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ELECTROTECHNICAL MATERIALS
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1. What are dielectric losses?
Dielectric losses refer to the energy dissipated in a dielectric material when
subjected to an electric field Е, resulting in the heating of the dielectric.
Dielectric losses occur under both alternating and direct voltage.
In a constant electric field: The losses Р in the dielectric are due to the Joule
heating generated by the passage of through current:
Р = U2/R ,
R – the resistance of the dielectric.,
U – the applied potential difference.
In an alternating electric field: U = U0sinωt
U0 – amplitude,
ω = 2πf – circular frequency of alternating voltage.
The energy of the field is spent on:
- Joule heating.
- Slow types of polarization.

2. What is the dielectric loss angle?

In an "ideal" dielectric, the conduction current Ia=0. In an alternating field,
the current flowing through a capacitor is the displacement current in the
dielectric I=Ir. In an “ideal” dielectric, current I is ahead of the voltage vector
E by 90°.
In good dielectrics, the phase shift angle φ is close to 90о.
Angle δ, complementary to angle φ to 90о: δ = 90о - φ. called the dielectric
loss angle. The ratio of the active and reactive components of the total
current:
tgδ = Ia/Ir, called the tangent of the dielectric loss angle, which can be
determined experimentally.

3. What is the conductivity of gas?

Gas conductivity arises when gases are ionized, creating free electrons and
ions that can conduct electricity. This typically occurs at high temperatures or
under strong electric fields, leading to a plasma state where ionized gases
behave as conductors.

4. Which materials are classified as diamagnetics?

Diamagnets are substances in which there is complete mutual compensation
of both orbital and spin magnetic moments. Diamagnetism is the property of a
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substance to be weakly magnetized opposite to an external magnetic field.

Magnetic susceptibility χ  -10-5  -10-7

Magnetic permeability µ  0,9999
Diamagnets Cu, Ag, Au, Be, Zn, Ga, B, Pb, Sb
•Diamagnets differ in that they are pushed out of a non-uniform magnetic
field.
•Diamagnetic substances include hydrogen, inert gases, nitrogen, chlorine,
water, most organic compounds, several metals, as well as graphite, glass, etc.
A diamagnetic material in a uniform field tends to position itself across the
lines of force.

5. What characterizes good insulating strength?

Good insulating strength is characterized by a high dielectric breakdown
voltage, low dielectric losses, high volume and surface resistance, and
minimal leakage currents.

6. Name examples of solid dielectrics.

Examples include mica, glass, ceramics, and polymers such as polyethylene
and polytetrafluoroethylene (Teflon).

7. How are dielectric losses classified?

Dielectric losses are classified into 5 main types:
1. Through conductivity losses.
As T increases, losses increase exponentially due to the increase in
conductivity γ:

T
2. Slow polarization losses.
appear in polar dielectrics and only in alternating electric fields
The work of a sinusoidal field E on the polarization of a unit volume of a
dielectric for one period is determined by the integral over a closed contour
P(E) and is equal to the area of the loop P(E):
w = PdE
∫
In non-polar dielectrics (the intrinsic electric moment p is equal to 0) there are
no slow types of polarization.
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3. Dielectric structure heterogeneity losses.

are typical of composite dielectrics and dielectrics with impurities
(including conductive ones):
getinax, textolite, micaplasts, ceramics, compounds, impregnated materials,
etc.
Migration polarization is caused by the migration of charges in conducting
inclusions and their accumulation at the boundaries of inhomogeneities. The
establishment time τ is very long. For composite materials consisting of good
dielectrics, the relaxation frequency fr < 1 Hz and migration losses are small
even at industrial frequency (50 Hz).
If there are conductive inclusions in the dielectric, then fr is in the range of
operating frequencies and migration losses must be considered.
So, when moistened, tgδ of the dielectric increases, since the conductivity of
water is high.
4. Ionization losses.
in porous dielectrics with increasing voltage above the ionization threshold
Uion

5. Resonance losses.
They are observed in all dielectrics.
They occur during dispersion of a resonant nature, when the frequency of the
electric field approaches the frequencies of the natural oscillations of
electrons or ions.

8. What is corona discharge in conductive lines?

Corona discharge occurs when the electric field around a conductor exceeds
the dielectric strength of the surrounding air, leading to ionization and a
partial discharge. This can happen in high-voltage transmission lines,
resulting in energy loss and potential damage.

9. What are the main parameters of conductors?

Key parameters of conductors include:
 Electrical resistivity (ρ): Determines the material's opposition to current.
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 Conductivity (γ): Inverse of resistivity.

 Mechanical properties: Such as tensile strength and ductility.
 Thermal properties: Resistance to thermal changes.

10. What is the role of impurities in semiconductor conductivity?

In semiconductors with donor and (or) acceptor impurities
in the low T region:
1.in a semiconductor with a donor impurity, the concentration of free
electrons will be greater than the concentration of free holes (n>>p), and the
electrical conductivity is called electronic conductivity, and the
semiconductor is called an n-type semiconductor:
2.in a semiconductor with an acceptor impurity, the concentration of free
holes prevails over the concentration of free electrons (р>>n) and the
electrical conductivity is called hole electrical conductivity, and the
semiconductor is a p-type semiconductor:

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11. How does the thermal conductivity of metals differ from that of
dielectrics?
Metals have significantly higher thermal conductivity than dielectrics. Heat in
metals is transferred mainly by the same free electrons that determine

electrical conductivity WIEDEMANN-FRANZ-LORENTZ law

where T is the absolute temperature, K; L0 - Lorentz number equal to

k – Boltzmann constant; e – electron charge

•The Wiedemann-Franz-Lorentz law for most metals is well confirmed at
temperatures close to normal or slightly elevated.
•In the region of low temperatures, the coefficient L0 passes through a
minimum, and when approaching absolute zero it is again close to the
theoretical value.
•The thermal conductivity coefficient λ of metals is much greater than λ of
dielectrics.

12. What is the coefficient of thermal expansion?

The coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) quantifies how a material
changes its size when subjected to a temperature change. It is given by:
CTE=ΔL/LΔT,
where ΔL is the change in length, L is the original length, and ΔT is the
temperature change.
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CTE varies between materials and influences their applications:

• Low CTE materials (e.g., glass, ceramics): Used in applications
requiring dimensional stability, like telescope mirrors or electronic substrates.
• High CTE materials (e.g., metals like aluminum): Expands significantly
with heat, making them unsuitable for precision applications unless managed.
For composite structures, mismatched CTEs can lead to stress and potential
failure, making CTE an essential consideration in engineering.

13. What role does piezoelectricity play in energy conversion?

Piezoelectricity provides us with a means of converting electrical energy to
mechanical energy and vice versa. When an electric field is applied to a
substance it becomes polarized, the electron and nuclei assume a new
geometric position, and the mechanical dimension of the substance is altered.
The phenomenon is called electrostriction.
The reverse effect i.e. the production of polarization by the application of
mechanical stress can take place only if the lattice has no center of symmetry,
the phenomenon is known as piezoelectricity.
14. Which materials are classified as semiconductors with impurity
conductivity?
The mechanism of formation of free (impurity) charge carriers:
 Let us assume that one of the sites of the Si crystal lattice (4-valence) is
replaced by an As atom having 5 valence electrons.
 4 of them will participate in the formation of pair-electron bonds with the
nearest neighboring Si atoms. The 5th electron, without participating in the
formation of pair-electron bonds, will be associated with its atom (nuclear
forces). The energy of this connection is small.
 To ionize impurity arsenic atoms (i.e., to tear off an electron from an atom
and transform it into a free charge carrier) a significantly smaller amount of
energy is required than to release a Si electron from a Valence Zone.
 This means that local levels should be in the forbitten zone close to the
conduct zone.
 The formation of positive As impurity ions in a donor semiconductor cannot
take part in electrical conductivity—a structural element.
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15. What role do crystal defects play in semiconductors?

When an external electric field is applied, free electrons and “holes” will
move in an orderly manner, i.e., create an electric current.
If there are defects in the crystal, then electric field is created by them can
capture an electron.
Such an electron localized near a defect has an energy that falls exactly into
the FB (a spectrum of local levels appears).
These local levels occur only at defect locations.
A lattice defect in which the local level is occupied outside of the excited
state, and when excited can donate an electron to the Conduct Zone, is called
a donor (donor impurity).
A lattice defect in which the local level is occupied outside of the excited
state, and when excited can capture an electron from the Valence Zone, is
called an acceptor (acceptor impurity).

16. What physical phenomenon causes thermal breakdown of

dielectrics?
Thermal breakdown occurs when the amount of heat released in the dielectric
due to dielectric losses exceeds the amount of heat dissipated.
Violation of thermal equilibrium leads to heating of the material, melting,
cracking, charring and destruction of the dielectric.
The development of thermal destruction processes leads to an excessive
increase in electrical conductivity and dielectric losses.
Thermal equilibrium condition:
Pg =Pd.
Power released in the dielectric:
Pg = U2 ω C tan δ.
Heat removed from the sample:
Pd = k S (T – T0 ),
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k – heat transfer coefficient; S – surface area of the insulating material; T –

material surface temperature; T0 – ambient temperature environment

tg δ corresponds to the critical

temperature Tcr at which Pg =Pd
Unlike electrical breakdown,
thermal breakdown voltage depends
on frequency as f – (1/2). That is,
Ubr decreases at high frequencies.
With increasing T, the electrical
strength EstT during thermal
breakdown decreases, because UbrT
of thermal breakdown decreases due
to an increase in tgδ and
deterioration of heat removal
With a change in f or T, the dielectric breakdown mechanism can change. fcr
(or Tcr), depends on the properties of the dielectric, heat removal conditions,
time of voltage application, characteristics of electrical fields.

17. What is the difference between high-quality conductors and

cryoconductors?
CRYOCONDUCTIVITY The phenomenon of a strong decrease in  at T < –
1730 C. It is caused by a decrease in electron scattering due to thermal
vibrations of the lattice. A residual contribution to the resistivity ρ im remains.
Freezing of crystal lattice nodes occurs
CRYO CONDUCTORS - Cu, Al, Be
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Requirements for cryoconductors:

minimum content of impurities; regular (without defects) crystal lattice
The specific conductivity of metals increases hundreds and thousands of times
compared to conductivity at normal temperature.
SUPERCONDUCTIVITY The phenomenon of DISAPPEARANCE , i.e.
the appearance of infinite electrical conductivity at temperatures close to
absolute zero. 1911 Kamerling – Onnes.

When cooled to a temperature of 4.2 K, the

resistance of the frozen mercury ring suddenly drops to almost zero.
The temperature at which the transition of a substance to the superconducting
state occurs (is reversible) is called the temperature of the superconducting
transition Tcr.
18. How does the temperature coefficient affect conductivity?
• For Metals: α>0; resistivity increases with temperature due to more
frequent collisions between electrons and vibrating lattice atoms. This makes
metals less efficient at high temperatures.

The first curve is characteristic of metals, while the second curve corresponds to
doped metals. The decrease in the resistance of metals with increasing
temperature is explained by the rise in electron concentration.
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• For Semiconductors: α<0; resistivity decreases with temperature as

higher thermal energy generates more charge carriers. This property makes
semiconductors suitable for thermistors and temperature sensors.

 At T→0 K, the concentration of free charge carriers is determined by the

background charge carriers and the carriers available in the substation
due to imperfect technology, violations of the crystal structure and
uncontrolled impurities (section 1-2).
 As T of a semiconductor increases, electrons from donor levels (in the
case of a donor semiconductor) move to the СB or from the VB to
acceptor levels (in the case of an acceptor semiconductor), and the higher
T, the greater the number of impurity atoms will be activated (section 2-
3).
 When the energy of the thermal field becomes sufficient to completely
activate impurities (point 3), depletion of impurity levels will occur.
 All electrons of the donor impurity will go into the CB, and all atoms of
the acceptor impurity will capture the maximum possible number of
electrons from the VB.
 With a further increase in T, the concentration of free charge carriers will
remain constant (saturation region 3-4), because the impurity levels are
depleted, and the thermal field energy (kT) is not enough to activate the
own charge carriers.
 At point 4, the energy of the thermal field becomes sufficient to activate
its own charge carriers in the semiconductor.
 Electron transitions from the VB to the CB begin, and the higher T, the
more acts of activation of their own charge carriers (section 4-5).

19.What is the difference between intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors?

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• Intrinsic Semiconductors: Pure materials like silicon or Germanium,

where conductivity arises from thermally excited electron-hole pairs. Carrier
concentration is determined by temperature alone.
• Extrinsic Semiconductors: Doped materials with additional charge
carriers introduced by impurities.
n-Type: Donor impurities add extra electrons.
p-Type: Acceptor impurities create holes.
Extrinsic semiconductors offer controlled and enhanced conductivity,
making them ideal for electronic devices.

20. What is electrolysis, and how is it related to conductivity?

Electrolysis is the process of using electrical energy to drive a non-
spontaneous chemical reaction in an electrolyte solution. Conductivity in this
context arises from the movement of ions, not electrons, within the solution.
• Anions migrate to the positively charged anode and release electrons
(oxidation).
• Cations migrate to the negatively charged cathode and gain electrons
(reduction).
Electrolysis is widely used in industrial applications, such as:
• Electroplating: Coating objects with metal layers.
• Hydrogen Production: Splitting water into hydrogen and oxygen.
• Purification of Metals: Removing impurities from ores.

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21.How does a p-n-p transistor work?
Electron-hole transitions are obtained by introducing donor and acceptor
impurities into the semiconductor so that one part of the semiconductor has
electronic and the other hole electrical conductivity.
p-n junction:
•It is impossible to create a p-n junction mechanically by contacting two s/c
with different types of electrical conductivity.
• S/c model: semiconductor wafer, the boundary between the p and n regions
is called (p-n)-junction, the blocking layer is shown by a dotted line.
•After contact, some electrons, under the influence of thermal diffusion,
move from the n-region to the p-region (also with holes).
•In the boundary region, a diffusion field Ed appears, which will prevent
further movement of charges.
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(а) The diffusion field Ed arises due to the diffusion of the f.ch.c. A barrier
layer with a thickness of d 10-5 sm.
(б) Direction E coincides with Ed and the transition is “locked”.
(в) E is directed against Ed, the blocking layer is saturated with f.ch.c., and
the transition is “open”.
p-n junction:
•In real systems there is always a small amount of minority charge carriers:
in the p region there are electrons, and in the n region there is a certain
number of holes.
•And through such a system, when the junction is closed, a small “reverse
current” will flow due to minority charge carriers.

A p-n-p transistor consists of two p-type regions (emitter and collector) and
an intermediate n-type region (base). It operates as follows:
1. Based on the junctions:
 The emitter-base junction is forward biased, allowing holes from the p-
type emitter to move into the n-type base.
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 The collector-base junction is reverse biased, creating a potential

difference that attracts holes from the base into the collector.
2. Operation:
 The base region is very thin and lightly doped, meaning only a small
fraction of holes recombine with electrons in the base. Many holes
continue into the collector.
 A small current applied at the base-emitter junction controls a larger
current flowing between the emitter and collector. This enables the
transistor to amplify input signals.

22.Explain the mechanisms of thermal conductivity in semiconductors.

 The straight-line segment (1-2) in the low T region characterizes the

impurity electrical conductivity if there is no intrinsic semiconductor.
 In the “transition” section (2-3), the impurities are “depleted”, and a slight
decrease in electrical conductivity is due to the scattering of free charge
carriers on thermal vibrational nodes of the crystal lattice, 2-donor impurity
gave up all the electrons, acceptor- took all the electrons; thermal energy is
not yet sufficient to activate its own electrical conductivity.
 In the high T region (section 3-4), own electrical conductivity appears.
 An increase in the electrical conductivity of semiconductors with increasing
T occurs because an increase in the number of free charge carriers has a
greater effect on the electrical conductivity than a decrease in their mobility.

23.What is the difference between electronic and ionic crystals regarding

dielectric losses?
1. Electronic crystals:
 In materials like quartz, silicon, or diamond, dielectric losses are very
low because the primary mechanism is electronic polarization, which
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involves displacement of electrons relative to atomic nuclei under an electric

field.
 These materials do not have mobile ions, so there are no significant
energy losses from ionic motion. As a result, electronic crystals are highly
efficient as dielectrics in high-frequency applications.
2. Ionic crystals:
 In materials like sodium chloride (NaCl) or lithium fluoride (LiF),
dielectric losses are higher because of ionic polarization. When an electric
field is applied, positive and negative ions are displaced within the crystal
lattice.
 At high frequencies, ions cannot follow the rapid oscillations of the
field, leading to energy dissipation as heat. Ionic crystals are less suitable for
high-frequency applications but are used in low-frequency or static
conditions.

24.How does an electric field affect the properties of ferromagnetics?

Ferromagnetism is the property of a substance to be strongly magnetized in
accordance with an external magnetic field
Magnetic susceptibility χ  103  107
Magnetic permeability µ  103  107
Ferromagnets Fe, Co, Ni, Сd, Tb, Dy, Ho, Er, Tm
Ferromagnets are also characterized by the presence of hysteresis.
•Hysteresis is caused by the irreversibility of magnetization processes, which
leads to energy dissipation and a decrease in the quality of devices.
However, thanks to it, the material remains magnetized after the
magnetizing field is removed.
1. Alignment of domains:
 Ferromagnetic materials consist of regions called domains, where
magnetic moments are aligned. In the absence of an external field, these
domains are randomly oriented.
 When an electric field induces a current (e.g., via electromagnetic
induction), the resulting magnetic field aligns the domains in the direction of
the field, increasing magnetization.
2. Saturation magnetization:
 As the field strength increases, domains become fully aligned, and the
material reaches saturation magnetization. Beyond this point, no further
increase in magnetization occurs.
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3. Hysteresis:
 When the electric field is removed, some domains retain their
alignment due to remanent magnetization. The coercive force required to
demagnetize the material depends on its magnetic properties.
4. Magnetic permeability:
 An electric field indirectly affects the material's magnetic permeability
by influencing the extent of domain alignment. The permeability decreases
at saturation and varies with the intensity of the electric or magnetic field.

25.What happens at the atomic level when a magnetic moment arises?

• Magnetic are materials that are used in technology considering their
magnetic properties and are characterized by the ability to accumulate, store
and transform magnetic energy.
•The magnetic properties of a substance are determined by its atomic
structure and depend, first, on whether the atoms of the substance have a
permanent magnetic moment.
Elementary magnetic moment of an atom is the vector sum of the orbital and
spin magnetic moments of electrons, as well as the magnetic moment of the
nucleus, which is 10−3 the magnetic moment of the electron.

The mass of the nucleus is significantly greater than the mass of the electron,
so we can assume that electrons are the elementary carriers of magnetic
moments in substances.
The total magnetic field in the volume of a substance is called magnetic
induction B[Тl]
Magnetization is the process of orientation of the magnetic moments of
atoms of a substance under the influence of an external magnetic field,
because of which the magnetization of the material becomes М≠0.
The magnetism of an atom is generated by three reasons:
•The presence of a spin magnetic moment in an electron, which is associated
with the corresponding mechanical moment of the electron.
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•Orbital motion of electrons in an atom, creating an orbital magnetic

moment, or − the presence of a magnetic moment of spatial motion of an
electron cloud around the nucleus.
•The magnetic moment of the atomic nucleus, which is created by the spin
moments of protons and neutrons.
•Determination of the total magnetic moment of an atom is greatly
facilitated because in filled shells both orbital and spin magnetic moments
are compensated, so only incompletely filled electron shells can be
considered.

26.Describe the process of channel formation during ionization losses.

Ionization losses occur in gaseous dielectrics when the electric field strength
exceeds the ionization potential of the gas. The process involves:
1. Avalanche ionization:
 High-energy electrons collide with neutral gas molecules, ionizing
them and creating more free electrons and positive ions.
 These free electrons accelerate under the field, causing further
ionization in a chain reaction.
In the field E, charged particles between two collisions acquire energy
W=qλE.
If W>Wi, then breakdown is possible, where Wi is the ionization energy of a
gas molecule (the molecule breaks up into ions).
The initial field strength Ein is the value of the intensity at which impact
ionization begins in each gas (given P and T) (collision of an electron with a
neutral molecule to knock out the electron).
In gases, an electrical type of breakdown is observed. Gas breakdown also
depends on the degree of homogeneity of the electric field
As a result of impact ionization processes, the concentration of charged
particles increases sharply.
At a sufficiently high concentration, the current density reaches high values
and practically provides a short circuit between the electrodes - an electrical
breakdown occurs.
This manifests itself in the form of a spark or a continuous arc between the
electrodes
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Avalanche breakdown develops for a relatively long time, more than 1 μs,
and is not typical for pulse voltages.
An avalanche-streamer breakdown, with a gap length of 1 cm, develops in
10–7–10–8 seconds.
The electron gained enough energy to knock out electrons from a neutral
molecule, the knocked-out electrons went on to knock out other electrons
from molecules, etc., an avalanche was formed; when the avalanche reaches
the other electrode - breakdown.
A conductive channel was formed - the system turned off, the protection was
activated:
if the voltage is applied again after a day, the breakdown will occur at the
same value of U;
if the voltage is applied again after a few minutes, the breakdown will
occur at a lower U
This is because when an electron collides with an ion, recombination will
occur:
in a day – all electrons and ions will recombine;
after a few minutes, non-recombined electrons and ions will remain.
2. Photon emission:
 Ionized atoms emit photons as electrons recombine or transition
between energy levels. These photons can ionize nearby atoms, further
amplifying the process (photon ionization).
3. Streamer formation:
 Ionization avalanches merge to form conductive channels called
streamers. These channels rapidly extend through the gas, leading to a
dielectric breakdown and current flow.
Avalanche-streamer mechanism of gas breakdown - combined action of
the avalanche space charge field and photoionization in the gas volume
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A streamer is a collection of ionized particles that is far superior to an

avalanche in terms of the degree of ionization.
Simultaneously with the growth of the streamer directed towards the anode,
an avalanche flow of positively charged particles is formed, directed towards
the cathode.
The electrons do not have time to gain enough energy to knock the electron
out of the neutral molecule; the electron gives up part of the energy to the
molecule, where the molecule goes into an excited state and gets rid of
excess energy due to light radiation - a quantum of light.
The quantum moves with the speed of light and collides with a molecule that
has already received additional energy - a additional avalanche has formed,
when the additional avalanche crosses the distance between the electrodes -
breakdown.

27.What happens to the dielectric's strength under intense thermal stress?

Under intense thermal stress:
1. Increased dielectric losses: Higher temperatures increase the dielectric
loss tangent (tanδ), causing more heat generation within the material.
2. Thermal runaway: The material may reach a point where heat
generation exceeds its ability to dissipate heat, leading to rapid temperature
rise and breakdown.
3. Structural degradation: Excessive heat can cause physical changes,
such as melting or cracking, reducing the dielectric's mechanical and
electrical properties.
4. Loss of insulation properties: The dielectric may fail to withstand high
voltages, leading to complete breakdown.

28.How is the Hall effect used to determine the type of conductivity?

If a semiconductor plate along which an electric current I flows is placed in
a magnetic field B directed perpendicular to the direction of the current, then
a transverse electric field E will arise in the semiconductor, directed
perpendicular to the current and the magnetic field.
Galvanomagnetic Hall effect:
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 is associated with the effect of the magnetic field H on the electrical

properties of semiconductors and metals through which electric
current flows.
 Moving electrons creating a current I along the s/c are deflected by the
Lorentz force (according to the left-hand rule) to the back face of the
s/c (the type of s/c is determined - type “-”).
 Uncompensated ions of the donor impurity will remain at the front
face. A transverse electric field appears, which prevents further
deflection of electrons to the rear edge of the plate.
 Equilibrium state is established when the forces acting on electrons
from the transverse field Ex are equal to the Lorentz force.

Scheme of occurrence of Hall EMF UХ

I Н
U X R X В 
а
Rx–Hall coefficient [m3/C]; Ex – transverse electric tension. fields.
1
RX 
For n-type semiconductor: en
1
RX 
For p-type semiconductor: ep
1  p  n
RX  
en  p   n
For native semiconductor:

29.How are spontaneous polarization and the Curie point related?

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• Spontaneous polarization: In ferroelectric materials, atoms in the

crystal lattice shift from their symmetrical positions, creating a net electric
dipole moment even in the absence of an external field.
• Curie point: This is the temperature above which the material loses its
spontaneous polarization due to thermal agitation. The material transitions to
a paraelectric state, where dipoles are disordered, and polarization only
occurs under an external field.

30.Why is the density of a conductor important for its thermal

conductivity?
Thermal conductivity in conductors depends on how efficiently electrons
and phonons transfer heat. Density plays a role in this process:
1. Electron density: Higher density increases the number of free
electrons, improving heat transfer.
2. Atomic spacing: Denser materials have closely packed atoms,
facilitating better phonon interactions.
3. Mechanical strength: High-density conductors resist structural
deformation, ensuring consistent thermal performance.
Materials like copper and silver are highly thermally conductive because of
their dense atomic structures and high free electron densities

****
31.How does the interaction of magnetic hysteresis loops relate to the
heating of ferromagnets?
Ferrimagnets (ferrites) are materials in which the exchange interaction of
neighboring atoms leads to antiparallel orientation of magnetic moments of
different magnitudes (uncompensated)
Magnetic susceptibility χ till 107
Magnetic permeability µ till 107
Ferrites Fe2O3·MeO
where Me − Mg, Fe, Zn, Co, Cu, Cd, Mn and etc.
Ferrimagnets, like ferromagnets, are characterized by the presence of a
domain structure.
•Ferrimagnets include ferrites - compounds that can have a different crystal
lattice structure such as spinel, garnet, rock salt, hexagonal, etc.
In terms of electrical properties, ferrites are semiconductors.
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•Ferrimagnets differ from ferromagnets in having a lower saturation

induction value and have a more complex temperature dependence of the
saturation induction.
•Simplistically, this can be explained by the presence in the structure of a
complex material of two or more sublattices, creating counter
uncompensated magnetic moments.
A domain is a macroscopic region of a material within which the
magnetization spontaneously (H=0) reaches saturation, that is, inside the
domain, the magnetic moments of almost all atoms are oriented in the same
direction.
Features of ferromagnets:
•Presence of domain structure.
•Dependence of the magnetic state on the previous magnetic history.
•Presence of Curie temperature.

I – region of the weakest fields; II—region of weak fields;

III—medium fields area; IV-region of strong fields
•Region 1 – the weakest magnetic fields is characterized by a reversible
displacement of domain boundaries in the magnetic field and a linear
dependence B(H).
•Region 2 – irreversible displacement of domain boundaries, is characterized
by the strongest dependence B(H) and μ passes through a maximum.
•Region 3 – region of rotation of the magnetization vector (rotation of the
magnetization vector of domains in the direction of the field).
•Region 4 – saturation. In this region, the value of B is practically
independent of H.
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Saturation induction Bs is the maximum induction corresponding to

technical saturation.
Coercive force NS is the strength of the demagnetizing field that must be
applied to a pre-magnetized sample for the magnetic induction in it to
become zero.
Residual induction Br - induction that remains in a pre-magnetized sample
after removal of the external magnetic field.

32.Explain the physical nature of surface breakdown.

Breakdown mechanisms:
electric,
electrothermal,
electrochemical,
ionization.
surface breakdown
Each of these types of breakdown can occur for the same material,
depending on the nature of the electric field - constant or alternating, pulsed LF or
HF, the presence of defects, closed pores, cooling conditions, and time of exposure
to voltage.
IONIZATION BREAKDOWN are caused by ionization processes due to
partial discharges in the dielectric.
Characteristics of dielectrics with air inclusions.
At high field strengths in the air pores, air ionization occurs, the formation of
ozone, accelerated ions, and heat release. These factors lead to the destruction of
insulation and a decrease in Est.
Along with volumetric breakdown, surface breakdown is also possible:
breakdown in a liquid or gaseous dielectric adjacent to the surface of solid
insulation.
Since the Est of liquids and gases is lower than the Est of solid dielectrics,
breakdown will primarily occur along the surface of the dielectric.
To exclude surface breakdown, the surface of the insulators is made
corrugated, and non-metalized edges of the dielectric are left in the capacitors.
Surface Ubr is also increased by sealing the surface of electrical insulation with
varnishes, compounds, liquid dielectrics with high Est.
 22

Surface breakdown occurs when electrical discharge propagates along the

surface of a solid dielectric rather than through its bulk. This phenomenon involves
several physical processes:
1. Charge accumulation:
 Electric fields cause charges to accumulate at the surface, especially
around imperfections or contaminants.
2. Field enhancement:
 Surface irregularities and conductive contaminants amplify the local
electric field, increasing the likelihood of ionization.
3. Partial discharges:
 Ionization of air near the surface leads to localized discharges, which
erode the dielectric and reduce its insulating properties.
4. Thermal degradation:
 Heat generated by discharges weakens the dielectric's structure,
facilitating the formation of conductive channels.
Surface breakdowns are common in high-voltage insulators, where
environmental factors like humidity, pollution, and temperature exacerbate the
problem.
33.How does material heterogeneity affect losses and breakdowns?
Dielectric losses due to structural inhomogeneity
are typical for composite dielectrics and dielectrics with impurities
(including conductive ones): getinax, textolite, micaplasts, ceramics,
compounds, impregnated materials, etc.
Migration polarization is caused by the migration of charges in conducting
inclusions and their accumulation at the boundaries of inhomogeneities. The
establishment time τ is very long.
For composite materials consisting of good dielectrics, the relaxation
frequency fr < 1 Hz and migration losses are small even at industrial
frequency (50 Hz).
If there are conductive inclusions in the dielectric, then fr is in the range of
operating frequencies and migration losses must be considered.
So, when moistened, tgδ of the dielectric increases, since the conductivity of
water is high.
 23

In the case of migration polarization, as well as dipole polarization, a

relaxation time interval t arises, which leads to an increase in the frequency
interval of migration losses.
Reason: different properties of the main medium and conductive inclusions
of the dielectric, different shape and orientation of the inclusions.
With increasing T, the specific conductivity γ increases exponentially,
therefore the frequency of relaxation and maximum migration losses
increases with increasing temperature.
Ionization dielectric losses in porous dielectrics with increasing voltage
above the ionization threshold Uion

Electrical breakdown of liquid dielectrics is most likely in extremely

purified liquids and can be considered in the same way as in gases.
But in liquids, due to the higher density, the free path λ of electrons sharply
decreases.
This leads to a significant increase in the electrical strength of Est compared
to gases.
The electrical strength of liquid dielectrics is dramatically affected by solid
and liquid impurities.
In liquids, both thermal and electrical breakdown can occur.
 24

The particles are polarized, drawn into the gap between the electrodes, and a
bridge is formed (has higher conductivity).
If the particles cover the gap by 60-70% - local heating of the liquid, thermal
breakdown.
If you turn on the voltage again after a few minutes (10 minutes), breakdown
will occur at a higher voltage U (due to drying).
The temperature at the beginning is high, the liquid evaporates, self-cleaning
of the liquid occurs, more droplets are needed, but there are fewer of them
due to high T

About the same as for liquid impurities. If you turn on the voltage again after
a few minutes (10 min), breakdown will occur at a lower voltage U (due to
the formation of decomposition products).
Organics will partially burn - black smoke (soot is a combustion product),
there will be more solid particles.
There cannot be an avalanche-streamer breakdown - the distance is small,
the energy quantum will not be able to spread, because liquids are not
transparent.
34.What role do quantum effects play in the electrical conductivity of
metals?
Quantum mechanics explains the behavior of electrons in metals, which
classical theories cannot fully address. Key quantum effects include:
1. Energy bands:
 In metals, electrons occupy conduction bands where they are free to
move. Quantum mechanics predicts the distribution of these bands and the
presence of a partially filled conduction band, enabling conductivity.
2. Electron scattering:
 Quantum theory accounts for electron scattering due to lattice vibrations
(phonons), impurities, and defects, affecting resistivity.
 25

3. Density of states:
 Quantum mechanics determines the density of available energy states for
electrons, influencing how many contribute to conduction.
4. Temperature dependence:
 At low temperatures, quantum effects explain phenomena like reduced
electron scattering and superconductivity, where resistivity drops to zero.
•The increase in ρ of metals with increasing temperature is due to the fact
that with increasing temperature the amplitude of anharmonic thermal
vibrations of crystal lattice nodes increases.
•As a result, the probability of collision of electrons drifting under the
influence of electric field forces with these nodes increases.
•At the same time, the mean free path of the electron decreases and its
mobility decreases.

35.How do thermal and electrical processes interact during gas

breakdown?
Gas breakdown results from a complex interplay of thermal and electrical
processes:
1. Ionization by collision:
 High electric fields accelerate electrons, which collide with gas
molecules, ionizing them.
2. Thermal effects:
 As ionization progresses, collisions generate heat, raise the gas
temperature and increase particle kinetic energy.
3. Thermal ionization:
 Elevated temperatures further ionize gas molecules, creating a
positive feedback loop that accelerates breakdown.
4. Streamer training:
 The combination of thermal and electrical effects causes the formation
of conductive ionized channels (streamers), allowing current flow and
completing breakdown.
This interplay is critical in designing devices like spark gaps and plasma
generators.

36.What is the difference between ionic and dipole polarization in

dielectrics?
1. Ionic polarization:
 26

o Occurs in materials with ions that shift relative to their equilibrium

positions under an electric field.
o Typical in ionic crystals like NaCl or KBr.
o Response time is slower than electronic polarization, making it less
effective at high frequencies.
2. Dipole polarization:
o It happens in materials with permanent dipoles (e.g., water). When an
electric field is applied, dipoles align with the field.
o Common in polar polymers and liquids.
o Frequency response depends on dipole rotation, and high frequencies
can limit alignment, reducing effectiveness.

Both mechanisms contribute to dielectric behavior but dominate in different

material types and frequency ranges.

37.How does the behavior of a semiconductor change under mechanical

stress?
Mechanical stress alters a semiconductor's electronic properties through the
piezoelectric and strain effects:
1. Piezoelectric effect:
o In materials like quartz or gallium arsenide, stress generates an
electric field, altering carrier distribution.
2. Band structure modification:
o Stress changes the energy bandgap, affecting carrier mobility and
conductivity. For example, compressive stress can reduce mobility,
decreasing conductivity.
3. Defect generation:
o Excessive stress creates lattice defects, acting as traps for carriers and
reducing efficiency.
These effects are used in sensors (e.g., strain gauges) and need careful
management in high-stress applications.
38.Explain the relationship between dielectric strength and material type.
Dielectric strength is the maximum electric field a material can withstand
without breaking down. It depends on:
1. Material composition:
 27

o Homogeneous materials like pure ceramics have higher dielectric

strength than heterogeneous ones with impurities or voids.
2. State of the material:
o Gases have lower dielectric strength (~3 MV/m for air) compared to
liquids and solids due to easier ionization.
o Solid dielectrics like mica or porcelain exhibit the highest strength
because of their compact structure.
3. Environmental conditions:
o Humidity, temperature, and pressure affect dielectric strength by
influencing ionization and thermal behavior.
39.How does the composition of ionic crystals influence their magnetic
properties?
The following magnetization mechanisms are distinguished:
Diamagnetism
Paramagnetism
Ferromagnetism
Antiferromagnetism
Ferrimagnetism
All substances differ in the magnitude and sign of the magnetic
susceptibility χ, as well as in its dependence on temperature and the strength
of the external magnetic field.
Substances whose atoms have permanent magnetic moments can be
paramagnetic, ferro-, antiferro- or ferrimagnetic, depending on the nature of
the interaction between the magnetic moments of the atoms.

Schematic representation of the arrangement of spins in

(a) paramagnetic, (b) ferromagnetic, (c) antiferromagnetic and (d)
ferrimagnetic substances
•Paramagnets are substances in which the interaction between the permanent
magnetic moments of atoms - elementary magnetic dipoles - is small, the total
magnetic moment is zero.
 28

•For paramagnetic gases and rare earth elements, the temperature dependence
of magnetic susceptibility is characterized by Curie’s law:

where C is the Curie constant, T is temperature, K.

Paramagnetism is the property of a substance to be weakly magnetized in
accordance with an external magnetic field
Magnetic susceptibility χ  10−2  10−6
Magnetic permeability µ  1,0001..
Paramagnets
Al, O, Pt, Mg, Pd, Cr, Ca, Mo
•Paramagnets are distinguished by the fact that they are drawn into a non-
uniform magnetic field.
•Paramagnets include oxygen, nitrogen oxide, salts of iron, cobalt and nickel,
alkali metals, and several other metals.
Ferromagnetism is the property of a substance to be strongly magnetized in
accordance with an external magnetic field
Magnetic susceptibility χ  103  107
Magnetic permeability µ  103  107
Ferromagnets
Fe, Co, Ni, Сd, Tb, Dy, Ho, Er, Tm
•Ferromagnets are also characterized by the presence of hysteresis.
•Hysteresis is caused by the irreversibility of magnetization processes, which
leads to energy dissipation and a decrease in the quality of devices. However,
thanks to it, the material remains magnetized after the magnetizing field is
removed.
Antiferromagnets are materials in which, because of the exchange interaction
of neighboring atoms, an antiparallel orientation of magnetic moments of
equal magnitude occurs.
Magnetic susceptibility χ  10−2  10−5
Magnetic permeability µ  1,0001..
Antiferromagnets
Ce, Nd, Pr, Sm, Eu, Mn, Cr
•Antiferromagnets are characterized by a specific temperature dependence
of magnetic susceptibility.
 29

•Antiferromagnets include rare earth metals, chromium, manganese, many

oxides, chlorides, fluorides, sulfides, carbonates of transition elements, for
example based on manganese, etc.

40.Why do ferromagnets exhibit a nonlinear relationship between magnetic

permeability and temperature?
•Ferromagnets are substances in which the magnetic moments of the atoms
interact so that they line up parallel to each other.

The relationship between magnetic permeability (μ) and temperature in

ferromagnets is nonlinear due to:

1. Domain structure changes:

o At low temperatures, domains align more easily, increasing μ. As
temperature rises, thermal agitation disrupts alignment, reducing
permeability.
2. Curie temperature:
o At the Curie point, thermal energy completely randomizes domain
orientation, causing a sharp drop in μ.
3. Saturation effects:
o Near saturation magnetization, μ decreases regardless of temperature.

This nonlinearity makes ferromagnets sensitive to temperature changes in

applications like transformers and magnetic storage.