-intensive techniques like mechanized farming and large-scale irrigation.
4. Focus on Rice Cultivation: The eastern region focused on rice cultivation,
which initially did not align with the Green Revolution's emphasis on wheat. Rice
farming often requires flood irrigation, which wasn't compatible with the Green
Revolution’s approach.
5. Political and Social Factors: Land reforms were slower in the eastern states,
leading to inequitable resource distribution and hindering the widespread
adoption of modern agricultural methods.
6. Water Management Issues: Inefficient water management systems in the region
limited the effective use of available water for high-yielding crops.
Conclusion:
These factors prevented the eastern region from benefiting fully from the Green
Revolution.

Q5 Mention the advantages of the cultivation of millets because of which the year
2023 was declared as the international year of millets by the United Nations.And
also discuss government initiatives in India.
Ans.The United Nations declared 2023 as the International Year of Millets due to
the numerous advantages that millet cultivation offers, particularly in the context
of food security, climate resilience, and sustainable agriculture.
The key advantages are:
1. Nutritional Benefits: Millets are rich in essential nutrients like fiber, proteins,
vitamins, and minerals, making them a highly nutritious option for combating
malnutrition. They are especially beneficial for heart health, digestion, and bone
health.
2. Climate Resilience: Millets are drought-tolerant and can grow in areas with low
rainfall and poor soil conditions. This makes them ideal for regions facing climate
change and water scarcity, ensuring food security in drylands and arid zones.
3. Low Water Requirement: Millets require less water compared to other major
crops like rice and wheat, making them suitable for areas with limited irrigation
facilities and reducing pressure on water resources.
4. Sustainable Farming: Millets are hardy crops that require minimal use of
chemical fertilizers and pesticides, promoting sustainable agricultural practices
and reducing environmental degradation.
5. Diverse Uses: Millets are versatile and can be used in various forms, such as
flour, grains, porridge, and snacks, catering to both traditional and modern dietary
preferences.
6. Economic Viability: Millets are well-suited for small-scale and subsistence
farming, offering economic stability for farmers in marginal and dryland areas.
Government initiatives:
1. National Food Security Mission (NFSM): Promotes millet production through
improved agricultural practices.
2. PMKSY: Supports water-efficient irrigation for millet crops in water-scarce
areas.
3. Public Distribution System: Includes millets in the PDS for food security.
4. Agri-Export Policy 2018: Enhances millet export potential.
5. RKVY: Provides financial assistance for millet cultivation.
6. R&D: Funds research for high-yielding, drought-resistant millet varieties.
7. National Nutrition Mission: Integrates millets for combating malnutrition.
8. State-Specific Programs: Encourages millet cultivation through subsidies and
support.
Conclusion:
The promotion of millet cultivation aligns with global goals of nutrition security,
sustainability, and climate resilience, making 2023 a significant year for
highlighting their importance in addressing global food challenges.

Q6 From being a net food importer in the 1960's, India has emerged as a net food
exporter to the world. And also discuss as a net exporter India faces crises like
poverty,hunger,etc
Ans.Since the 1960s, when it was forced to rely on imports and food aid from
other nations due to chronic food shortages, India has made great advancements
in its ability to produce and export food.
Some of the major factors are mentioned as below:
1. Green Revolution (1960s-1980s): The Green Revolution played a pivotal role in
transforming India’s agricultural landscape. The introduction of high-yielding
varieties (HYV) of seeds, chemical fertilizers, and modern irrigation techniques
significantly boosted crop productivity, especially in staple crops like wheat and
rice. This shift helped India move from food dependence to self-sufficiency.
2. Improved Agricultural Practices: The adoption of modern farming techniques,
including better pest management, mechanization, and advanced crop rotation,
enhanced agricultural efficiency and yield. These practices contributed to an
increase in food production over time.
3. Expansion of Irrigation: The development of irrigation infrastructure, such as
dams, canals, and tube wells, enabled year-round cultivation, particularly in
regions with unpredictable rainfall, further bolstering agricultural output.
4. Supportive Government Policies: Government intervention in the form of
subsidies for fertilizers, irrigation, and seeds encouraged farmers to increase
production. Additionally, the establishment of Minimum Support Prices (MSP)
ensured price stability and motivated farmers to grow surplus crops.
5. Diversification of Crops: India diversified its agricultural output, moving beyond
staple cereals to include pulses, fruits, vegetables, and oilseeds, which expanded
its export potential.
6. Technological Advancements: Technological innovations, such as
biotechnology and genetically modified crops, further optimized yields and
increased agricultural productivity.
7. Global Trade Opportunities: With surplus production, India tapped into
international markets, capitalizing on growing global demand for agricultural
products, such as rice, spices, and seafood.
8. Favorable Climatic Conditions: India's diverse climatic zones allow for a wide
range of agricultural production, making it competitive in the global food market.
Despite being a major food exporter, India faces several challenges related to
poverty, hunger, and malnutrition:
1. Poverty and Income Inequality: A large portion of India’s population remains
poor and cannot afford food, exacerbated by income inequality and limited
resources in rural areas.
2. Food Distribution Challenges: Inefficiencies in the food distribution system,
poor infrastructure, and logistical issues cause food wastage and prevent it from
reaching those in need, particularly in rural areas.
3. Malnutrition: Despite surplus food, many Indians, especially children and
women, suffer from malnutrition due to a lack of balanced diets, not just food
availability.
4. Vulnerabilities of Agriculture: Indian agriculture is heavily reliant on monsoons,
making it vulnerable to climate change, droughts, and floods, which disrupt food
production and increase insecurity.
5. Government Policy Gaps: Welfare schemes like the Public Distribution System
(PDS) face inefficiencies, corruption, and implementation errors, limiting their
effectiveness in addressing hunger and food insecurity.
While India has made significant strides in becoming a net food exporter, certain
challenges remain including climate change, sustainable agriculture,water
management and to ensure that the benefit of the exports reaches to small and
marginal farmers as well.Addressing these challenges will enhance and sustain
India’s position in the global food market while at the same time ensure national
food security

Topic- Industries

Q1 Discuss the factors for localisation of agro-based food processing industries

of North-West India.
OR
How to select areas for establishing industry? (Change answer according this
question)
Ans.Agro-based food processing industry, aptly recognised as ‘sunrise industry’,
is described as one that adds value to agricultural raw materials. This value
addition converts the raw agricultural products into marketable, easy-to-use or
edible products like corn flakes, chips, ready to serve drinks, etc.
The Indian food processing industry accounts for 32% of the country’s total food
market. It is one of the largest industries in India and is ranked fifth in terms of
production, consumption, export and expected growth.
However, the North-West India showcases a better-developed agro-based food
processing industry. The factors for this localisation are as follows:
●​ Geography: The region is blessed with a diverse agro-climatic zones, fertile
soil and undulating plains. These support a multitude of crops, vegetables
and fruits round the year which provide ample raw material.
●​ Raw material: Availability of diverse raw materials viz. cereals, fruits,
vegetables and livestock provide attractive base for food processing
industry in this region. For instance, Punjab accounts for 17% of rice and
11% of wheat production of India. This region also has the distinction of
having the largest population of livestock and largest producer of milk in
India.
●​ Infrastructure: Well-connected transportation network, subsidised
electricity, irrigation facilities (such as Indira Gandhi canal and Bhakhra
Nangal) and ample warehousing and storage facilities contribute to
flourishing agro-based industries in the region.
●​ Agricultural marketing: This region has well-developed agri-export zones,
market yards, organised APMCs and mandis, etc. which have provided a
conducive environment for the establishment of agro-based industries.
●​ Socio-economic status: The population of the region has good literacy rate,
including financial literacy, and enjoys an efficient banking network. This
helps channel easy availability of credit and capital investment.
●​ Policy support: The Punjab government operates an agricultural mega
project policy to facilitate investment in the food processing sector.
Additionally, large landholdings, single window clearance, permission to
set up private sub e-markets, amendment to APMC Act, etc. have enabled
agro-based industries in this region to flourish.
●​ Capacity building and R&D: Capacity building of the manpower in food
processing sector in India is spearheaded by the National Institute of Food
Technology Entrepreneurship and Management which is located in
Sonepat, Haryana. Likewise, a prominent institution for research and
development to improve agricultural productivity and business
opportunities is the Indian Institute of Maize Research located in Ludhiana,
Punjab.
The initiatives taken at the Union level like permitting 100% FDI through the
automatic route in food processing sector and Scheme for Mega Food Parks
under the Ministry of Food Processing Industries are conducive steps. However,
the challenges for the industry remain such as fluctuations in the availability of
raw material due to climate change, inadequate implementation of the APMC Act,
multiplicity of ministries and laws to regulate food value chain, etc.

Q2.Account for the (spatial pattern) present location of iron and steel industries
away from the source of raw material, by giving examples.
Ans.Traditionally, iron and steel industries were located near raw material sources
(iron ore, coal, limestone) to minimize transportation costs. However, in recent
times, many steel plants have been established away from raw material sources
due to several factors.
Reasons for Shift in Location:
1. Proximity to Market: Steel is a bulk commodity, and transportation costs to
consumer centers are high. Locating industries closer to major markets reduces
costs.
Example: Jamshedpur (India) was originally located near raw materials, but newer
plants like Bokaro and Rourkela have been developed to be closer to markets.
2. Availability of Cheap and Efficient Transportation: Modern transport networks
(rail, road, and ports) facilitate easy movement of raw materials and finished
goods.
Example: Visakhapatnam Steel Plant (India) is located near a port, allowing easy
import of iron ore and coal.
3. Import of Raw Materials: Many countries lack sufficient local iron ore or coal
and rely on imports. Industries are thus set up near ports.
Example: South Korea’s Pohang Steel Plant and Japan’s Kobe Steel Plant are
located near coastal areas to import raw materials easily.
4. Government Policies and Industrial Clusters: Governments promote industries
in certain regions through incentives, infrastructure, and policies.
Example: Jindal Steel Plant (Karnataka) is located in a developing industrial
region rather than near raw materials.
5. Energy Availability: With technological advancements, steel plants can operate
using alternative energy sources like hydroelectric power and natural gas.
Example: Durgapur Steel Plant in West Bengal benefits from the nearby DVC
hydroelectric project.
6. Labour and Urbanization: Availability of skilled labor and industrial
infrastructure attracts industries to urban areas.
Example: Tata Steel’s Kalinganagar Plant (Odisha) is located in an industrial zone
rather than near raw material sources.
Conclusion
The location of iron and steel industries has shifted due to improved
transportation, government policies, energy sources, and market demands. This
shift ensures cost efficiency and sustainability in production.

Q3.Discuss the multi-dimensional implications of uneven distribution of mineral

oil in the world.
Ans.Petroleum is not distributed evenly around the world. Slightly less than half
of the world’s proven reserves are located in the Middle East (including Iran but
not North Africa). Following the Middle East are Canada and the United States,
Latin America, Africa, and the region made up of Russia, Kazakhstan, and other
countries that were once part of the Soviet Union.
This uneven distribution of mineral oil across the globe has many
multi-dimensional implications:
●​ Economic: Uneven distribution of the mineral oil across the world, affects
the balance of trade between the importing and the exporting countries.
This in turn affects the foreign exchange reserves of the country. It also
leads to economic consequences like inflation, for the importing country.
 ●​ Political: Many historical and present-day conflicts involve nations trying to
control resource-rich territories. For example, the desire for diamond and
oil resources has been the root of many armed conflicts in Africa. USA’s
interference in the geopolitics of West Asia is also one of the reasons for
uneven distribution of oil minerals.
●​ Employment & Migration: Availability of oil reserves leads to more job
opportunities in the Middle east. That is the reason why India has a large
diaspora in the middle east.
●​ Uneven Growth: Uneven distribution of mineral oil has also led to uneven
growth across the globe. Rise in import prices directly hamper the
capabilities of the government to spend on welfare objectives.
●​ Energy Security: The uneven distribution of the mineral oil resource is the
reason for energy insecurity in the oil deficient countries. It also directly
affects their strategic autonomy.
The uneven distribution of the mineral oil resources leads to various implications
ranging from economic to energy security. This highlights the need for India to
diversify its energy basket both in terms of content and geography.

Q4 Describing the distribution of rubber producing countries, indicate the major

environmental issues faced by them.
Ans.Rubber is primarily produced in tropical regions with hot and humid climates,
as natural rubber is extracted from the Hevea brasiliensis tree. The major
rubber-producing countries are concentrated in Southeast Asia, Africa, and Latin
America.
Major Rubber-Producing Regions:-
•Southeast Asia (Largest Producer) Thailand (World’s largest producer) , India
(Mainly in Kerala, Tamil Nadu, and Karnataka)
,China,etc
•Africa -Côte d'Ivoire,etc
•Latin America -Brazil (Historical producer, but now secondary),etc
Major Environmental Issues in Rubber-Producing Countries:-
1. Deforestation:
•Large-scale rubber plantations replace natural forests, leading to biodiversity
loss.
Example: In Thailand and Indonesia, forested land is cleared for rubber farming.
2. Loss of Biodiversity:
•The monoculture system of rubber plantations threatens local flora and fauna.
•Native species lose their habitat, and ecosystems become imbalanced.
3. Soil Degradation and Erosion:
•Continuous rubber cultivation depletes soil nutrients.
•Deforestation for rubber plantations increases soil erosion, reducing fertility.
4. Water Pollution:
•Use of agrochemicals (fertilizers, pesticides) leads to contamination of local
water bodies.
•In some regions, rubber processing factories discharge untreated wastewater
into rivers.
5. Climate Change Contribution:
•Deforestation for rubber farming releases stored carbon, contributing to global
warming.
•Loss of tree cover reduces carbon sequestration capacity.
6. Human-Wildlife Conflict:
•Clearing forests for plantations forces wildlife into human settlements, increasing
conflicts.
Example: Elephants and tigers in Southeast Asia are affected.
7.Labour and Social Issues:
•Many rubber-producing countries face issues like child labor, poor wages, and
exploitation of workers.
•Indigenous communities lose traditional land to large rubber plantations.
Conclusion
While rubber production is economically vital for many countries, it comes at
significant environmental costs. Sustainable rubber farming practices, such as
agroforestry, reduced chemical use, and reforestation efforts, are crucial to
mitigate these environmental challenges.

Q5.Despite India being one of the countries of Gondwanaland, its mining industry
contributes much less to its Gross Domestic Product (GDP) in percentage.
Discuss.
Ans.Despite being a part of Gondwana land, rich in providing minerals such as
coal, iron, mica, aluminium, etc., the contribution of the mining sector to India’s
GDP has been on a steady decline. Contribution by the mining sector to India’s
GDP is only 1.75%. Whereas other countries like South Africa and Australia
contribute 7.5% and 6.99%.
Reasons:
●​ Mining is harmful from an environmental point of view. There has hardly
been a mining project that did not face opposition on this front.
●​ Several tribal communities and Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups
(PVTGs) fall into the mining zones. Their residence is also threatened by an
increase in mining. Their rehabilitation and compensation is another major
issue.
●​ The auction of a mine is a process where the power rests in the hands of
State governments. There might exist ambiguity in the case where there are
two different political parties in power at the Center and the State.
●​ There are also issues like technological advancements and availability of
cheap funds. Lack of these is the major determinant in poor growth of the
mining industry.
India has majorly been an exporter of raw materials and an importer of finished
products made out of those raw materials. As the raw materials are sold at dirt
cheap rates, it reflects poorly in the GDP calculations.

Q6.What are the main socio-economic implications arising out of the development
of IT industries in major cities of India?
Ans.Information technology is an example of a general-purpose technology that
has the potential to play an important role in economic growth, as well as other
dimensions of economic and social development.
The development of IT industries in major Indian cities has had profound
socio-economic implications, both positive and negative.
Economic Implications:-
●​ Job Creation & Economic Growth – IT hubs like Bengaluru and Hyderabad
generate millions of jobs, boosting GDP and foreign exchange reserves.
●​ Real Estate Boom – High demand for office spaces and housing raises
property prices, benefiting developers but making housing unaffordable for
many.
●​ Wage Disparities & Inflation – High IT salaries increase the cost of living,
creating economic gaps between IT professionals and other workers.
●​ Growth of Ancillary Industries – IT expansion supports transport, retail,
hospitality, and education sectors, diversifying urban economies.
●​ Brain Drain & Talent Migration – Rural areas lose skilled youth to IT cities,
deepening regional economic imbalances.
Social Implications:-
●​ Urbanization & Infrastructure Strain – Overcrowding leads to traffic
congestion, pollution, and pressure on roads, water, and power.
●​ Changing Work Culture – Long working hours and night shifts affect
work-life balance but offer flexibility and global exposure.
●​ Social Stratification – Rising income gaps create divisions between IT
professionals and lower-income groups.
●​ Cultural Shifts – IT cities see Western influences in lifestyle, food, and
consumer behavior, sometimes eroding local traditions.
●​ Gender Inclusivity – IT jobs empower women financially, though workplace
discrimination and safety remain concerns.
Conclusion
To ensure sustainable growth, policymakers must address infrastructure
challenges, housing affordability, and social inequalities.

Topic- Population

Q1.Bring out the findings of the 2023 census in regard to the growth and
variations in rates of growth of population in different parts of the country.how do
you account for population explosion during the last three decades? What
measures should be adopted for population control.
Ans.The 2023 census data presents insightful findings regarding India's
population growth and the varying rates of growth in different regions. It reveals
key trends in demographic changes and offers insight into why population growth
has remained a significant issue over the past three decades.
Findings from the 2023 Census:
1. Overall Growth Trend: India's population continues to grow, although at a
slower rate compared to previous decades. The population is expected to surpass
1.5 billion by the next decade.
2. Regional Variations:
•Southern States: States like Kerala, Tamil Nadu, and Karnataka show slower
growth, with fertility rates below the replacement level due to better healthcare
and education.
•Northern/Central States: Regions like Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and Madhya Pradesh
experience higher fertility rates, contributing to rapid population growth due to
poverty, limited education, and healthcare access.
3. Urban vs. Rural Growth: Urban areas show slower growth, while rural regions
still exhibit higher fertility rates, contributing to sustained population growth in
some parts.
Reasons for Population Explosion:
1. Decline in Mortality Rates: Healthcare improvements have lowered mortality
rates, leading to higher life expectancy and continued population growth.
2. Cultural and Socioeconomic Factors: Large families are often preferred for
economic reasons, especially in rural areas where children are seen as assets.
3. Early Marriage: Early marriage and childbearing contribute to higher fertility
rates, especially in rural regions.
4. Limited Family Planning Access: Inadequate access to contraceptives and
family planning services results in unplanned pregnancies.
Measures for Population Control:
1. Education and Awareness: Promote family planning and reproductive health
education, especially for women.
2. Improved Healthcare: Strengthen healthcare access, particularly in rural areas,
to reduce mortality and improve family planning.
3. Economic Incentives: Provide financial benefits for smaller families and
empower women economically.
4. Policy Enforcement: Strengthen family planning policies and increase access to
contraceptives.
5. Gender Equality: Promote women’s rights and education to empower them to
make informed family decisions.

Q2. Explain the factors affecting the distribution of population in India, bringing
out the variation in density over space.
Ans.The distribution of population in India is influenced by a combination of
physical, economic, social, and political factors. These factors lead to significant
variation in population density across the country.
The distribution of population in India varies due to several key factors:
1. Physical Factors:
•Climate: Moderate climates, like those in Kerala and Tamil Nadu, support higher
population densities, while harsh climates in regions like Rajasthan and the
Himalayas result in sparse populations.
•Topography: Fertile plains, such as the Indo-Gangetic plains, attract dense
populations due to agricultural opportunities. Mountainous terrains, like the
Western Ghats and Himalayas, are less populated.
•Water Availability: Regions with abundant water resources, such as river basins,
support higher populations for agriculture.
2. Economic Factors:
•Agriculture: Fertile areas, like the Indo-Gangetic plains, are densely populated
due to agriculture.
•Industrialization: Urban centers like Mumbai, Delhi, and Bengaluru have high
population densities due to job opportunities in industries.
3. Social and Cultural Factors:
•Cultural Preferences: Cultural norms favoring larger families influence population
growth.
•Migration: Urbanization leads to higher population densities in cities.
4. Political Factors: Government Policies: Economic and infrastructural
development influences population concentration in certain areas.
Variation in Population Density:
•High-density Areas: Regions like the Indo-Gangetic plains, Mumbai, Delhi, and
Kolkata exhibit high population densities due to favorable agricultural conditions,
job opportunities, and urbanization.
•Low-density Areas: Desert regions (e.g., Rajasthan) and mountainous regions
(e.g., parts of Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh) are sparsely populated due
to difficult living conditions, limited resources, and lack of employment
opportunities.
conclusion
India’s population density varies greatly due to a mix of physical, economic,
cultural, and political factors, with densely populated areas being those with
fertile land, better infrastructure, and industrialization, while areas with harsh
climates or challenging terrains remain sparsely populated.

Q3 What measures has the government of India taken for the development of
tribal areas in India?
Ans.The Government of India has taken several steps for the development of tribal
areas, focusing on improving education, healthcare, infrastructure, and economic
empowerment.
Key initiatives include:-
1. Tribal Sub-Plan (TSP): A focused allocation of funds for the development of
tribal areas through TSP ensures that a specific percentage of the budget is
directed towards improving infrastructure, education, healthcare, and economic
development in these regions.
2. Ministry of Tribal Affairs: Established to oversee tribal welfare, the Ministry
implements schemes like the Pradhan Mantri Van Dhan Yojana, which aims to
enhance tribal livelihoods through sustainable practices.
3. Education and Skill Development:
•Eklavya Model Residential Schools (EMRS) provide quality education to tribal
children.
•Scholarships (Pre-Matric and Post-Matric) support tribal students, while
vocational training programs like the Deen Dayal Upadhyaya Grameen Kaushalya
Yojana improve employment opportunities.
4. Healthcare:The National Health Mission (NHM) addresses healthcare gaps in
tribal areas, with specialized services and mobile health units ensuring better
access.
5. Infrastructure Development: PMGSY ensures road connectivity in remote tribal
areas, while the ST Development Fund improves essential infrastructure like
water, sanitation, and electricity.
6. Forest Rights: The Forest Rights Act (2006) secures tribal land rights, allowing
better control over forest resources and improving livelihoods.
7. Economic Empowerment: Van Dhan Vikas Kendra Scheme and Self-Help
Groups (SHGs) empower tribes by promoting sustainable income generation
through forest produce and entrepreneurship.
These measures collectively aim to improve the socio-economic conditions of
tribal communities.

Q4.What characteristics can be assigned to monsoon climate that succeeds in

feeding more than 50 percent of the world population residing in Monsoon Asia?
Ans.Some parts of the world experience seasonal winds like land and sea breezes
but do so, on a much larger scale. There are tropical monsoon lands with
on-shore wet monsoons in the summer and off-shore dry monsoons in the winter.
They are best developed in Indian sub-continent, Myanmar, Thailand, Laos,
Cambodia, parts of South China and Northern Australia.
Characteristics of Monsoon Climate:-
●​ Temperature: Monthly mean temperature in Monsoon climate is above 18°C
but temperature ranges from 15-45°C in summer and 15-30°C in winters.
This temperature range helps in cultivating various crops such as wheat
and rice, staple crop for the large population in the world.
●​ Precipitation: Monsoon is associated with high precipitation. Annual mean
rainfall ranges from 200-250cm but varies according to the intensity of
seasonal winds. It also helps in paddy cultivation.
●​ Distinct season: Seasons are chief characteristics of monsoon climate.
Distinct seasons have been observed with the movement of sun between
the Tropic of Cancer and Capricorn. It facilitates the cultivation of various
types of crops.
●​ The Cool dry season: Out blowing dry winds, the North-East Monsoon,
bring little or no rain to the Indian sub-continent. It has been observed
during October to February.
●​ The Hot dry season: The temperature rises sharply with the sun’s
northward shift to the Tropic of Cancer. Coastal regions are a little relieved
by sea breezes.
●​ The Rainy season: Rainy season has been observed during mid June to
September. With the burst of the South-west monsoon in mid June,
torrential downpours sweep across the country. Almost all the rain for the
year falls within this rainy season.
●​ This pattern of concentrated heavy rainfall in summer is a characteristic
feature of the Tropical Monsoon climate.
 ●​ The Retreating Monsoon: The amount and frequency of rain decreases
towards the end of the rainy season. It retreats gradually southwards after
mid September until it leaves the continent altogether.
The role of monsoon is vital in the economy of major parts of the world because it
is the main source of irrigation in rain-fed areas and facilitates in feeding more
than 50 percent of the world population residing in Monsoon Asia.

Topic- Transportation

Q1 what is golden quadrilateral?how will it help in the economic development of

the country.
Ans.The Golden Quadrilateral (GQ) is a 5,846 km long highway network
connecting Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai, and Kolkata under the National Highways
Development Project (NHDP). It plays a vital role in India’s economic growth.
Economic Benefits:-
1. Enhanced Connectivity & Trade :Links major industrial hubs, ports, and
markets, reducing transportation time and costs.
2. Industrial & Economic Growth :Encourages industrialization along highways,
boosting manufacturing and logistics.
3. Agriculture & Rural Development :Helps farmers transport perishable goods
efficiently, increasing their profits.
4. Employment Generation:Creates jobs in construction, transport, and business
sectors.
5. Reduced Transportation Costs:Faster travel decreases fuel and logistics
expenses.
6. Boost to Tourism :Improves road conditions, promoting domestic tourism.
7. Foreign Investment & Growth :Attracts FDI, enhancing global trade
competitiveness.
Conclusion
The GQ strengthens transportation, trade, and industrialization, driving India’s
economic development.

Q2 Technological changes have brought in a major shift the use of roads as a

transport corridor in India.how far do you agree with this view.
Ans.Technological advancements have significantly transformed road transport in
India, making it more efficient, safer, and well-integrated with other modes of
transport. This has led to a major shift in the way roads are used as transport
corridors.
1. Improved Road Infrastructure
•Advanced highway construction techniques (e.g., concrete expressways, smart
highways) have enhanced road quality, reducing travel time and vehicle wear and
tear.
•Projects like Bharatmala Pariyojana aim to improve connectivity between
industrial and rural areas.
2. Digitalization and Smart Transport Systems
•GPS-based navigation and real-time traffic monitoring help optimize routes,
reducing congestion and fuel consumption.
•Electronic toll collection (FASTag) has minimized delays at toll plazas, improving
freight movement.
3. Integration with Logistics and E-Commerce
•AI and IoT-based fleet management systems have streamlined logistics
operations, making road transport more efficient.
•The growth of e-commerce has increased demand for express delivery services,
relying heavily on road networks.
4. Electric and Automated Vehicles
•The rise of electric vehicles (EVs) and charging infrastructure is making road
transport more sustainable.
•Autonomous and connected vehicle technology is being explored for better road
safety and efficiency.
5. Smart Traffic Management
•AI-driven traffic control systems help manage urban congestion, reducing travel
time and pollution.
•Intelligent highway surveillance systems improve road safety and accident
response.
Conclusion
Technological changes have revolutionized India's road transport, making it
faster, more efficient, and environmentally friendly. The integration of digital tools,
smart infrastructure, and sustainable mobility solutions has redefined roads as a
critical transport corridor, supporting economic growth and connectivity.

Q3 Enumerate the benefits and problems of inland water transport in India.

Ans.Inland water transport (IWT) plays a crucial role in India's transportation
system, utilizing rivers, canals, backwaters, and lakes for cargo and passenger
movement.
Benefits of Inland Water Transport:-
1. Cost-Effective Transport:Cheaper than road and rail transport due to lower fuel
consumption and maintenance costs.
2. Energy Efficient & Eco-Friendly:Consumes less fuel per ton-km, reducing
carbon emissions and pollution.
3. Reduced Road and Rail Congestion: Helps decongest highways and railways,
improving overall transport efficiency.
4. Connectivity to Remote Areas: Provides access to rural and underdeveloped
regions, boosting economic activities.
5. Suitable for Heavy Cargo:Ideal for bulk goods like coal, cement, and fertilizers,
reducing transportation costs.
6. Tourism Promotion:Enhances river tourism, boosting local economies and
employment.
Problems of Inland Water Transport:-
1. Limited Navigability :Many rivers suffer from seasonal water fluctuations,
making year-round navigation difficult.
2. Slow Speed :Water transport is slower than road and rail, making it unsuitable
for perishable goods.
3. Poor Infrastructure: Lack of modern ports, jetties, and terminals affects
efficiency and cargo handling.
4. Siltation and Water Pollution
•Sedimentation in rivers reduces depth, affecting vessel movement.
•Industrial and domestic pollution harms navigability.
5. Limited Awareness & Investment:IWT is underutilized due to inadequate
funding and awareness.
6. Competition from Other Modes:Railways and road transport dominate, limiting
the growth of inland waterways.
Conclusion
Despite its challenges, IWT has great potential for sustainable transport in India.
With improved infrastructure, dredging, and policy support, it can become a vital
mode of transport, reducing costs and environmental impact.

Q4 What is the significance of Industrial Corridors in India? Identifying industrial

corridors, explain their main characteristics.
Ans.Industrial Corridors (ICs) are stretches across the country allocated to a
specific geographical area with the intent to stimulate industrial development. It
aims to create an area with a cluster of manufacturing or other industries and
gives an impetus to smart and sustainable cities by leveraging on the high speed,
high connectivity transportation system.
The Significance of Industrial Corridors in India:-
●​ Setting up industrial townships, educational institutions, roads, railways,
airports, hospitals along industrial corridors would generate employment
and raise standard of living.
●​ Production costs would come down due to improved transportation system
and agglomeration effect, making Indian goods competitive in domestic as
well as foreign markets.
●​ Provide necessary logistics infrastructure needed to reap economies of
scale, thus enabling firms to focus on their areas of core competence.
●​ People would find job opportunities close to their homes which would curb
migration towards cities, thus preventing stress on the already burdened
urban landscape.
●​ Prevention of concentration of industries in one particular location would
prevent exploitation of the environment as well as ensure balanced
development in the country.
Various Industrial Corridors of India:-
Delhi – Mumbai Industrial Corridor
Bengaluru – Mumbai Economic Corridor
Chennai – Bengaluru Industrial Corridor
Vizag - Chennai Industrial Corridor
Amritsar – Kolkata Industrial Corridor
The Main Characteristics of Industrial Corridors:-
 ●​ Constructed in areas that have pre-existing infrastructure, such as ports,
highways and railroads.
●​ Each IC would have 6-8 key nodes developed on Smart City principles.
●​ Dedicated construction of residential areas, public utilities, production
units, schools, and hospitals.
●​ Freight cargo would be brought to the industrial corridor via rail and road
feeder links that shall provide last mile connectivity.
The challenges while creating ICs would include correctly assessing the demand
and viability, transport options for goods and workers, land values, and economic
incentives for companies. The economic and financial feasibility of ICs should be
ensured by attracting potential investors to set up manufacturing units at National
Investment and Manufacturing Zones (NMIZs). India will also have to rely on
foreign players for innovative technologies. The fundamental focus of ICs should
be on improving both Industrial and Urban Infrastructure.

Q5.How is efficient and affordable urban mass transport key to the rapid
economic development in India?
Ans.Urban mass transport plays a crucial role in India’s economic growth by
improving mobility, reducing congestion, and enhancing productivity. As cities
expand, an efficient public transport system is essential for sustainable
urbanization and economic progress.
1. Increased Workforce Productivity:
•Reduces travel time, allowing workers to commute faster and more efficiently.
•Enhances economic output by minimizing delays caused by traffic congestion.
2. Cost Savings & Affordability:
•Lowers transportation costs for individuals, increasing disposable income.
•Reduces fuel consumption, benefiting the economy by lowering oil import
dependence.
3. Reduced Traffic Congestion & Pollution:
•Efficient metro, bus rapid transit (BRT), and suburban rail reduce private vehicle
use.
•Leads to lower air pollution and fuel wastage, supporting environmental
sustainability.
4. Boost to Local Businesses & Real Estate:
•Well-connected transit systems promote commercial growth around transport
hubs.
•Increases property values and investments in well-connected urban areas.
5. Employment Generation:
•Creates jobs in construction, operations, and maintenance of metros, buses, and
railways.
•Supports allied industries like automobile, infrastructure, and IT sectors.
6. Social Inclusion & Livability:
•Affordable transport ensures better access to education, healthcare, and jobs,
improving urban living standards.
•Reduces economic disparities by connecting peri-urban and rural populations
with city centers.
Conclusion
An efficient and affordable mass transit system is essential for India's economic
growth. It improves productivity, reduces congestion, lowers costs, and supports
sustainable urbanization, making cities more competitive and livable.

Q6.Mention the significance of straits and isthmus in international trade.

Ans.A strait is a narrow oceanic waterbody connecting two seas or two other
large water bodies. It acts as a passage or gallery for ships in the water between
water bodies. E.g., Malacca strait, Gibraltar strait, etc.
An isthmus is a narrow strip of land that connects two larger landmasses and
separates two bodies of water. E.g., Isthmus of Suez, connecting Africa and Asia.
Significance of Staits and Isthmus in international trade:-
●​ They reduce distance between the places and facilitate greater trade. E.g.,
the Suez Canal on the isthmus of Suez prevents the circumvent of the
Africa by ships for trade between Asia and Europe.
●​ The straits and isthmus also provide good harbor and ports leading to
international trade facilitation. E.g., Singapore port on the Malacca strait.
●​ It also provides connectivity between lager landmass and the water bodies.
Like Panamá Canal on isthmus of Panama connects Atlantic and Pacific
oceans.
●​ It also revolutionizes the shipping industry by facilitating efficient
transportation.
●​ It provides the bridge between the demand and supply of the commodity.
E.g., Japan buys the iron ore of India through the strait of Malacca.
●​ It provides environmentally friendly shipping. E.g., By making the Palk
Strait deeper, Indian ships could circumvent Sri Lanka (a long route) while
transporting goods from Vizag to Kochin (saving fuel).
●​ It facilitates the export and import of international trade in tourism services
by providing recreational services along the coasts of the isthmus and
straits.
It provides good ground for fishing and aquaculture and thus, promotes
international trade in marine products.It also provides the strategic place for
defence establishment that facilitates international trade by providing security
from pirates.

Topic- Energy Resources

Q1. What measures have been taken by the Government of India to develop our
own sources for the supply of petroleum crude? Discuss the measure of success
achieved in this regard.
Ans.The Government of India has implemented various measures to develop
indigenous sources of petroleum crude to reduce dependency on imports and
enhance energy security.
Measures Taken by the Government of India:-
1. Exploration & Licensing: Policies like NELP (1999) and HELP (2016) encourage
private and foreign investment. OALP allows companies to choose exploration
blocks, while the DSF Policy develops small oil fields.
2. Seismic Surveys: The National Seismic Program (NSP) explores untapped
reserves.
3. Unconventional Resources: Development of shale oil, coal bed methane (CBM),
and deepwater drilling.
4. Strengthening PSUs: ONGC and OIL receive incentives for higher domestic
production.
5. Overseas Acquisitions: ONGC Videsh and Indian oil companies invest in
foreign oil fields.
6. Infrastructure Expansion: Refinery modernization and Strategic Petroleum
Reserves (SPR) ensure energy security.
Measure of Success:
•Domestic production remains around 30-32 MMT/year, meeting only 15% of
demand.
•85% crude oil dependence on imports continues.
•Overseas acquisitions and alternative energy sources have seen progress.
•Refinery expansion and strategic reserves improve supply security.
Conclusion:
Despite various initiatives, self-sufficiency in crude oil remains a challenge.
Further investment in deep-sea exploration, EOR techniques, and alternative
energy is essential for energy security.

Q2.What is the need for coal conservation? what are the major components of
India's coal conservation policy?
Ans.India's coal sector has seen significant developments recently. Between April
2024 and January 2025, coal production increased by approximately 5.88%,
reaching 830.66 million tonnes, up from 784.51 million tonnes during the same
period in the previous fiscal year.
Need for Coal Conservation:-
1. Limited Reserves: India has finite coal reserves; conservation ensures
long-term energy security.
2. Environmental Concerns: Coal mining and combustion cause pollution and
greenhouse gas emissions.
3. Energy Efficiency: Efficient utilization reduces wastage and improves power
generation.
4. Sustainable Development: Balanced coal use supports economic growth while
minimizing ecological impact.
5. Import Reduction: Conservation reduces dependency on expensive coal
imports.
Major Components of India's Coal Conservation Policy:-
1. Efficiency in Mining & Utilization: Adoption of advanced technologies like
surface miners, underground gasification, and coal beneficiation.
2. Washed & Beneficiated Coal: Reducing ash content for cleaner combustion.
3. Underground Mining Promotion: Reducing environmental impact compared to
opencast mining.
4. Coal Substitution: Encouraging renewable energy and alternative fuels.
5. Regulatory Measures: Policies by the Ministry of Coal and CIL to ensure
sustainable extraction.
6. Awareness & Research: Investment in R&D for efficient coal use and pollution
control.
Conclusion:
Coal conservation is vital for energy security and environmental sustainability.
India's policy focuses on efficiency, cleaner technologies, and alternative energy
sources.

Q3.Mention some of the new programs that have been Undertaker to the nuclear
research in India
Ans.India has undertaken several new programs to advance nuclear research,
focusing on energy generation, technological innovation, and sustainability.
Some key initiatives include:-
1. Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor (PFBR) - Kalpakkam:
•A 500 MW fast breeder reactor (FBR) at the Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic
Research (IGCAR), Tamil Nadu.
•Part of India's three-stage nuclear program, using plutonium from spent fuel to
generate more fissile material.
2. Thorium-Based Nuclear Energy Research:
•India has vast thorium reserves and is developing the Advanced Heavy Water
Reactor (AHWR) to utilize thorium fuel.
•AHWR-300 LEU (Low Enriched Uranium) design focuses on safety and
sustainability.
3. Indian Pressurized Heavy Water Reactor (IPHWR) Program:
Indigenous 700 MW IPHWRs are under construction at Kakrapar, Rajasthan, and
Gorakhpur to boost domestic nuclear capacity.
4. Expansion of Nuclear Power Plants:
•New reactors planned at Jaitapur (Maharashtra), Kovvada (Andhra Pradesh), and
Chutka (Madhya Pradesh).
•Collaboration with France (EPR reactors), Russia (VVER reactors), and the USA
(Westinghouse AP1000).
5. Fusion Energy Research: India is a key member of the International
Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER) in France, contributing
superconducting magnets and other technologies.
6. Indigenous Small Modular Reactors (SMRs): Research on SMRs for flexible and
safer nuclear power deployment in remote areas.

These initiatives aim to enhance energy security, reduce carbon emissions, and
establish India as a global leader in nuclear technology.

Q4.Bring out the prospects of development of alternative energy sources of India.

Ans.Prospects of Development of Alternative Energy Sources in India
1. Solar Energy:
•India has vast solar potential, with a target of 280 GW by 2030 under the National
Solar Mission.
•Floating solar projects and solar parks (like Bhadla, Rajasthan) enhance capacity.
2. Wind Energy:
•India ranks among the top wind power producers, aiming for 140 GW by 2030.
•Offshore wind projects in Tamil Nadu and Gujarat offer great potential.
3. Hydropower:
•Expanding small and large hydro projects in the Northeast and Himalayan states.
•Pumped storage projects enhance grid stability.
4. Bioenergy & Green Hydrogen:
•National Green Hydrogen Mission targets 5 MMT annual production by 2030.
•Biogas & biomass energy reduce agricultural waste and emissions.
5. Nuclear Energy:Development of thorium-based reactors and small modular
reactors (SMRs) for long-term energy security.

With strong policies and investments, India’s alternative energy sector is set for
rapid growth.

Q5.With growing scarcity of fossil fuels, the atomic energy is gaining more and
more significance in India. Discuss the advantages of atomic energy and
disadvantage.Discuss the availability of raw material required for the generation
of atomic energy in India and in the world.
Ans.With depleting fossil fuels and rising energy demand, atomic energy is a
crucial alternative for sustainable power generation. India aims to expand nuclear
power capacity to 22 GW by 2031 under its three-stage nuclear program.
Advantages of Atomic Energy:-
1. High Energy Output: A small amount of uranium produces vast energy
compared to fossil fuels.
2. Low Greenhouse Gas Emissions: Reduces carbon footprint and combats
climate change.
3. Energy Security: Reduces dependence on coal, oil, and gas imports.
4. Base Load Power Supply: Ensures stable electricity generation, unlike solar or
wind.
5. Efficient Land Use: Requires less space compared to renewable energy farms.
Disadvantages of Atomic Energy:-
1. Nuclear Waste Disposal: Radioactive waste poses long-term environmental
risks.
2. High Initial Cost: Setting up nuclear plants requires huge investments.
3. Accident Risks: Nuclear disasters (Chernobyl, Fukushima) highlight safety
concerns.
4. Limited Uranium Reserves: Dependence on imports for fuel supply.
5. Public Opposition: Concerns over radiation and environmental impact.
Availability of Raw Materials:-
1. Uranium Availability
In India:
•Limited uranium reserves (~1-2% of global reserves).
Major deposits in Jharkhand (Jaduguda, Turamdih), Andhra Pradesh
(Tummalapalle), and Meghalaya (Domiasiat).
•Imports from Kazakhstan, Canada, and Russia to meet demand.
Global Reserves:
•Major producers: Australia (28%), Kazakhstan (15%), Canada (9%).
•Sufficient reserves to support nuclear power globally.

2. Thorium Availability
In India:
•World’s largest thorium reserves (~25% of global reserves), mainly in Kerala,
Odisha, Tamil Nadu, and Andhra Pradesh.
•India is developing thorium-based reactors (AHWR) for future energy needs.
Global Reserves:
•Major deposits: India, Brazil, Australia, and the USA.
•Thorium is abundant but requires advanced reactor technology.
Conclusion
India’s limited uranium and abundant thorium reserves make thorium-based
nuclear energy crucial for long-term energy security. While nuclear power has
risks, technological advancements can ensure safe and sustainable development.
Q6 In spite of adverse environmental impact, coal mining is still inevitable for
development”. Discuss.
Ans.The statement "In spite of the adverse environmental impact, coal mining is
still inevitable for development" highlights the trade-off between economic growth
and environmental preservation.
Economic Necessity of Coal Mining:
•Energy Demand: Coal is a primary energy source, especially in countries with
limited access to alternatives, providing affordable and reliable electricity.
•Industrial Use: It plays a key role in industries like steel and cement production,
vital for infrastructure and industrialization.
•Employment: Coal mining provides jobs, especially in developing nations,
supporting livelihoods in areas with few alternatives.
Environmental Impact:
•Pollution: Coal burning emits harmful gases like CO2, contributing to climate
change, along with SO2 and NOx, causing air pollution.
•Deforestation & Habitat Destruction: Mining, particularly open-pit, leads to
ecosystem destruction and biodiversity loss.
•Water Contamination: Poorly managed mining operations pollute water sources,
affecting local communities and wildlife.
Alternatives & Transition:
•Renewables Growth: As renewable energy sources like solar and wind become
more viable, coal's role in energy is likely to decrease.
•Energy Efficiency: Technologies like carbon capture can mitigate coal's
environmental impact.
•Transition Challenges: Moving away from coal is difficult due to economic and
infrastructural dependencies in developing regions.
Conclusion:
Coal mining remains crucial for development but requires sustainable practices
and investment in cleaner alternatives to reduce its environmental harm.
Q7.Petroleum refineries are not necessarily located nearer to crude oil producing
areas, particularly in many of the developing countries. Explain its implications.
Ans.Petroleum refineries are often located far from crude oil-producing areas,
especially in many developing countries. This decision has several implications,
which can be categorized into economic, logistical, environmental, and energy
security concerns.
Benefits of Refineries Near Oil Resources:
1. Reduced Transportation Costs: Proximity to crude oil sources lowers
transportation costs, making the final products more affordable.
2. Access to Infrastructure: Refineries near pipelines, railways, and highways can
operate more efficiently, reducing transport expenses.
3. Skilled Labor Availability: Locations with a skilled workforce lower labor costs
and improve operational efficiency.
4. Regulatory Advantages: Favorable regulatory environments can reduce
operational costs, enhancing profitability.
5. Support Services: Refineries benefit from nearby engineering,maintenance, and
repair services, increasing efficiency and reducing costs.
6. Economic Benefits: Refineries bring jobs, tax revenue, and investment
opportunities, stimulating local economies.
Drawbacks of Refineries Away from Oil Resources:
1. Increased Transportation Costs: Long-distance transportation raises crude oil
costs, increasing final product prices.
2. Dependence on Imports: Far-away refineries increase reliance on imported
crude, making countries vulnerable to market volatility.
3. Environmental Impact: Transportation over long distances risks oil spills and
environmental damage.
4. Energy Security Concerns: Heavy reliance on imports raises energy security
risks.
Conclusion:
The location of refineries away from crude oil sources in developing countries has
significant economic, logistical, and environmental implications. Policymakers
must balance these factors when planning energy infrastructure.
Q8.India has immense potential of solar energy though there are regional
variationsin its developments. Elaborate.
Ans.India has immense potential for solar energy, but its development varies
across regions due to factors like geographical conditions, infrastructure, climate,
and governmental policies. Here’s a detailed elaboration:
1. Geographical Advantage: India enjoys abundant sunlight, particularly in regions
with large, open areas. States such as Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharashtra, and
Madhya Pradesh have the highest solar potential due to their sunny climates and
vast, arid lands that are ideal for large solar farms.
2. Leading States:
•Western India: Rajasthan and Gujarat lead in solar energy development.
Rajasthan benefits from its sunny climate and vast, underutilized land, while
Gujarat’s government has made significant investments in solar infrastructure.
•Southern India: Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, and Telangana also show strong solar
potential. Karnataka is one of the leaders in both utility-scale solar projects and
rooftop installations, driven by favorable weather conditions and government
support.
3. Challenges in Northern and Eastern Regions:
•Northern India: States like Uttarakhand and Himachal Pradesh face challenges
due to hilly terrains and less direct sunlight compared to other regions, limiting
solar power development.
•Eastern India: Regions such as West Bengal and Odisha experience lower solar
radiation. Densely populated areas and land-use issues further complicate
large-scale solar projects.
4. Infrastructure and Land Issues: Land acquisition remains a significant barrier,
especially in regions with dense populations or protected lands. Infrastructure
challenges, such as transmission lines and grid connectivity, hinder smooth
integration of solar power in remote or less-developed areas.
5. Government Support and Policies: India’s National Solar Mission aims to
achieve 500 GW of solar capacity by 2030, encouraging investment across states.
However, states like Gujarat and Rajasthan have been able to leverage this better
due to proactive state policies, whereas other states face delays in policy
execution and infrastructure development.
conclusion
while India’s solar energy potential is immense, regional disparities in solar
energy development arise due to varied climatic conditions, land availability,
infrastructure, and state-level policies. With focused interventions, India can
overcome these regional challenges and maximize its solar energy potential.

Q9. Examine the potential of wind energy in India and explain the benefits and
reasons for their limited spatial spread.
Ans.India has significant potential for wind energy, with an estimated potential of
around 302 GW at 100 meters above ground level. The country's coastal regions
and elevated areas are ideal for harnessing wind power due to favorable wind
speeds and conditions. However, the spatial spread of wind energy development
has been limited due to several factors:
Favorable Regions for Wind Energy:-
Coastal Areas: India’s long coastline of about 11098 kilometers provides ample
opportunity for wind energy. States like Tamil Nadu, Gujarat, Maharashtra, and
Andhra Pradesh have some of the highest wind power potentials due to strong
and consistent winds.

Western and Southern States: Tamil Nadu is the leader in wind energy generation,
contributing to nearly half of India's total installed wind energy capacity. Gujarat
and Maharashtra also have substantial wind energy potential, particularly along
their coastlines and in hilly regions.
Benefits of Wind Energy in India:
1. Renewable and Clean Energy: Wind energy is a clean, renewable source of
power with no emissions, helping to reduce India’s carbon footprint and mitigate
climate change.
2. Energy Security:Wind energy enhances energy security by diversifying the
energy mix and reducing dependence on imported fossil fuels.
3. Economic Benefits: The wind energy sector creates jobs in manufacturing,
installation, and maintenance, while boosting local economies through
investments in infrastructure.
4. Sustainable Development: Wind energy supports sustainable development by
providing a long-term, eco-friendly energy source to meet growing energy
demands.
5. Scalability and Flexibility: Wind farms can be scaled and are flexible to meet
demand, with the ability to operate in rural areas as decentralized energy source.
Reasons for Limited Spread:-
1. Wind Variability: Wind speeds are inconsistent in many regions, limiting wind
energy potential to coastal and elevated areas.
2. Land Availability: Wind farms require large tracts of land, which are often
occupied by agriculture, housing, or forests.
3. Infrastructure Constraints: Remote areas with high wind potential lack grid
connectivity, hindering wind farm development.
4. High Initial Investment: High capital investment costs make wind energy
projects less viable in some areas.
5. Policy and Regulatory Barriers: Inconsistent policies and delays in approvals
slow wind energy growth.
Conclusion
while wind energy offers numerous benefits for India, such as renewable energy,
economic growth, and environmental sustainability, its spread has been limited by
factors like wind variability, land availability, infrastructure issues, high capital
costs, and regulatory challenges. Overcoming these barriers would be essential
for harnessing India’s full wind energy potential.

Q10. Examine the potential of hydrogen energy in India and explain the benefits
and reasons for their limited spatial spread.also discuss government initiatives.
Ans.India has substantial potential for hydrogen energy due to its growing need
for cleaner energy solutions, its abundance of renewable energy resources (like
solar and wind), and its push toward decarbonization. Hydrogen can be produced
using renewable sources (green hydrogen) or from fossil fuels (grey hydrogen),
though the focus is increasingly on green hydrogen for sustainability.
Potential of Hydrogen Energy in India:-
1. Renewable Energy Integration: India’s abundance of solar and wind energy
provides a strong foundation for producing green hydrogen through electrolysis,
where electricity from renewable sources splits water into hydrogen and oxygen.
With growing solar capacity and wind farms, India has the potential to be a major
player in green hydrogen production.
2. Industrial Applications: Hydrogen can be used in industries like steel, cement,
and chemicals, which are traditionally reliant on fossil fuels. It offers an
opportunity for decarbonization of these sectors, reducing emissions and
enhancing sustainability.
3. Energy Storage and Transport: Hydrogen can act as a medium for storing
energy, making it a valuable tool for grid stability, especially in regions with
intermittent renewable energy. Additionally, hydrogen has the potential to fuel
hydrogen-powered vehicles, offering an alternative to conventional fossil fuels.
Benefits of Hydrogen Energy:
1. Clean and Sustainable: Hydrogen, especially green hydrogen, is a clean fuel
with zero emissions when consumed, making it ideal for reducing India’s carbon
footprint.
2. Energy Independence: Hydrogen reduces dependence on imported fossil fuels,
improving energy security and providing a sustainable alternative.
3. Decarbonization: Hydrogen can significantly contribute to decarbonizing
hard-to-abate sectors, such as heavy industries and transport, thereby aligning
with India’s climate goals.
4. Job Creation: The development of the hydrogen economy can foster new job
opportunities in research, production, and infrastructure development.
Reasons for Limited Spatial Spread:
1. High Production Costs: Green hydrogen production is still expensive due to the
high cost of electrolysis and renewable electricity, which limits its large-scale
adoption.
2. Infrastructure Constraints: Hydrogen requires specialized infrastructure for
storage, transport, and distribution, which is not widely available in India,
hindering its spread.
3. Lack of Awareness and Expertise: India has limited technical expertise in
hydrogen production and technology, which slows the development and
deployment of hydrogen solutions.
4. Policy and Regulatory Challenges: There is a need for clearer regulations,
incentives, and policies to support the growth of the hydrogen sector, and the
existing policy framework is still evolving.
Government Initiatives:
1. National Hydrogen Mission: The National Hydrogen Mission (launched in 2021)
aims to make India a global hub for green hydrogen. It focuses on developing
production capacity, building infrastructure, and creating policies to facilitate
growth in the sector.
2. Green Hydrogen Policy: The government has introduced a Green Hydrogen
Policy to promote the use of green hydrogen and encourage investment in
infrastructure, with incentives like decentralized production, renewable energy
access, and carbon credits.
3. Production Target: India has set ambitious targets to produce 5 million tons of
green hydrogen annually by 2030, positioning it as a leader in the global hydrogen
market.
4.International Collaboration: India is collaborating with countries like Japan and
Australia on hydrogen development, facilitating knowledge exchange and
technology transfer.
Conclusion:
Hydrogen energy has significant potential in India to drive clean energy
transitions, decarbonize industries, and enhance energy security. However, its
limited spatial spread is primarily due to high production costs, infrastructure
challenges, and the need for more policy clarity. The Indian government is actively
working to overcome these challenges through initiatives like the National
Hydrogen Mission, aiming to make India a leader in the global hydrogen economy.

Topic- Natural Resources

Q1-It is said that India has substantial reserves of shale oil and gas, which can
feed the needs of the country for quarter century. However, tapping of the
resource does not appear to be high on the agenda. Discuss critically the
availability and issues involved
Ans.India has significant reserves of shale oil and gas, particularly in states like
Gujarat, Rajasthan, and Assam, which are believed to have enough potential to
meet the country's energy needs for the next 25 years.
However, there are several critical issues preventing the large-scale exploitation
of these resources:-
Environmental Concerns: Extracting shale oil and gas involves hydraulic
fracturing (fracking), which requires large amounts of water. This can lead to
water scarcity in some regions. Additionally, fracking has environmental risks
such as groundwater contamination and induced seismicity, raising concerns
about its long-term sustainability.
Regulatory Challenges: India lacks a clear and consistent regulatory framework
for shale gas exploration. The absence of well-defined policies and clear land
acquisition processes has created uncertainty, making it less attractive for
investment.
Economic Viability: The extraction of shale oil and gas is costly, and with global
oil prices fluctuating, it may not always be economically viable. The extraction
process is also more expensive than conventional oil and gas, requiring high
initial investment.
Focus on Renewable Energy: India is increasingly prioritizing renewable energy
sources such as solar and wind, in line with its climate commitments. Shale
resources may be less attractive given the country's focus on sustainable energy
solutions and carbon reduction.
Technological and Expertise Gaps: The advanced technology required for efficient
shale extraction is still in development in India. The country relies on foreign
partnerships and expertise, making it dependent on external factors that could
delay progress.
Conclusion
While India's shale reserves hold potential, various environmental, economic, and
regulatory challenges have kept the resource from being fully exploited. With the
country focusing on renewables and the complexities of shale extraction, it may
not be a priority in the near future.

Q2How does India see its place in the economic space of rising natural resource
rich Africa?
Ans.India sees its place in the economic space of rising, natural resource-rich
Africa as an important opportunity to secure resources, foster trade, and build
strategic partnerships. Africa, with its vast reserves of oil, gas, minerals, and
other resources, offers India crucial opportunities for long-term energy security
and economic growth.
India’s growing engagement with Africa can be understood in several ways:-
1. Resource Access: Africa’s abundance of natural resources, including oil, gas,
and minerals, is vital for India, given its dependence on imports for energy needs.
By securing access to these resources, India aims to reduce reliance on
traditional suppliers and diversify its energy sources, helping ensure its economic
stability.
2. Trade and Investment: India has significantly increased its trade with African
nations, covering sectors like oil, pharmaceuticals, textiles, and chemicals. Indian
companies are also investing in Africa’s infrastructure, building roads, railways,
and power plants. These investments help unlock Africa’s resource potential while
also benefiting India economically.
3. Strategic Rivalry with China: India seeks to compete with China in Africa, which
has heavily invested in the region. India emphasizes "south-south" cooperation,
focusing on mutual growth and development, offering a more balanced
partnership compared to China's resource-driven approach.
4. Geopolitical Influence: Strengthening ties with African nations helps India boost
its global geopolitical influence. By deepening partnerships in Africa, India aims
to assert itself in international forums like the UN, BRICS, and the G20.
Conclusion
India views its economic relationship with Africa as an essential part of its
strategy to secure resources, enhance trade, and build stronger global influence.

Q3.Why Is India taking keen interest in resources of Arctic Region?

Ans.According to the Ministry of External Affairs, India’s interests in Arctic Ocean
region are commercial, strategic, environmental and scientific.
Key points:-
●​ Potential Natural Resources: Arctic region holds oil and natural gas
resources which can boost India’s energy security and diversify its energy
imports especially when West Asia is under geopolitical turmoil. Arctic is
also an abundant source for fishing.
●​ Potential for Newer Shipping Routes: As global climate warms up and polar
ice recedes, new paths between Asia, Europe and North America become
open which can reduce cost of transportation for India’s exports and
imports. For example, the Northern Sea Route, a mostly frozen sea way can
become navigable throughout the year.
 ●​ Increased Vulnerability of Coastal Communities: Melting of ice on large
scale can make India’s coastal cities more vulnerable to sea level rise.
●​ Potential for Joint Research on Environmental Issues: Joint research with
countries like Norway can help India in better research on issues related to
aerosol radiation, space weather, glacier cycles which are also mandate of
Himadri Research Station.
Geopolitical Importance: While a treaty for Arctic, a global common, being
negotiated, it is a strategic necessity to mould it in India’s favour. Also, India
needs to make investments to match Chinese investments in Arctic.

Q4. What are the economic significance for India of the discovery of oil in the
Arctic? Sea and its possible environmental consequences.
Ans.The discovery of oil in the Arctic Sea has significant economic implications
for India, along with potential environmental consequences:
Economic Significance for India:
1. Energy Security: India, as a major oil importer, could benefit from new sources
of crude oil from the Arctic, diversifying its energy supply and reducing
dependence on traditional oil-producing regions like the Middle East.
2. Cost of Energy: Access to Arctic oil may influence global oil prices. If India can
secure supply deals or invest in Arctic exploration, it could benefit from more
stable and possibly lower oil prices.
3. Geopolitical Influence: As countries like Russia and the U.S. increase their
presence in the Arctic, India’s strategic partnerships or investments in Arctic oil
could enhance its geopolitical standing.
4. Trade Routes: The melting Arctic ice opens new shipping routes. India could
benefit from shorter and more cost-effective shipping routes for oil transportation,
improving trade with Europe and North America.
Environmental Consequences:
1. Climate Impact: Increased Arctic oil extraction could exacerbate climate
change, directly impacting India through rising temperatures, unpredictable
monsoons, and sea-level rise, which could affect agriculture and coastal
populations.
2. Risk of Oil Spills: Oil spills in the Arctic could have severe consequences on
marine life. Although India may not be directly involved in extraction, the global
environmental impact could affect India’s fishing industry and marine biodiversity.
3. Global Environmental Degradation: The continued use of Arctic oil would
contribute to global fossil fuel consumption, intensifying the environmental
challenges of global warming, which could directly impact India’s agricultural
productivity and natural resources.
Conclusion
while the discovery of Arctic oil presents economic opportunities for India,
especially in terms of energy security and trade, the environmental risks require
careful consideration to mitigate long-term global impacts.

Q5.Why Is India taking keen interest in the resources of the Antarctica Region?
Ans.India's interest in Antarctica is driven by several factors:-
1. Scientific Research: Antarctica is key for climate studies, glaciology, and
marine biology.
2. Strategic Significance: The continent offers access to valuable natural
resources like minerals and fresh water.
3. Marine Resources: Rich marine life, such as fish and krill, is vital for India’s
seafood industry.
4. Global Environmental Impact: India conducts research to understand climate
change and ozone depletion.
5. Scientific Diplomacy: Participation enhances India's global scientific standing
and international relations.
6. Sustainable Resource Use: India is exploring future opportunities for
responsible resource extraction in Antarctica.

Q6.Can the strategy of regional-resource based manufacturing help in promoting

employment in India?Also discuss challenges ans suggest way forward.
Ans.The strategy of regional-resource based manufacturing can indeed help
promote employment in India by utilizing local resources and fostering industrial
growth in underdeveloped or resource-rich areas.
How It Can Promote Employment:-
●​ Utilizing Local Resources: Regions rich in resources (e.g., coal, agriculture)
can develop related industries, boosting local manufacturing.
●​ Job Creation: Manufacturing creates direct jobs in production,
management, and services, while supporting sectors like logistics generate
indirect employment.
●​ Skill Development: Industry-specific training programs can enhance the
skills of the local workforce, improving employability.
●​ Balanced Regional Development: By promoting industries in resource-rich
areas, regional economic disparities are reduced, leading to inclusive
growth.
Challenges:-
• Resource Management Issues: Over-dependence on resources can lead to
depletion and environmental harm.
• Infrastructure Deficiencies: Many regions lack necessary infrastructure,
requiring significant investment.
• Skill Mismatch: Local workforce skills may not align with industrial needs.
•Technological and Financial Constraints: Lack of access to advanced technology
and finance may limit the ability of local industries to remain competitive in global
markets.
Way Forward:-
•Sustainable Resource Management: Adopt efficient resource use and
environmental safeguards to ensure long-term sustainability.
•Infrastructure Development: Invest in rural infrastructure, ensuring reliable
transportation and logistics.
•Skill Development: Set up targeted training centers to equip the workforce with
relevant skills.
•Incentives for Investment: Offer fiscal incentives to encourage private investment
and boost regional industries.
•Public-Private Partnerships: Collaborate to address infrastructure and investment
challenges.
Conclusion:-
Regional-resource based manufacturing can be a game-changer for employment
generation in India, especially in resource-rich but underdeveloped areas.
However, to realize its full potential, India must tackle challenges like resource
depletion, environmental concerns, infrastructure gaps, and skill mismatches. A
strategic approach that combines sustainability, investment in infrastructure and
skill development, and innovation will be crucial for ensuring long-term economic
benefits and inclusive growth.

Q7.Discuss the natural resource potentials of ‘Deccan Trap’.

Ans.Deccan Trap is a large region of thick basaltic rock located in west-central
India and associated with one of the largest volcanic eruptions in the history of
the earth.
Natural resources found in Deccan Trap:-
●​ Mineral Resources:
°Limestone: Abundant in limestone, crucial for cement production.
°Bauxite: Considerable deposits support aluminum production.
°Iron Ore: Some iron ore reserves are found, aiding steel production.
°Manganese: The region has manganese deposits used in steel-making.
●​ Agricultural Resources:The fertile basaltic soil is ideal for crops like
cotton, groundnut, and sorghum.
The porous basalt helps recharge groundwater, benefiting dryland farming.
●​ Water Resources:Major rivers such as the Godavari and Krishna originate
in the Deccan, supporting irrigation.
Groundwater recharge is facilitated by the region's volcanic rock, ensuring
water supply.
●​ Energy Resources:The region has coal deposits for thermal power
generation.Solar and wind energy potential is high due to favorable terrain
and climate.
●​ Forests and Biodiversity:Some areas still have dense forests with
medicinal plants and rich biodiversity.
●​ Tourism Potential:Historical and geological sites, including the Ajanta and
Ellora Caves, attract tourists.
The Deccan Trap holds vast potential in the fields of mining, agriculture, water
resources, energy, and tourism. However, sustainable management of these
resources is crucial to avoid environmental degradation and ensure long-term
economic benefits.

Topic- Water Resources

Q1.Scarcity of safe drinking water is an acute problem in India. Point out the
factors which make even the available water unfit for drinking. What steps would
you recommend to make such water potable
OR
India is well endowed with freshwater. Critically examine why it still suffers from
water scarcity.
Ans.The scarcity of safe drinking water in India is a severe issue, with large
sections of the population struggling to access clean and potable water. Several
factors contribute to making even the available water unfit for drinking.

Factors Making Water Unfit for Drinking:

1. Pollution and Contamination:
•Industrial Waste: Industries discharge toxic chemicals, heavy metals, and
untreated waste into water bodies, contaminating rivers and groundwater.
•Agricultural Runoff: Excessive use of pesticides and fertilizers leads to nitrate
and chemical contamination of water sources.
•Sewage and Human Waste: A large portion of untreated sewage is released into
rivers and lakes, leading to bacterial and viral contamination.
•Plastic and Waste Dumping: Dumping of plastic, garbage, and untreated waste
into water bodies reduces water quality.
2. Groundwater Depletion and Contamination: Over-extraction of Groundwater:
Excessive use of borewells leads to falling water tables and concentration of
harmful minerals.
Arsenic and Fluoride Contamination:
•Many regions in India, especially West Bengal, Bihar, and Rajasthan, have high
levels of arsenic and fluoride in groundwater.
•Salinity Intrusion: In coastal areas, excessive groundwater extraction leads to
seawater intrusion, making water saline.
3. Poor Water Management and Infrastructure:
•Leakage and Mixing of Pipelines: Poorly maintained pipelines lead to mixing of
sewage and drinking water.
•Inadequate Water Treatment Facilities: Many water treatment plants are outdated
or poorly maintained, failing to remove contaminants.
Steps to Make Water Potable:
1. Strengthening Water Treatment Infrastructure: Setting up advanced filtration,
chlorination, and UV disinfection plants.
2. Strict Industrial and Sewage Waste Management: Enforcing strict penalties on
industries and municipalities for dumping untreated waste.
3. Promoting Rainwater Harvesting: Encouraging rooftop rainwater harvesting to
recharge groundwater.
4. Regular Water Quality Monitoring: Frequent testing of water sources to detect
contamination and take corrective measures.
5. Public Awareness Campaigns: Educating people about boiling water, using
filters, and safe drinking practices.
6. Household-Level Water Purification: Promoting RO filters, UV sterilization, and
affordable water purification methods.
7. Revival of Water Bodies: Restoring lakes, rivers, and ponds to improve natural
water availability.
8. Sustainable Agriculture Practices: Reducing the use of harmful pesticides and
fertilizers.
Government Initiatives for Safe Drinking Water:
1. Jal Jeevan Mission (JJM) (2019):Aims to provide tap water to every rural
household by 2024. Focuses on water conservation, source sustainability, and
water treatment.
2. Namami Gange Programme (2014):Focuses on cleaning the Ganga River and
improving water quality.Includes sewage treatment plants and industrial waste
management.
3. Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT) (2015):
Improves urban water supply and sanitation infrastructure.
4. National Rural Drinking Water Programme (NRDWP):Provides safe and
adequate drinking water to rural areas.
5. Swachh Bharat Mission (SBM) (2014): Focuses on sanitation and sewage
management to prevent water contamination.
6. Arsenic and Fluoride Mitigation Programmes: Special programs in states like
West Bengal, Bihar, and Rajasthan to tackle arsenic and fluoride contamination.
Public Initiatives for Safe Drinking Water:-
1. Community Water Purification Plants: NGOs and local communities set up
water purification units in rural areas.
2. Self-Help Groups (SHGs): Women-led SHGs promote water conservation and
hygiene awareness.
3. Adoption of Rainwater Harvesting: Many individuals and housing societies
install rainwater harvesting systems.
4. Water Conservation Movements: Movements like "Pani Bachao, Paisa Kamao"
in Punjab and "Tarun Bharat Sangh" in Rajasthan promote water conservation.
5. Public-Private Partnerships (PPP): Collaboration with private companies to set
up clean drinking water ATMs in cities and rural areas.
Conclusion:
Ensuring safe drinking water in India requires a multi-pronged approach involving
government initiatives, public participation, and better infrastructure. Sustainable
water management, pollution control, and community involvement can
significantly improve access to potable water for all.

Q2What is water stress? How and why does it differ regionally in India?
Ans.Water stress occurs when the demand for water exceeds the available supply
or when poor water quality restricts its usage. It is typically measured using
indicators like per capita water availability and the water stress index (WSI). The
Falkenmark indicator classifies water stress as follows:

Water stress: < 1,700 cubic meters per person per year
Water scarcity: < 1,000 cubic meters per person per year
Absolute scarcity: < 500 cubic meters per person per year
Regional Variation of Water Stress in India÷
1. Climatic Variations:
•Rainfall Distribution: India experiences high spatial and temporal variability in
rainfall.
•High rainfall: Northeast India, Western Ghats (3,000–11,000 mm annually)
•Low rainfall: Rajasthan, Gujarat, Punjab, Haryana (100–500 mm annually)
2. River Basin Differences:
•Perennial Rivers (Ganga, Brahmaputra, Godavari, etc.): More water availability,
but pollution and overuse cause stress.
•Non-Perennial Rivers (Krishna, Cauvery, Pennar, etc.): More prone to seasonal
water stress.
3. Groundwater Dependence:
•Northwest India (Punjab, Haryana, Western UP, Rajasthan): Overextraction of
groundwater for agriculture has led to severe depletion.
•Eastern India (Bihar, West Bengal, Assam): Higher groundwater recharge due to
riverine plains.
4. Population and Urbanization Pressure:
•Delhi, Bengaluru, Chennai: High population density and unplanned urbanization
cause severe water stress.
•Rural India: Faces seasonal shortages but often has lower per capita demand.
5. Industrial and Agricultural Water Use:
•Green Revolution States (Punjab, Haryana, Western UP): Overuse of
water-intensive crops like rice and sugarcane leads to water stress.
•Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu: Water-intensive industries (textiles, IT parks,
automobile hubs) increase demand.
Conclusion
Water stress in India is driven by rainfall variability, groundwater overuse,
urbanization, and agricultural practices. Addressing it requires efficient water
management, rainwater harvesting, and sustainable agriculture to ensure
long-term water security.

Q3.The Impact of climate change on water resources in India.Examine

Ans.Climate change poses a serious threat to India’s water resources, affecting
availability, quality, and distribution. Rising temperatures, erratic rainfall, and
extreme weather events are worsening water scarcity and increasing the
frequency of floods and droughts.

The Impact of Climate Change on Water Resources in India:-

1. Changes in Rainfall Patterns:
•Irregular Monsoons: Unpredictable monsoons lead to droughts in some regions
and floods in others.
•Reduced Rainfall in Some Areas: Declining precipitation affects groundwater
recharge and river flows.
•Intense Rainfall in Short Periods: Causes flash floods, reducing water retention
and increasing soil erosion.
2. Melting Glaciers and Changing River Flows:
•Himalayan Glacier Melt: Glaciers feeding major rivers like the Ganga and
Brahmaputra are shrinking, threatening long-term water availability.
•Seasonal Flow Changes: Increased summer flows due to glacier melt may lead to
reduced flows in winter, affecting agriculture and drinking water supply.
3. Increased Frequency of Droughts and Floods:
•Frequent Droughts: States like Maharashtra, Rajasthan, and Tamil Nadu
experience prolonged dry spells, depleting groundwater.
•Severe Flooding: Excessive rainfall leads to river overflows, damaging water
infrastructure and contaminating water sources.
4. Groundwater Depletion and Salinity Intrusion:
•Over-extraction of Groundwater: Higher temperatures increase water demand for
irrigation, leading to groundwater depletion.
•Salinity Intrusion: Rising sea levels cause seawater to enter coastal groundwater
reserves, making water undrinkable.
5. Declining Water Quality:
•Increased Pollution: Reduced river flows concentrate pollutants, affecting
drinking water and aquatic life.
•Higher Water Temperatures: Lead to the growth of harmful bacteria and algae,
reducing water quality.
Steps to Mitigate Climate Change Impact on Water Resources:-
1. Sustainable Water Management: Promote rainwater harvesting and efficient
irrigation techniques like drip irrigation.
2. Glacier Conservation: Monitor and protect Himalayan glaciers to ensure
long-term river flow stability.
3. Flood and Drought Management: Build reservoirs, check dams, and improve
urban drainage systems.
4. Afforestation and Watershed Development: Increase forest cover to improve
rainfall absorption and reduce soil erosion.
5. Policy and Community Involvement: Implement water conservation laws and
promote public awareness on climate-resilient water practices.
Conclusion:
Climate change is severely impacting India’s water security. Immediate adaptation
and mitigation strategies, including better water management and conservation,
are essential to safeguard water resources for future generations.

Q4. Critically evaluate the various resources of the ocean which can be harnessed
to meet the resource crisis in the India and World
Ans.Oceans cover about 71% of the Earth's surface and offer vast resources that
can help address global and India’s resource crisis. These include minerals,
energy, food, and freshwater. However, harnessing these resources comes with
environmental and geopolitical challenges.
Ocean Resources for Addressing the Resource Crisis:-
1. Marine Energy Resources:
a) Offshore Oil and Natural Gas
°Potential: India has offshore reserves in the Bombay High, Krishna-Godavari, and
Mahanadi basins. Globally, deep-sea drilling is a major source of fossil fuels.
°Challenges: High extraction costs, environmental hazards (oil spills), and
depletion concerns.
b) Renewable Ocean Energy
°Tidal Energy: India has potential in the Gulf of Khambhat and Gulf of Kutch. Tidal
power is a predictable renewable energy source.
°Wave Energy: Western coastal regions have high potential.
°Offshore Wind Energy: India’s long coastline (7500 km) is ideal for offshore wind
farms, reducing dependence on fossil fuels.
°Challenges: High infrastructure costs and technological constraints.
2. Marine Mineral Resources:
a) Polymetallic Nodules and Hydrothermal Deposits
°Potential: Indian Ocean contains manganese, cobalt, nickel, and rare earth
elements (REEs), crucial for electronics and batteries.
°Challenges: Deep-sea mining may disrupt marine ecosystems and lacks
advanced extraction technology.
b) Gas Hydrates
°Potential: Huge reserves of methane hydrates exist in India's EEZ, promising an
alternative energy source.
°Challenges: Unstable extraction technology and risk of methane leakage,
contributing to climate change.
3. Fisheries and Aquaculture:
°Potential: Oceans provide 15% of global animal protein intake, supporting
millions of livelihoods in India.
°Challenges: Overfishing, climate change, and pollution threaten sustainability.
Sustainable aquaculture practices are needed.
4. Freshwater from Desalination:
°Potential: Ocean desalination can help India tackle water scarcity in coastal
states.
°Challenges: High energy consumption and environmental impact from brine
disposal.
5. Marine Biotechnology and Pharmaceuticals:
°Potential: Marine organisms produce bioactive compounds used in medicine,
cosmetics, and industry. India’s rich marine biodiversity is untapped.
°Challenges: Ethical concerns and biopiracy issues.
Conclusion
While ocean resources offer immense potential to address energy, food, and water
shortages, their exploitation must be balanced with environmental conservation.
Sustainable policies, advanced technology, and global cooperation are essential
for responsible harnessing of ocean wealth.

Q5.The effective management of land and water resources will drastically reduce
the human miseries.
Ans. Land and water are essential resources that support agriculture, livelihoods,
and ecological balance. However, poor management leads to problems such as
droughts, floods, food insecurity, and displacement, worsening human suffering.
Proper management of these resources can significantly reduce these miseries
and improve overall well-being.
Effective Management of Land and Water Resources: A Solution to Human
Miseries:-
1. Reducing Water Scarcity and Drought Impact:
•Efficient water management through rainwater harvesting, watershed
development, and efficient irrigation can prevent drought-related hardships.
•Example: Rajasthan’s Rainwater Harvesting – Revival of traditional Johads (small
reservoirs) has improved groundwater levels, reducing drought severity.
2. Controlling Floods and Erosion:
•Afforestation, river embankments, and proper drainage systems can prevent
floods, which displace people and destroy livelihoods.
•Example: Netherlands’ Flood Management – Advanced dykes and embankments
protect low-lying areas from flooding.
3. Enhancing Agricultural Productivity:
•Sustainable land management through crop rotation, organic farming, and
water-efficient irrigation improves food security.
•Example: Punjab’s Green Revolution – Use of high-yield seeds and irrigation
transformed India’s food production, reducing hunger.
4. Preventing Land Degradation and Desertification:
•Reforestation, soil conservation, and watershed development restore degraded
land, making it productive.
•Example: China’s Loess Plateau Restoration – Large-scale afforestation and
terracing stopped soil erosion and revived agriculture.
5. Ensuring Sustainable Urban Development:
•Smart urban planning with rainwater harvesting, wastewater recycling, and green
infrastructure ensures resource security.
•Example: Singapore’s Water Management – Despite limited freshwater,
desalination and rainwater harvesting ensure water security.
Conclusion
Proper land and water management reduces droughts, floods, food insecurity, and
displacement, improving livelihoods and economic stability. Sustainable practices
are essential for long-term development and human well-being.

Q6.South China Sea has assumed great geopolitical significance in the present
context. Comment.
Ans.The South China Sea (SCS) is a critical global maritime region due to its
strategic trade routes, energy reserves, and geopolitical tensions. It has become a
focal point for power struggles involving China, the U.S., and Southeast Asian
nations.
Geopolitical Significance of the South China Sea:-
1. Strategic Trade Route:The SCS connects the Indian Ocean to the Pacific Ocean,
serving as a major global shipping route.
30% of global trade ($3 trillion annually) passes through this region, crucial for
economies like Japan, South Korea, and India.
2. Territorial Disputes:China claims nearly the entire SCS under its "Nine-Dash
Line", overlapping with claims by Vietnam, the Philippines, Malaysia, Brunei, and
Taiwan.
China’s militarization includes artificial islands, naval bases, and missile
deployments.
3. Energy and Resource Wealth:Estimated 11 billion barrels of oil and 190 trillion
cubic feet of natural gas make the SCS resource-rich.Overfishing and marine
control add to regional disputes.
4. U.S.-China Rivalry:The U.S. conducts Freedom of Navigation Operations
(FONOPs) to challenge China’s dominance.Military drills and counter-deployments
escalate tensions.
5. Regional Stability and Alliances: ASEAN nations, the Quad (India, U.S., Japan,
Australia), and AUKUS counter China’s influence.
Conclusion
The SCS remains a flashpoint for global conflicts, requiring diplomatic solutions
to ensure free navigation and regional stability.

Q7.In what way micro-watershed development projects help in water conservation

in drought-prone and semi-arid regions of India?
Ans.A watershed is a geo-hydrological unit, which drains into a common point.
Watershed management is a comprehensive programme to maximize land and
water utilization available in the region. Micro-watershed development projects
involve regional planning at village and other micro levels to manage and improve
water use efficiency that indirectly enhances agricultural productivity and income
of rural households.

1. Enhancing Groundwater Recharge:Check dams, percolation tanks, and

recharge wells help store rainwater and increase groundwater levels.
Example: The Hivre Bazar watershed project (Maharashtra) transformed a
drought-prone village into a water-surplus area.
2. Reducing Water Runoff and Soil Erosion:Contour bunding, terracing, and
vegetative barriers slow down water flow, allowing infiltration and preventing soil
erosion.
Example: Watershed programs in Bundelkhand reduced topsoil loss and
improved water retention.
3. Promoting Rainwater Harvesting:Farm ponds, check dams, and rooftop
rainwater harvesting store water for dry periods.
Example: Rajasthan’s Johad system revived water availability in arid regions.
4. Improving Agricultural Productivity:Moisture conservation techniques enable
farmers to grow crops with minimal irrigation.
Example: The Sukhomajri project (Haryana) led to higher crop yields and
afforestation.
5. Strengthening Rural Livelihoods and Climate Resilience:Watershed
management increases water availability for drinking, livestock, and farming,
reducing migration.
Example: The Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act
(MGNREGA) promotes watershed works, providing jobs in rural areas.
Conclusion
Micro-watershed projects are a cost-effective and sustainable solution to water
scarcity in drought-prone and semi-arid regions of India. By improving
groundwater recharge, reducing runoff, and promoting sustainable agriculture,
these projects ensure long-term water security and rural development.

Q8.Account for variations in oceanic salinity and discuss its multidimensional

effects.
Ans.Refer notes(also discuss below)
Salinity refers to the amount of salt dissolved in 1000 gms of sea water. It is
usually expressed as parts per thousand or ppt. The salinity for normal open
ocean ranges between 33 o/oo and 37 o/oo.

Oceanic salinity varies significantly due to the free movement of ocean water and
its distribution has two aspects:
●​ Horizontal: The areas of highest salinity (about 37o/oo, in Atlantic Ocean)
are found near the Tropics due to active evaporation owing to clear skies,
high temperature and steady Trade Winds.
From the tropical areas, salinity decreases both towards the equator and towards
the poles. Salinity is relatively low near the equator (about 35 o/oo, in Atlantic
Ocean) due to high rainfall, high relative humidity, cloudiness and calm air of the
doldrums.
In polar seas, salinity decreases (20-32 o/oo) due to very little evaporation and due
to melting ice yielding fresh water.
●​ Vertical: Generally salinity decreases with increasing depth. Surface water
is more saline due to loss of water from evaporation. This varies greatly
with latitudes and is influenced by the cold and warm currents. In higher
latitudes, salinity increases with depth and in middle latitudes it increases
upto 35 meters and then decreases.
The multidimensional effects of oceanic salinity are as follows:
●​ Salinity determines compressibility, thermal expansion, temperature,
density, absorption of insolation, evaporation and humidity.
●​ Salinity & Water Cycle: Water in liquid state dissolves rocks and sediments
which creates a complex solution of mineral salts in ocean basins.
Conversely, in other states such as vapor and ice, water and salt are
incompatible and water vapor and ice are essentially salt free. By tracking
ocean surface salinity we can directly monitor variations in the water cycle:
land runoff, sea ice freezing and melting, and evaporation and precipitation
over the oceans.
●​ Salinity, Ocean Circulation & Climate: Ocean circulation in deep waters is
primarily driven by changes in seawater density, which is determined by
salinity and temperature. In the North Atlantic near Greenland, cooled
high-salinity surface waters can become dense enough to sink to great
depths.
 ●​ Salinity & Climate Density: The ocean stores more heat in the uppermost
three meters than the entire atmosphere. Thus density-controlled
circulation is key to transporting heat in the ocean and maintaining Earth's
climate. Excess heat associated with the increase in global temperature
during the last century is being absorbed and moved by the ocean.
Ocean also influences the distribution of fish and other marine resources.
NASA studies suggest that sea water is getting fresher in high latitudes while
saltier in sub-tropical latitude. This will significantly impact not only ocean
circulation but also the climate in which we live.

Q9.“The ideal solution of depleting ground water resources in India is water

harvesting system”. How can it be made effective in urban areas?
Ans.To make water harvesting systems effective in urban areas, a combination of
policy measures, technology, and community participation is necessary.
Here are some key ways to enhance its effectiveness:-
1. Mandatory Implementation:Enforce strict building regulations that require
rainwater harvesting (RWH) systems in new constructions.
Make RWH a prerequisite for approval of building plans, especially for large
residential and commercial complexes.
2. Retrofitting Existing Infrastructure:Encourage old buildings and societies to
install RWH systems through incentives, subsidies, or tax rebates.Modify
stormwater drains to direct runoff into recharge pits or storage tanks.
3. Efficient Design and Maintenance:Promote efficient designs tailored to urban
spaces, such as rooftop RWH and percolation pits.
Ensure regular cleaning of filters, tanks, and recharge wells to prevent
contamination and clogging.
4. Integration with Smart Cities & Technology:Use IoT-based sensors to monitor
water levels, recharge rates, and leaks in RWH systems.
Integrate GIS mapping to identify suitable recharge zones within cities.
5. Public Awareness and Community Participation:Conduct awareness campaigns
to educate citizens about the benefits of RWH. Promote decentralized water
management at society and ward levels through Resident Welfare Associations
(RWAs).
6. Government Support & Incentives:Provide financial aid and subsidies for RWH
system installation.Implement stricter penalties for excessive groundwater
extraction in urban areas without replenishment measures.
7. Utilizing Open Spaces:Convert parks, playgrounds, and public spaces into
groundwater recharge zones.Construct urban wetlands or artificial recharge
ponds to store excess rainwater.
Conclusion
By adopting these measures, urban water harvesting can significantly reduce
groundwater depletion and enhance sustainable water management in Indian
cities.

Q10.Defining blue revolution, explain the problems and strategies for pisciculture
development in India.
Ans.The concept of rapid increase in the production of fish and marine product
through package programme like Green Revolution is called as Blue Revolution. It
was launched during the seventh Five-Year Plan, when the Central Government
sponsored the Fish Farmers Development Agency (FFDA) with an aim to create an
integrated and holistic development and management of fisheries in the country
and to improve the socio-economic conditions of fisher folk and fish farmers.

Problems:-
●​ There are lack of reliable database relating to aquatic and fisheries
resources in India as well as lack of suitable policies of government and
inefficiency of an enforcement agency to monitor the supply of good quality
seeds and feeds.
●​ Water pollution, unscientific management of aquaculture and over
exploitation of coastal fisheries along with problems in harvest and
post-harvest operation; lack of landing and berthing facilities for fishing
vessels.
●​ Many fisheries management bodies do not heed scientific advice on fish
quotas and set catch limits above the recommended maximum amount.
●​ Lack of adequate financial support and proper transport and marketing
facilities for the products.
●​ Lack of skill and prevalence of negative social perception and prejudice
regarding fishing as a profession in the caste ridden Indian society.
Strategies for the Development of Pisciculture:-
●​ Focus on the improvements in breeding technology, disease control, feeds
and nutrition, and low-impact production systems to complement
traditional knowledge to improve efficiency.
●​ Focus on spatial planning and zoning to ensure that aquaculture operations
stay within the surrounding ecosystem’s carrying capacity.
●​ Formulation of public and private policies to provide financial support,
enhance skill and make farmers aware and capable to practice sustainable
pisciculture.
●​ Emphasis on leveraging the latest information technology for better
planning and monitoring.
●​ Invest on cold chain and market infrastructure to avoid loss due to delay in
selling and price fall.
India is home to more than 10 percent of the global fish diversity and it ranks
second in the world in total fish production. Realizing the immense scope for
development of fisheries and aquaculture, the Government of India has
restructured the Central Plan Scheme named, Blue Revolution: Integrated
Development and Management of Fisheries for overall development of the sector.

Q11.How do ocean currents and water masses differ in their impacts on marine
life and coastal environment? Give suitable examples.
Ans.Ocean currents (surface or deep ocean currents) are streams of water flowing
constantly in definite path and direction, for example, Gulf Stream (warm current)
and Labrador current (cold current ). Water masses are the extensive
homogeneous body of immense volume of ocean water in terms of temperature
and salinity. These are generally characterised by the the downwelling of denser
cold water and upwelling of less dense water, for example, the North Atlantic Deep
water mass in the Norwegian Sea.

Impacts of ocean currents:

On marine life-
●​ Ocean currents act as distributing agents of nutrients, oxygen and other
elements necessary for the existence and survival of fishes and
zooplanktons.
●​ They also transport planktons from one area to the other area. For example,
Gulf Stream carries planktons from the Mexican Gulf to the coasts of
Newfoundland and north-western Europe. Many significant fishing grounds
of the world are developed in these areas.
●​ Mixing of warm and cold ocean currents bring rich nutrients which support
marine organisms. For example, seas north of Japan is a rich fishing
ground due to the mixing of warm Kuroshio and cold Kurile currents.
●​ Sometimes, a few ocean currents destroy planktons. For example, El Nino
current destroys planktons off the Peruvian coasts resulting into mass
deaths of fishes.
On coastal environment-
●​ Ocean currents maintain the horizontal heat balance of the earth. The warm
currents transport warm waters of the tropics to colder areas of temperate
and polar zones. Cold currents on the other hand bring cold waters of the
high latitudes to the areas of low latitudes.
●​ Surface ocean currents also modify the weather conditions of the coastal
areas. The ideal and favourable European type of climate of the western
coasts of Europe is due to the moderating effects of the North Atlantic
warm currents.
●​ Cold currents also intensify the desert-like conditions in the coastal areas,
exemplified by the presence of some deserts in the western edges of
continents, e.g., Namib Desert in Africa.
●​ The convergence of warm and cold currents causes foggy conditions, e.g.,
near Newfoundland due to convergence of warm Gulf Stream and cold
Labrador current.
Impacts of water masses:
Downwelling of water masses-
●​ It transports oxygen downward which is much needed by the marine
organisms.
●​ This process discourages enrichment of seawater by bringing nutrients,
and hence the areas of downwelling of water masses are not conducive to
marine life and hence they are the areas of low marine productivity.
Upwelling of water masses-
●​ It is beneficial to the rich marine life because dissolved oxygen and
nutrients are brought to the surface through upwelling. For example, the
 upwelling of nutrient rich cold water off the coast of Peru has made the
region one of the richest fishing grounds.
Global warming is disrupting the sinking of cold, salty water as a result of
increased melting of glaciers and sea ice. This could slow or even stop the
circulation of ocean waters, which could result in potentially drastic impact on
marine life and coastal environment. Thus, arresting global warming is the need of
the hour.

Q12.What are the forces that influence ocean currents? Describe their role in
fishing industry of the world.
Ans.Ocean currents are like river flow in oceans. They represent a regular volume
of water in a definite path and direction.
Ocean currents are influenced by two types of forces i.e. Primary Force, which
initiates the movement of water while the secondary force influences the currents
to flow.
These forces are:-
Primary Force:
●​ Heating by Solar Energy: It causes the water to expand which causes water
to spread from hot to cold regions.
●​ Wind: Wind blowing on the ocean surface pushes the water to move on.
●​ Gravity: Gravity tends to pull the water down the pile and create gradient
variation.
●​ Coriolis Force: It causes the water to move to the right in the northern
hemisphere and to the left in the southern hemisphere.
Secondary Force:
●​ Landmass: Interaction of ocean with landmass results in change in
direction of ocean current. For example: Brazil Ocean Current.
●​ Salinity: Water with high salinity is denser than water with low salinity,
leading to variation in ocean currents as denser water tends to sink, while
relatively lighter water tends to rise.
Ocean currents affect fishing industries in the following ways:
●​ Creation of Fishing Zones: Meeting of cold and warm ocean currents forms
fishing zones in the ocean.
●​ Prominent examples are North East Pacific Zone, Newfoundland (Labradour
& Gulf Stream), North West Pacific Zone along Japan (kuroshio and oyashio
current) etc.
●​ Upwelling is a process in which currents bring deep, cold water to the
surface of the ocean. Upwelling is a result of winds and the rotation of the
Earth.
●​ Movement of Planktons: Planktons are the organisms that come with ocean
currents. They act as the base of the marine food chain and attract the fish
populations towards them, leading to accumulation of fishes in a particular
zone.
●​ Upwelling is a process in which currents bring deep, cold water to the
surface of the ocean. The deeper water that rises to the surface during
 upwelling is rich in nutrients. These nutrients “fertilize” surface waters,
encouraging the growth of plant life, including phytoplankton.
●​ Long Shelf Life: Fishes in cold ocean currents have longer shelf life as
compared to warm ocean currents, leading to non-perishable fish products.
●​ Ecological Balance: Ocean currents maintain ecological balance by
transferring water to the areas of less oceanic current and having low fish
population to maintain oxygen level and fishes in the deficit area. Example:
Saragasso Sea; Dead Zone.
Although ocean current is the main player in creating fishing zones, the use of
technology could be carried to develop fishing industries in other potential zones
as well.

Q13.How will the melting of Himalayan glaciers have a far-reaching impact on the
water resources of India?
Ans.The melting of Himalayan glaciers will have a profound impact on India's
water resources due to their crucial role in sustaining major river systems.
1. Disruption of River Flow:
•Himalayan glaciers feed major rivers like the Ganga, Brahmaputra, and Indus.
•Initially, increased melting will cause flooding and excessive water flow.
•In the long run, as glaciers shrink, river flows will decline, especially in lean
seasons, affecting water availability.
2. Impact on Agriculture:
•The Indo-Gangetic plains, India’s agricultural heartland, rely on glacier-fed rivers
for irrigation.
•Reduced water flow will affect crop productivity, especially for water-intensive
crops like wheat and rice.
3. Drinking Water Shortages:
•Many Indian cities and rural areas depend on rivers originating from the
Himalayas.
•Declining glacier reserves could lead to water scarcity for millions.
4. Hydropower Generation:
•Many hydropower projects in the Himalayan states depend on glacial meltwater.
•Unpredictable river flows may lead to energy shortages and infrastructure
damage from glacial lake outburst floods (GLOFs).
5. Increased Frequency of Natural Disasters:
•Rapid melting forms glacial lakes, which may burst and cause devastating flash
floods.
•Landslides and extreme weather events will become more common, disrupting
water supply systems.
6. Ecological and Biodiversity Threats:
•Altered river flows will impact wetlands, fisheries, and aquatic ecosystems.
•Reduced freshwater supply can lead to salinity intrusion in coastal areas.
7. Regional Water Conflicts:
•Reduced water availability may heighten tensions between India and its
neighbors (China, Pakistan, Bangladesh) over shared river resources.
•Within India, disputes over water-sharing between states (e.g., Punjab-Haryana,
Karnataka-Tamil Nadu) could intensify.
Conclusion
The melting of Himalayan glaciers poses a severe long-term threat to India’s water
security, agriculture, and energy production. Sustainable water management,
afforestation, and international cooperation on river basin management will be
crucial to mitigate these challenges.

Q14.The interlinking of rivers can provide viable solutions to the

multi-dimensional inter-related problems of droughts, floods, and interrupted
navigation. Critically examine.
Ans.Unlike southern states,the northern plains of India are endowed with surplus
water due to the presence of perennial rivers originating from the Himalayas. The
river interlinking project aimsto link 60 riversso that water from the surplus basin
to deficit basin can be transferred. The project aimsto link 60 rivers,some of which
include Ken-Betwa, Daman Ganga-Pinjal, Mahanadi-Godavari.

Proposed Benefits:-
●​ Hydropower Generation: The river interlinking project claims to generate a
total power of 34 GW which will help India fulfil its growing requirements
and commitment to the Paris Climate Deal.
●​ Flood Control: The objective is to conserve seasonal flows for irrigation,
hydropower generation, and flood control. For instance, the linkage will
transfer surplus flows of the Kosi, Gandak and Ghagra to the west.
●​ Drought Mitigation: The aim is to transfer water to drought-prone regions. A
link with the Ganga and Yamuna is proposed to transfer the surplus water
to drought-prone areas of Haryana, Rajasthan and Gujarat.
●​ Round the Year Navigation: As it would address the low levels of water in
southern India’s rivers, it would provide around year waterways
connectivity. Under the project, 10,000 km of navigation will be developed
reducing the transportation cost.
●​ Irrigation Benefits: Interlinking of rivers will increase the country’s total
irrigation potential. It will provide additional irrigation to 35 million hectares
in the water-scarce regions.
Concerns with the Project:-
●​ Perennial Rivers are not so Perennial: A new analysis of rainfall data
reveals that monsoon shortages grow in river basins with surplus water
falling in those with scarcities.
●​ Federal Issue: Historically, there has been dissent on the part of the states
regarding water sharing. Examples include Cauvery, Mahadayi disputes.
●​ Neighboring Countries: Convincing neighbours will be a tough task. For
example, Bangladesh being a lower riparian state is less likely to agree to
India’s interlinking project.
●​ High Environmental Cost: Construction of dams will lead to submerging of
Himalayan forests and wide-scale displacement of people. For example,
Ken-Betwa project will consume 23 sq miles of forest land. Moreover, it
 would harm many ecological factors like delta formation, growth of
mangroves, and aquatic life.
The necessity and feasibility of river-interlinking should be seen on case to case
basis, with adequate emphasis on easing out federal issues and environmental
costs. Alongside, localsolutions(like better irrigation practice) and watershed
management should be focused on.

Q15.The groundwater potential of the Gangetic valley is on a serious decline. How

may it affect the food security of India?
Ans.The Gangetic valley, with its fertile alluvial soil and abundant water supply
has supported dense populations for millennia, fostering civilizations and
cultures. As per the Central Ground Water Board groundwater levels are declining
at an alarming rate of 0.5 to 1 meter per year in this area.
Reasons for Declining Groundwater:
●​ Rapid Urbanization: A rise in demand leads to over-extraction of
groundwater. Unregulated drilling of borewells is a major cause.
●​ Over-Irrigation: A problem of abundance, this leads to detereorating soil
health as well.
●​ Inadequate Rainwater Harvesting: Despite abundant monsoons, rainwater
is lost instead of replenishing the groundwater.
●​ Climate Change and Erratic Rainfall: Irregular rainfall patterns, prolonged
droughts, and increased evaporation due to rising temperatures hinder
groundwater recharge.
Food Security Amid Crisis:
●​ Reduced Crop Yields: With less groundwater available, farmers will face
water shortages for irrigation, especially during dry seasons.
This can lead to lower crop yields for water-intensive crops like rice and
wheat, which are staples in India.
●​ Increased Dependence on Rainfall: As groundwater levels drop, farmers
will rely more on unpredictable monsoons.
Making agriculture more vulnerable to droughts and erratic rainfall
patterns, resulting in unstable food production.
●​ Higher Costs of Production: Farmers may need to dig deeper wells or
invest in more expensive water extraction methods, raising the cost of
cultivation.
This will in turn make food more expensive and less accessible, impacting
affordability.
●​ Loss of Livelihoods: Declining groundwater could force small and marginal
farmers to abandon agriculture, reducing agricultural output and
threatening rural livelihoods, further affecting food security.
Addressing Groundwater Decline:
●​ Promote Efficient Irrigation techniques like drip and sprinkler irrigation.
●​ Implement rainwater harvesting systems in urban and rural areas to
recharge groundwater levels.
●​ Shift from water-intensive crops like rice and sugarcane.
 ●​ Encouraging water efficient and technologically advanced methods of
construction.
●​ Policy interventions such as providing financial incentives for farmers to
adopt water-efficient technologies and practices is required.
●​ Proper implementation of river rejuvenation programmes such as Namami
Gange, with addition of artificial recharge structures can help recharge
groundwater.
Conclusion
The decreasing groundwater potential in the Gangetic Valley threatens India's
food security. Immediate actions are essential for sustainable groundwater
management and adapting agricultural practices to secure the country's long-term
food supply.

Q16.Why is the world today confronted with a crisis of availability of and access
to freshwater resources?
Ans.Same as above (What are reasons and how over of water crisis)

Topic- Regional development

Q1.Smart cities in India cannot sustain without smart villages. Discuss this
statement in the backdrop of rural urban integration.
Ans.India’s rapid urbanization has led to the development of smart cities, but their
sustainability depends on the parallel development of smart villages. Rural-urban
integration is crucial to ensure balanced growth, reduce migration pressures, and
create a self-sufficient economy.
Interdependence of Smart Cities and Smart Villages:-
1. Reducing Migration Pressure:
•Rural distress due to lack of opportunities drives migration to cities, leading to
overburdened urban infrastructure.
•Developing smart villages with employment, healthcare, and education facilities
can reduce distress migration and ensure sustainable urban growth.
2. Balanced Economic Development:
•Smart villages with agro-based industries, rural enterprises, and digital
connectivity can strengthen the rural economy.
This, in turn, supports urban markets with raw materials, agricultural produce, and
a stable workforce.
3. Infrastructure and Resource Management:
•Cities rely on villages for food, water, and energy, while villages depend on cities
for markets and advanced services.
•A smart village approach can improve resource management, ensuring efficient
supply chains and reducing urban-rural disparities.
4. Digital and Technological Integration:
•Initiatives like BharatNet and e-Governance can connect villages with cities,
enhancing service delivery.
•Digital access in villages can promote online education, telemedicine, and
e-commerce, reducing the rural-urban divide.
5. Environmental Sustainability:
•Smart villages can promote sustainable farming, renewable energy, and waste
management, reducing ecological pressure on cities.
•Green villages will ensure that urbanization does not come at the cost of
environmental degradation.
Government Initiatives Supporting Rural-Urban Integration:-
•Smart Cities Mission & Rurban Mission – To develop both urban and rural areas
in a complementary manner.
•PM Gram Sadak Yojana – Enhancing connectivity between villages and cities.
•Digital India – Expanding internet and mobile services to rural areas.
•MNREGA – Providing rural employment and reducing migration.
Conclusion
For smart cities to be truly sustainable, they must be supported by smart villages.
Strengthening rural infrastructure, digital connectivity, and economic
opportunities will lead to holistic development, ensuring that urban growth does
not come at the cost of rural distress. A balanced rural-urban integration will pave
the way for an inclusive and sustainable India.

Q2. Define the concept of growth centres and evaluate.its relevance in regional
planning in india.
Ans.Growth centres are specific locations that act as hubs of economic
development, attracting investment and infrastructure while influencing
surrounding regions. They help distribute economic activities more evenly and
promote regional balance.
Relevance in Regional Planning in India:-
●​ Reducing Regional Disparities – Growth centres help in decentralizing
economic activities, reducing the dominance of metropolitan cities.
Example: Maharashtra’s MIDC industrial clusters.
●​ Decongesting Urban Areas – By providing employment opportunities in
smaller towns, growth centres prevent excessive migration to big cities.
Example: Satellite towns like Noida and Gurugram.
●​ Boosting Industrialization – SEZs and industrial corridors (e.g., DMIC)
attract investments, generate employment, and promote economic growth.
●​ Enhancing Rural-Urban Linkages – They provide urban-like facilities in rural
areas, strengthening local economies. Example: Rurban Mission.
●​ Infrastructure Development – Growth centres improve connectivity,
transport, and power infrastructure. Example: Bharatmala and Sagarmala
projects.
●​ Encouraging Sustainability – Smart growth centres promote eco-friendly
industries and renewable energy. Example: Solar parks in Rajasthan and
Gujarat.
Challenges in Implementing Growth Centres in India:-
●​ Uneven Implementation – Some regions remain neglected due to poor
planning and governance.
●​ Land Acquisition Issues – Delays in land procurement hinder industrial and
infrastructural development.
 ●​ Lack of Skilled Workforce – Many growth centres fail due to a shortage of
skilled labor.
●​ Inadequate Infrastructure – Power shortages, poor transport, and lack of
water supply limit their success.
Conclusion
Growth centres are essential for India's regional planning as they promote
balanced development, reduce migration pressures, and strengthen rural-urban
linkages. However, their success depends on proper implementation,
infrastructure investment, and policy support. Strengthening growth centres can
lead to a more equitable and sustainable economic landscape in India.

Q3 Explain the nature and causes of growing slum problems in the metropolitan
cities in India.
Ans.Nature and Causes of Growing Slum Problems in Metropolitan Cities in India
Nature of Slum Problems:-
●​ Overcrowding – High population density with inadequate housing and
living spaces.
●​ Poor Housing Conditions – Makeshift houses made of temporary materials,
lacking durability.
●​ Lack of Basic Amenities – Insufficient water supply, sanitation, drainage,
and electricity.
●​ Unhygienic Living Conditions – Accumulation of waste, open defecation,
and poor drainage lead to health hazards.
●​ Social Issues – High crime rates, unemployment, and child labor are
common in slum areas.
●​ Vulnerability to Disasters – Slums are often located in unsafe areas prone
to floods, landslides, and fires.
Causes of Slum Growth:-
●​ Rural-Urban Migration – People migrate to cities in search of jobs but end
up in slums due to unaffordable housing.
●​ Urbanization without Planning – Rapid urban expansion without proper
infrastructure leads to unregulated settlements.
●​ High Cost of Living – Expensive real estate forces low-income groups to
live in informal settlements.
●​ Unemployment and Informal Economy – Many slum dwellers work in the
unorganized sector with low wages and no job security.
●​ Weak Urban Governance – Poor implementation of housing policies and
lack of enforcement of land-use regulations contribute to slum formation.
●​ Lack of Affordable Housing – Government housing schemes are often
insufficient or inaccessible to the urban poor.
Conclusion
Slum problems in metropolitan cities reflect deeper socio-economic inequalities
and urban mismanagement. Addressing these issues requires integrated urban
planning, affordable housing policies, and improved governance to ensure
sustainable urban development.
Q4.Why did human development fail to keep pace with economic development in
India?
Ans.The divergence between economic development and human development in
India can be attributed to several complex and interconnected factors:
●​ Income Inequality: Persistent income inequality in India disproportionately
benefits the wealthy, hampering equitable access to healthcare, education,
and basic services for a significant portion of the population.
●​ Education Disparities: Despite economic growth, India faces education
related challenges like high dropout rates, inadequate infrastructure, and
poor quality, limiting human capital development and workforce
participation.
●​ Healthcare Inequities: Unequal healthcare access, especially in rural areas,
contributes to high disease burdens and child mortality rates, impacting
human development indicators, compounded by limited access to clean
water and sanitation.
●​ Gender Disparities: Gender inequality in India restricts women's access to
education, healthcare, and economic opportunities, while gender-based
violence and discrimination further hinder their development.
●​ Social Exclusion: India's caste system and social hierarchies historically
marginalize communities, limiting their opportunities and affecting human
development outcomes.
●​ Inadequate Social Safety Nets: India's welfare programs often fall short in
addressing the needs of vulnerable populations, offering limited protection
against poverty and malnutrition.
●​ Environmental Degradation: Unsustainable development and environmental
degradation for economic growth have long-term consequences, with
climate change, pollution, and resource depletion threatening well-being.
●​ Governance Challenges: Weak governance, corruption, and inefficient
bureaucracy can hinder the effective implementation of policies and
programs.
However, India has achieved significant growth over the years in social,
economic, and political life and human development has also been catching up
with the pace of economic development eg. Between 1990 and 2022, India's HDI
value increased by 48.4%, from 0.434 to 0.644, reflecting significant progress in
these areas.

Q5.What are the environmental implications of the reclamation of the water bodies
into urban land use? Explain with examples
Ans.Land reclamation means creating land either by removing water from muddy
areas or raising the level of the land. With an increasing demand for land, it can be
a good solution for creating areas for building, agriculture and other uses.
However, it is one of the most consequential fields of human induced
environmental transformation and has many environmental consequences such
as:-
●​ Damaged Ecology: Urban land transformation leads to creation of
residential, commercial buildings around water bodies, causing
 degradation of water ecology and influx of nutrients. Dal Lake and other
water bodies in Srinagar are a great example of it. Land reclamation can
also change the shape of the seabed and wave patterns leading to changes
in the ecosystem.
●​ Frequent Floods: Water bodies act as sponges for rainfall, reclamation of
water bodies, has led to higher incidences of floods. Depletion of
vegetation, transformation of soil cover to concretised landscape has
reduced permeability, increased run-off. The biggest example of it is
Mumbai.
●​ Extinction of Species: Land reclamation of wetlands has increased the
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) which is detrimental not only for
aquatic species but also for aerial fauna.
●​ Pollution: Water bodies have been turned into landfills in several cases.
Because of heavy pollution of Hussainsagar Lake, many pollutants get
carried into underground water bodies. Though percolation filters many
pollutants, open wells or bore wells receive certain pollutants causing
groundwater pollution.
Water bodies not only support high concentrations of biodiversity, but also offer a
wide range of important resources and ecosystem services like food, water, fiber,
groundwater recharge, water purification, flood moderation, storm protection,
erosion control, carbon storage and climate regulation. Hence their conservation
is an imperative.

Q6.Account for the huge flooding of million cities in India including the smart
ones like Hyderabad and Pune. Suggest lasting remedial measures.
Ans.Urban flooding has become a common occurrence these days in India.
Several cities have suffered catastrophic flooding situations over the past few
years. The latest victim of flooding were Hyderabad and Pune. According to recent
studies, more than 50% of smart cities in India are prone to floods.
Causes of Urban Flooding in India:
•Unplanned Urbanization – Rapid expansion leads to encroachment on lakes and
drainage channels.
•Poor Drainage Systems – Outdated stormwater drains cannot handle heavy
rainfall.
•Climate Change – Extreme rainfall events are becoming more frequent.
•Encroachment of Water Bodies – Many lakes and ponds are filled for
construction.
•Improper Waste Management – Garbage blocks drains, reducing efficiency.
•Excessive Concretization – Limits groundwater recharge, increasing surface
runoff.
•Infrastructure Failures – Poor maintenance of flood-control structures worsens
flooding.
Lasting Remedial Measures:
•Restoring Natural Drainage – Protect rivers, lakes, and wetlands; remove
encroachments.
•Upgrading Drainage Systems – Build stormwater drains with real-time
monitoring.
•Sponge City Concept – Increase green spaces and permeable surfaces.
•Flood-Resilient Infrastructure – Construct retention basins and underground
storage.
•Better Urban Planning – Enforce strict zoning laws and designated flood zones.
•Solid Waste Management – Prevent drain blockage by reducing plastic and
debris.
•Early Warning Systems – Use AI-based forecasting and real-time flood
monitoring.
•Public Awareness – Promote rainwater harvesting and responsible waste
disposal.
Conclusion
Urban flooding in India results from mismanagement and lack of planning. A
comprehensive approach combining infrastructure upgrades, strict regulations,
and public participation is crucial. Smart cities must integrate flood resilience with
technological advancements for sustainable urban growth.

Q7.Mention core strategies for the transformation of aspirational districts in India &
explain the nature of convergence, collaboration & Competition for its success.
Ans.The Transformation of Aspirational Districts Programme (TADP) was launched
by NITI Aayog in 2018 to accelerate the development of backward districts across
India. It focuses on convergence, collaboration, and competition to ensure rapid
improvements in key areas like health, education, agriculture, financial inclusion, and
infrastructure.
Core Strategies for the Transformation of Aspirational Districts:
Data-Driven Governance:
•Uses Delta Rankings to monitor progress across 49 key indicators in health,
education, agriculture, financial inclusion, and infrastructure.
•Tracks real-time data via the Aspirational Districts Dashboard.
Focused Sectoral Interventions:
•Health & Nutrition: Reducing maternal/infant mortality, malnutrition, and anemia.
•Education: Enhancing learning outcomes, teacher training, and school
infrastructure.
•Agriculture & Water: Promoting irrigation, modern farming, and sustainable
practices.
•Financial Inclusion & Skill Development: Expanding banking access and skilling
programs.
•Infrastructure: Improving roads, power, drinking water, and internet access
Convergence of Government Schemes:
•Aligns central, state, and local programs to optimize fund utilization and avoid
duplication.
Public-Private Partnerships (PPP):
•Leverages corporate social responsibility (CSR), NGOs, and global organizations
for additional resources.
Community Participation:
•Empowers district collectors, panchayats, and SHGs to drive development.
Convergence, Collaboration & Competition

Convergence: Integrates schemes (e.g., PM Poshan + NHM + Swachh Bharat).

Collaboration: Engages private sector, NGOs, and citizens for shared goals.
Competition: Delta Rankings encourage districts to outperform peers.

This multi-pronged approach accelerates development in India’s most backward

regions.

Q8.With a brief background of quality of urban life in India, introduce the objectives
and strategy of the ‘Smart City Programme.”
Ans.India’s urban areas face numerous challenges, including inadequate
infrastructure, traffic congestion, pollution, poor public transport, and water and
power shortages. Rapid urbanization has led to slums, uneven access to basic
services, and declining environmental quality. To address these issues, the
Government of India launched the Smart Cities Mission (SCM) in 2015, aiming to
make cities more livable, efficient, and sustainable.

Objectives of the Smart City Programme:

●​ Urban Infrastructure Improvement – Enhancing water supply, sanitation,
energy efficiency, and transport.
●​ Sustainability – Promoting green buildings, renewable energy, and effective
waste management
●​ Smart Governance – Implementing e-governance, digital services, and citizen
participation.
●​ Economic Growth & Jobs – Creating opportunities through innovation and
entrepreneurship.
●​ Better Mobility & Transport – Developing smart traffic management and
non-motorized transport.
●​ Safety & Security – Strengthening surveillance, disaster management, and
emergency response.
Strategy of the Smart City Programme:-
Area-Based Development-
●​ Retrofit – Upgrading existing infrastructure.
●​ Redevelopment – Replacing old infrastructure with modern solutions.
●​ Greenfield Development – Creating smart urban areas from scratch.
Pan-City Solutions:Technology-
●​ Driven services like smart traffic, water, and governance.
The programme follows a Public-Private Partnership (PPP) model with government
funding to ensure effective urban transformation.

Topic- Universe

Q1.What are asteroids? How real is the threat of them causing extinction of life?
What strategies have been developed to prevent such a catastrophe?
Ans.Asteroids (minor planets) are rocky, airless remnants from the early formation
of the solar system, approximately 4.6 billion years ago, primarily found orbiting
the Sun between Mars and Jupiter in the main asteroid belt.
Threats Posed by Asteroids:
●​ Historical Impact: A large asteroid struck earth 66 million years ago, leading
to the extinction of the dinosaurs and other species.
●​ Localized Devastation: Smaller asteroids can cause significant localized
damage, triggering tsunamis, wildfires, and atmospheric disruptions.
°The explosion over the Chelyabinsk meteorite(Russia) in 2013, caused
destruction around the city and injured many people.
°The Tunguska event(1908) was a massive explosion in Siberia(Russia),
making it the largest recorded impact event.
●​ Space Debris: A fragmented asteroid could create hazardous space debris,
threatening satellites, space stations, and future space missions.
Strategies Developed to Prevent an Asteroid Impact Catastrophe:-
Asteroid Detection and Monitoring-
●​ Space agencies like NASA, ESA, and other organisations actively monitor
and catalogue asteroids that could pose a threat to Earth.
●​ Surveys and Telescopes: Ground-based and space-based telescopes, such
as NASA’s NEOWISE mission, track NEOs and assess potential impact
risks.
Deflection Missions-
●​ Kinetic Impactor: NASA's Double Asteroid Redirection Test (DART) mission
was the first to test asteroid deflection for planetary defence by smashing a
spacecraft into an asteroid.
●​ Gravity Tractor: A spacecraft could use its gravitational pull to slowly alter
an asteroid's path over time without making direct contact.
Nuclear Detonation-
●​ In extreme cases, detonating a nuclear device near an asteroid could break
it apart or push it off its collision course, although this approach carries
risks of fragmentation.
Futuristic Approach:
●​ ISRO plans to study an asteroid in 2029 to improve planetary defense,
potentially collaborating with the Apophis asteroid mission, which involves
JAXA, ESA, and NASA.
Conclusion:
While asteroids pose a threat, advancements in detection, deflection, and global
cooperation are improving planetary defense, ensuring better preparedness and
future opportunities for asteroid resource utilisation.

Q2.What are aurora australis and aurora borealis? How are these triggered?
Ans.An aurora is a natural light display that shimmers in the sky. These are visible
only at night, and usually only appear in lower polar regions. Auroras primarily
appear near the poles of both the northern and southern hemispheres all year
round but sometimes they expand to lower latitudes.
Types of Aurora:-
●​ Aurora Australis (Southern Lights): Visible in the Southern Hemisphere,
especially around the Antarctic Circle, in countries like Australia, New
Zealand, Antarctica, and southern parts of South America.
●​ Aurora Borealis (Northern Lights): Seen near the Arctic Circle, caused by
solar particles interacting with Earth’s magnetic field and atmosphere. It
displays green, red, and purple lights in countries like Norway, Sweden,
Finland, Iceland, Canada, and Alaska.
Auroras are Triggered By:
●​ Solar Winds: Interaction of Solar Wind particles produced by sun with earth
magnetic fields trigger auroras.
●​ Coronal Mass Ejections (CMEs): CMEs are huge bubbles of coronal plasma
threaded by intense magnetic field lines that are ejected from the Sun over
the course of several hours. These can enhance auroral activity by
increasing the number of charged particles reaching Earth.
●​ Magnetosphere Disturbances: It plays a crucial role in triggering auroras.
When the solar wind, which consists of charged particles from the Sun,
interacts with Earth’s magnetosphere, it causes disturbances.
●​ Atmospheric Interaction: Charged particles, primarily electrons and
protons, are directed towards the polar regions by Earth’s magnetic field.
When these particles collide with gases in the upper atmosphere, they
excite these gasses, resulting in the emission of light.
Conclusion
Auroras are the outcome of intricate space weather events, showcasing the
dynamic interplay between Earth’s magnetic field and solar activity. The recent
occurrence of which was seen at Hanle village in Ladakh in the form of aurora
borealis.

Q3 What is a twister? Why are the majority of twisters observed in areas around
the Gulf of Mexico?
Ans.A twister (tornadoes) is a violent windstorm featuring a twisting,
funnel-shaped cloud. It consists of a rotating column of air that connects the
Earth's surface to a cumulonimbus cloud, or occasionally a cumulus cloud. They
can occur globally but are most common in the Gulf of Mexico region.
Factors that lead to frequent occurrence of Twisters in Gulf of Mexico:-
●​ Warm, Moist Air: The Gulf of Mexico supplies warm, moist air that rises,
creating conditions for thunderstorms.
 ●​ Cold, Dry Air: Cold, dry air from the Rocky Mountains or Canada moves
south, clashing with warm, moist air and causing atmospheric instability.
●​ Wind Shear: Variations in wind speed and direction at different altitudes
create wind shear, leading to a horizontal spinning effect essential for
tornado formation.
●​ Geographical Features: The flat terrain of the Great Plains and Mississippi
River Valley heats quickly, providing ideal conditions for tornadoes.
●​ Tropical Storms and Hurricanes: The Gulf is prone to tropical storms and
hurricanes that can spawn tornadoes upon landfall.
Conclusion
Thus twisters, or tornadoes, are destructive windstorms formed by rotating
columns of air. The Gulf of Mexico region experiences frequent tornadoes due to
the collision of warm, moist air with cold, dry air, along with favorable geography
and seasonal patterns.

Topic- Miscellaneous

Q1.Why is the Indian Regional Navigational Satellite System (IRNSS) needed?

How does it help in navigation?
Ans.IRNSS: NavIC (Navigation with Indian Constellation) is an independent and
indigenous regional navigation satellite system developed by India. It is a set of 8
satellites which will be located in suitable orbital slots - geostationary or
geosynchronous.

It makes India only the sixth country in the world to have its own navigation
system.

This frees India from dependence on other countries for its navigation (GPS,
GLONASS, Galileo etc.).

Given that it’s primary service area is India and the region extending up to 1500
km from its boundary, it’s expected to be more accurate (better than 20 m) and
reliable. Also, this will help solidify India’s position as a regional power as NavIC
will be open for use by India’s neighbours as well.

Further, it will help meet local user requirements of the positioning, navigation
and timing services.

Navigation:
●​ IRNSS will provide two types of navigation services:
●​ Standard Positioning Service – for all users.
●​ Restricted Service – an encrypted service only for authourised users.
●​ The signals broadcast by IRNSS satellites will transmit navigation service
signals (timing and position information) to the users.
●​ This data will be used to give users visual and voice navigation assistance.
These will form the basis for variety of navigation applications:
 ●​ Land navigation – traffic management, tracking train’s movement, land
survey, etc.
●​ Marine navigation – fishermen, merchant ships, port operations, disaster
management, etc.
●​ Aerial navigation – civil aviation, military operations, etc.

Q2.What are the consequences of spreading of ‘Dead Zones’ on marine

ecosystems?
Ans.Dead Zone" is a more common term for hypoxia, which refers to a reduced
level of oxygen in the water in some parts of the world's oceans and large lakes. In
March 2004, Global Environment Outlook Year Book, published by the UN
Environment Programme, reported 146 dead zones in the world's oceans.
One of the largest dead zones forms in the Gulf of Mexico every spring. Hypoxic
zones can occur naturally but climate change, nutrients run-off from the land, and
eutrophication are leading to algal bloom and causing further depletion of oxygen
level in water. As a result dead zones are spreading at much faster pace.
Consequences of spreading dead zones on marine ecosystem:
●​ The reduced dissolved oxygen in ocean water results in loss of marine life
thus the habitats which were teeming with life become biological desert.
●​ Toxic algal blooms release toxins that can poison fish, molluscs and marine
mammals like dolphins. Thus, affecting marine ecosystem by altering its
food chain.
●​ The reproductive problems emanate when the oxygen level depletes i.e.
there is lower egg count and less spawning.
●​ Slow moving bottom-dwelling creatures like clams, lobsters and oysters are
unable to escape the dead zone and face extinction.
●​ When fast moving marine species flee from the dead zones and occupy a
new habitat, they cause overcrowding of their new habitats and affect the
ecosystem services over there.
It is clear that the spread of dead zones can affect most marine ecosystems and
have socio-economic ramifications due to human dependency on marine goods
and services.

Q3.Present an account of the Indus Water Treaty and examine its ecological,
economic and political implications in the context of changing bilateral relations.
Ans.The Indus Waters Treaty (IWT), signed in 1960 between India and Pakistan
with the World Bank as a mediator, regulates the distribution of the Indus River
system. India controls the eastern rivers (Ravi, Beas, Sutlej), while Pakistan
controls the western rivers (Indus, Jhelum, Chenab).
Ecological Implications:
●​ The treaty altered natural water flow, impacting aquatic ecosystems.
●​ India’s diversion of eastern rivers has affected groundwater levels and river
ecology.
●​ Pakistan’s reliance on western rivers increases pressure on its water
resources.
 ●​ Climate change has made water availability unpredictable, raising concerns
about sustainability.
Economic Implications:
●​ Pakistan’s economy depends on western rivers for irrigation and
hydropower.
●​ India faces restrictions on fully utilizing western rivers, limiting hydropower
projects.
●​ Disputes over projects like Kishanganga and Ratle led to international
arbitration.
●​ The treaty does not address modern water management and technological
advancements.
Political Implications:
●​ Despite India-Pakistan tensions, the treaty has largely remained intact.
●​ India issued a notice in 2023 to renegotiate terms, citing outdated
provisions.
●​ Pakistan’s concerns over Indian projects have led to multiple disputes.
●​ The World Bank’s neutral expert upheld India’s position on hydro projects
in 2023.
Conclusion:
The IWT has ensured water-sharing stability but faces challenges due to climate
change, technological advancements, and political tensions. Its future depends on
mutual cooperation and necessary modifications.

Q4.In what way can floods be converted into a sustainable source of irrigation and
all-weather inland navigation in India?
Ans.Floods, often seen as a disaster, can be harnessed as a sustainable source of
irrigation and inland navigation through strategic planning and infrastructure
development.
Here’s how:-
1. Floodwater Storage and Irrigation:
●​ Multi-purpose Reservoirs: Large reservoirs can store excess floodwater
during monsoons and release it gradually for irrigation in dry months.
●​ Check Dams & Percolation Ponds: These structures slow down water flow,
allowing percolation into groundwater, recharging aquifers for sustained
irrigation.
●​ Floodplain Harvesting: Floodwaters can be diverted to adjacent fields,
replenishing soil moisture naturally.
●​ Interlinking of Rivers: The surplus water from flood-prone rivers can be
transferred to drought-prone regions via canal networks.
2. Floodwater for Inland Navigation:
●​ Canal-Based Transport Networks: Controlled flood waters can be diverted
into navigable canals, ensuring year-round inland water transport.
●​ Dredging and River Training: Regular dredging of rivers helps maintain
depth for navigation, reducing sedimentation issues.
●​ Barrage and Lock Systems: These structures regulate water levels in rivers
and canals, ensuring a steady flow for boats and cargo vessels.
 ●​ Smart Waterway Management: Using technology like GIS and remote
sensing, flood-prone rivers can be managed efficiently for navigation.
Benefits of This Approach:
●​ Ensures water availability for agriculture throughout the year.
●​ Reduces flood-related destruction by channeling excess water
productively.
●​ Promotes eco-friendly and cost-effective inland transport, reducing reliance
on road and rail.
●​ Boosts rural economy by providing irrigation and transportation benefits.

Implementing such strategies requires robust policy support, investment in

infrastructure, and efficient water management. Would you like to explore case
studies where such methods have been successfully implemented?

Q5.The growth of cities as I.T. hubs has opened up new avenues of employment,
but has also created new problems”. Substantiate this statement with examples.
Ans.Cities like Bangalore, Hyderabad, Chennai, Pune, Mumbai, Delhi-NCR etc
grew significantly and fastidiously in the last two decades owing to growth in the
IT-related services sector. The employment provided by the IT sector agrees with
middle-class values and aspirations, further boosting the relevance and
importance of these IT hubs, and further causing inward migration to these
destinations.
Opportunities Created by IT Hubs:
●​ Employment Generation: Cities like Bengaluru, Hyderabad, and Pune offer
jobs in software development, AI, and cybersecurity.
●​ Boost to Ancillary Industries: Growth in IT has increased demand for real
estate, hospitality, and transport services.
●​ Foreign Investment & Economic Growth: IT hubs attract global companies,
boosting FDI and strengthening the economy.
●​ Skill Development & Innovation: Institutions provide IT training, fostering
innovation and skill enhancement.
Problems Created by IT Hubs:
●​ Infrastructure Strain & Traffic Congestion: Cities like Bengaluru suffer from
severe traffic due to rapid urbanization.
●​ Rising Cost of Living: High demand for housing has led to unaffordable real
estate prices and rent hikes.
●​ Environmental Degradation: Urban expansion has caused deforestation,
water shortages, and pollution.
●​ Socio-Economic Disparities: IT professionals earn well, but local workers in
unorganized sectors face wage stagnation.
●​ Lifestyle & Health Issues: Long working hours and commuting lead to
stress and health problems among IT employees.
Conclusion:
IT hubs have boosted employment and economic growth but also created urban
challenges. Sustainable planning, improved infrastructure, and inclusive policies
are essential to balance development with quality of life.
Q6. Mumbai, Delhi and Kolkata are the three megacities of the country but the air
pollution is a much more serious problem in Delhi as compared to the other two.
Why is this so?
Ans.Delhi experiences much more severe air pollution compared to Mumbai and
Kolkata due to a combination of geographical, meteorological, and anthropogenic
factors.
Here are the key reasons.
●​ Landlocked Location: Unlike coastal Mumbai and Kolkata, Delhi lacks sea
breezes that help disperse pollutants.
●​ Temperature Inversions: In winter, a warm air layer traps pollutants near the
surface, worsening air quality.
●​ Vehicular Emissions: Delhi has one of the highest vehicle densities in India,
leading to high emissions of NOx and PM2.5.
●​ Industrial and Construction Activities: NCR has numerous industries and
construction projects, contributing to dust and pollution.
●​ Stubble Burning: Smoke from crop residue burning in Punjab and Haryana
worsens Delhi’s air during winter.
●​ Firecrackers: Diwali celebrations cause a sudden spike in air pollution,
especially PM2.5 levels.
●​ Waste Burning: Open burning of waste in landfills like Ghazipur releases
toxic gases.
Delhi’s landlocked geography, pollution sources, and unfavorable weather make it
the most polluted megacity in India.

Q7.The state of Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand are
reaching the limits of ecological carrying capacity due to tourism. Critically
Evaluate.
Ans.Tourism sector contributes around 5.5-6% to the country’s GDP. It has
become a significant contributor to the economies of Jammu and Kashmir,
Himachal Pradesh, and Uttarakhand. This rapid growth in tourism has also put a
strain on the fragile ecosystems of these states.
Tourism and Ecological Stress:
●​ Deforestation & Soil Erosion: Expanding tourism infrastructure leads to
deforestation, habitat loss, and landslides.
●​ Water Scarcity & Pollution: Excessive tourist demand strains freshwater
resources, while waste disposal pollutes rivers and lakes.
●​ Waste Management Crisis: Unregulated tourism generates plastic and solid
waste, overwhelming local disposal systems.
●​ Biodiversity Loss: Noise, human interference, and habitat destruction
threaten species like the snow leopard and musk deer.
●​ Forest Fires: Increased human activity raises the risk of forest fires,
damaging ecosystems.
●​ Glacial Retreat & Climate Change: Carbon emissions from vehicles and
tourism accelerate glacial melting (e.g., Gangotri Glacier).
Conclusion
Tourism is pushing these states beyond their ecological carrying capacity.
Sustainable tourism policies, better waste management, and stricter
environmental regulations are essential to prevent long-term damage.

Note: Always use bullet points, never use numbering during answer writing.