1-s2.0-S0264127524003034-main

Materials & Design 241 (2024) 112930
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Materials & Design

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/matdes
Nanomaterials for advanced energy applications: Recent advancements and

future trends
Osama Gohar a, Muhammad Zubair Khan b, *, Iram Bibi a, Nadia Bashir a, Urooj Tariq a,
Manahil Bakhtiar a, Muhammad Ramzan Abdul Karim c, Farman Ali a, *, Muhammad Bilal
Hanif d, *, Martin Motola d
a
Department of Chemistry, Hazara University, Mansehra 21300, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan
b
Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Pak-Austria Fachhochschule: Institute of Applied Sciences and Technology, Mang, Haripur 22621, Khyber
Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan
c
Faculty of Materials and Chemical Engineering, Ghulam Ishaq Khan Institute of Engineering Sciences and Technology (GIKI), Topi 23640, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa,
Pakistan
d
Department of Inorganic Chemistry, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Comenius University Bratislava, Ilkovicova 6, 842 15 Bratislava, Slovakia
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Keywords: Nowadays, one of the most promising and significant challenges for our society is achieving highly efficient
Inorganic nanomaterials energy utilization. To address the upcoming demands in energy applications, which demonstrate considerable
Electrochemical energy applications potential for future trends, continuous efforts are necessary to develop improved and higher-performing inor
Energy storage
ganic multifunctional nanomaterials. Multifunctional inorganic nanomaterials have been extensively researched
Energy conversion
to meet the requirements of various energy applications or to enhance them further. Specific attention is given to
inorganic nanomaterials for advanced energy storage, conservation, transmission, and conversion applications,
which strongly rely on the optical, mechanical, thermal, catalytic, and electrical properties of energy materials.
At the nanometer-scale range, triboelectric, piezoelectric, thermoelectric, electrochromic, and photovoltaic
materials have made significant contributions to numerous energy sector applications. Functional inorganic
materials possess unique properties, including excellent thermal and electrical conductivity, chemical stability,
and a large surface area, which enhance their competitiveness in energy-related applications. Herein, recent
research, development, and advances in inorganic multifunctional nanomaterials to enhance their performance
are discussed, highlighting how devices combine the functionalities of nanomaterials. In this manner, we aim to
provide insights into future applications and elucidate the ongoing research challenges currently facing this field.
1. Introduction supply and rising demand [5]. To meet our long-term energy needs and
promote sustainable development for the environment, it is imperative
In a nowadays world, access energy is considered a necessity for the to develop new technologies that fully harness abundant green energy
society along with food and water [1,2]. Generally speaking, the evo sources such as solar, thermal, and mechanical energy [6]. Moreover,
lution of human race goes hand-to-hand with the evolution of energy ensuring sustainable energy consumption in the 21st century is crucial.
storage and its utilization [3]. Currently, approx. eight billion people are The availability of clean, cost-effective, and reliable energy has been a
living on the Earth and this number is expected to double by the year key driver of global prosperity and economic growth. It is widely
2050 [4]. This increase in the overall population will immensely in acknowledged that certain energy applications are closely linked to
crease the demand of the Worlds’ energy supply [5]. Under current and human survival and are essential for addressing the global challenge of
planned policies, emissions of CO2 are projected to rise annually from 29 ensuring a sustainable energy supply for the future. These applications
Gt to 43 Gt. This significant increase in CO2 emission is primarily due to encompass various aspects such as energy storage, generation, conser
two biggest issues facing humanity today, i.e., lack of energy and vation, transmission, and conversion [7]. This review briefly explores
degradation of the environment brought on by dwindling fossil fuel numerous applications in both conventional and renewable energy
* Corresponding authors.
E-mail addresses: zubair.khan@fcm3.paf-iast.edu.pk (M. Zubair Khan), farmanqau@gmail.com (F. Ali), hanif1@uniba.sk (M. Bilal Hanif).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2024.112930
Received 18 March 2024; Received in revised form 28 March 2024; Accepted 8 April 2024
Available online 12 April 2024
0264-1275/© 2024 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
O. Gohar et al. Materials & Design 241 (2024) 112930
sectors. Meeting the growing demand for energy requires exploring achieve efficiency at the system level that surpasses that of their indi
alternative methods of electricity generation beyond traditional fossil vidual components. Generally, their functionality can be applied on the
fuel combustion, which remains a pressing issue. One such approach same length scale as the multifunctional characteristics of materials,
involves energy harvesting, which generates electrical energy from either concurrently or subsequently. These remarkable qualities
sources such as light, heat, and mechanical vibrations. The harvested encompass unique electrical, magnetic, optical, and other properties,
electrical energy is then conditioned, rectified, and stored in batteries or which can significantly impact fields such as spintronics, electronics,
capacitors for various applications, including low-power electronic de medical applications, and technological advancements [13,14]. Inte
vices, self-powered sensors, and wireless technology [8]. In addition to grating multiple functions into one material system poses a key chal
energy generation, society relies on energy conversion—the process of lenge, necessitating careful design to merge several functionalities for
transforming energy from its natural forms into usable forms. Solar cells diverse tasks. Each task typically involves different chemical and phys
and fuel cell technology have garnered significant attention as prom ical reactions that must enhance the overall system in addition to its
ising direct energy conversion technologies in recent years [8–11]. individual components [15]. For example, electrode materials for bat
Renewable energy comes in a broad range of forms, including teries must exhibit robust electrochemical reactivity, exceptional
geothermal, biomass, tidal, solar, and wind energies. However, their chemical stability, high reversibility of electrochemical reactions, and
inherent intermittent nature causes major fluctuations when incorpo low toxicity levels. Specialized materials are necessary to enhance the
rated into the electricity system. Thus, in order to fully benefit from the functionality of batteries; for instance, the electrode in flexible batteries
numerous energy sources, there is a need for sophisticated energy must maintain flexibility to perform effectively even when subjected to
storage systems [6]. It is obvious that we, as a society, must rapidly significant bending.
increase our capacity to store energy before transitioning from an To ensure efficient ion transport within batteries, electrolyte mate
economy dependent on fossil fuels to one that relies on renewable rials must possess a high level of ionic conductivity, a quality typically
technology [6]. Recently, supercapacitors and batteries have been the absent in solid materials. Materials with triboelectric, piezoelectric,
topic of extensive study. An additional significant obstacle is that the thermoelectric, solar, and catalytic properties have significantly
locations of hydro, wind, as well as solar energy origins are frequently enhanced various applications in the energy sector at the nanoscale
remote from areas with high population densities, which are the ideal [16–19]. Since inorganic nanomaterials generally exhibit unique prop
customer base for the use of renewable energy. Consequently, the gen erties including chemical stability, high surface area, and thermal and
eration of electricity from these far-off sources of clean energy needs to electrical conductivity [20], they are considered promising for the en
be integrated with affordable transmission energy systems [12]. ergy applications mentioned herein. Inorganic multifunctional nano
Nanomaterials represent a class of materials or material-based sys materials are essential for developing high-tech, high-performance, and
tems designed to combine multiple properties strategically to fulfill robust energy applications [20,21]. Nanostructuring is an innovative
various functions, as depicted in Fig. 1(a). These materials aim to method for enhancing the active zones of catalytic materials in energy
Fig. 1. (a) Schematic illustration of different applications dependency on nanomaterials such as energy generation, energy storage, energy transmission and energy
conversion (b) Hypothetical free-energy panorama defining the usual state of materials in the natural world through development and interactions [15]. (c) Dia
grammatic representations of the band model applied to explain chemical bonds formed by metal atoms shows Levels of energy of the electrons in the valence state
that correspond with the delocalization stage of the electrons inside the metal atom cluster [20].
2
conversion applications [22,23]. These latest developments have the 2.1. Electrode material design and optimization for enhanced battery
ability to accelerate and enhance the modification of hybrid features at performance
the nanoscale, potentially contributing to future energy-functional ma
terials. Research on multifunctional nanomaterials investigates how a The energy source, capable of storing electrical energy as chemical
material’s structure affects all of its characteristics, including its fabri energy through electrochemical processes and releasing it through
cation and design processes [24,25]. opposite reactions, is a crucial component of energy storage systems
There are a few hurdles in the way of using inorganic multifunctional [33,34]. Batteries have witnessed significant advancements in both
nanomaterials for advanced energy applications. Such challenges mostly discovery and commercialization in recent decades. However, the
originate from the research of new materials, including investigating evolving challenges and advancements in modern society are placing
innovative structural material systems, uncovering previously undis higher demands on batteries. Improved efficiency, particularly high
covered features of current structures, and enhancing the functionality power and energy density, prolonged life cycle, and enhanced safety, are
of current materials. Electrical, physical, and chemical features of essential attributes for modern batteries. Additionally, there is a growing
nanomaterials fluctuate based on the material’s size and shape (Fig. 1 emphasis on comfort and convenience, necessitating batteries with
(b)) [15,20]. As a result of quantum confinement effects, nanomaterials flexibility, wearability, and low weight [35,36]. Essential components of
frequently exhibit property alter as a function of size and have extremely a battery include a separator, an electrolyte, as well as positive and
high surface atom proportions [15]. Fig. 1b shows the progression of negative electrodes. Inorganic materials are increasingly becoming vital
energy levels, using metals as an example, from those of isolated and as electrode materials to fulfill the aforementioned requirements.
single atoms to those in clusters of 2, 5, 20, and 1020 atoms [20]. Fig. 1 The energy storage process in batteries involves ion insertion and
(c). displays electron delocalization degree along with electronic state extraction. Taking the Li-ion battery as a prime example, during
energy. Inside the valence band, valence electrons may easily migrate discharge, lithium ions are extracted from the bulk phase of the elec
among occupied and unoccupied orbits, offering varying degrees of semi trode as the cathode material undergoes oxidation. Simultaneously,
conductivity [20]. Occasionally, the investigation of inorganic nano lithium ions in the electrolyte undergo reduction in the anode material,
materials with multifunctional features at nanoscale offers additional forming a metal or alloy. During the charging process, both electrodes
opportunities, a wider viewpoint, and adaptable methods for resolving undergo reversible reactions [31,37]. Therefore, the electrode reactions
these issues. are influenced by the characteristics of the electrode material, especially
This review explores the critical role of inorganic multifunctional its ionic and electronic conductivity. Electrode materials with high
nanomaterials in advancing energy applications amidst the pressing electronic conductivity, abundant reactive sites, and efficient ion
challenge of efficient energy utilization. With the global population set migration pathways have the potential to achieve high capacity. Addi
to double by 2050 and CO2 emissions on the rise, transitioning to sus tionally, the insertion and extraction of ions can lead to volume changes,
tainable energy sources is imperative for long-term environmental resulting in structural deformation of the electrode materials. In some
preservation. Inorganic nanomaterials exhibit unique properties like cases, this may even cause the collapse of channels, leading to reduced
high surface area, conductivity, and stability, making them promising capacity [38].
for energy storage, conversion, and transmission. By analyzing recent Based on earlier research, materials that reducing the size are
research and advancements, the review emphasizes the potential of compared to nanoscale may demonstrate more active sites, thereby
these materials to drive innovation and overcome existing challenges. assisting the electrode capacity get closer to its theoretical value. The
Understanding the intricate relationship between nanomaterial struc influence of manganese dioxide electrode size on lithium-ion battery
ture and functionality offers insights into future applications, aiming to capacity was examined by Xue et al. MnO2 involves two different kinds
pave the way for sustainable energy solutions. of Mn centres: the effective Mn centre allows faradaic reactions to occur,
while the other form cannot come into touch with the electrolyte. The
2. Advancements in active materials for energy storage devices amount of effective sites of Mn in the faradaic reaction (Xeffective
Mn ) has an
immediate impact on the specific capacitance of MnO2. They examined
One of the most promising and auspicious ways to handle the present the correlation between the particle size and (Xeffective
Mn ). Their findings
energy challenge and worldwide environmental issues is the advance demonstrated that (Xeffective
Mn ) rapidly rose when the particle size shrank
ment of energy storage for renewable sources technologies. The inves to few nanometers. It is noticeable that (Xeffective
Mn ) equaled 1 when size of
tigation of appropriate active materials is one of the fundamental aspect MnO2 were about less than 1 nm, suggesting that the MnO2 specific
to the development of high stable, high efficient, environmentally capacitance ought to approach its theoretical value. Furthermore, cal
friendly, and low cast energy storage devices [26]. Without restricting culations may be used to discriminate between the mechanisms of
the loading mass, nanomaterials having a high specific surface area were charge storage in insertion/extraction and adsorption/desorption op
suggested as a way to direct future investigation towards reducing the erations. As seen in Fig. 2(a, b), adsorption/desorption mechanisms
difference among the discovered and predicted capacitance [27]. Bat accounted for specific capacitance 94.74 % in 2 nm size of α-MnO2,
teries and supercapacitors are two types of storage devices used to store whereas insertion/extraction activities contributed only 5.26 % of the
electrochemical energy, which are crucial for enabling intermittent yet specific capacitance [39,40].
sustainable energy alternatives like solar and wind [28]. Super
capacitors can achieve high power because they exclusively store charge 2.2. Development of advanced anode materials for lithium-ion batteries
at their surfaces, where diffusion processes do not hinder charge storage.
Similarly, supercapacitors are significantly more reversible due to their In addition to theoretical investigations, numerous experimental
longer life cycle, as charging/discharging does not require a bulk-phase results have demonstrated that inorganic nanomaterials can signifi
shift/transformation [29,30]. Batteries generally store charge in the cantly enhance the performance of batteries, such as zinc-air, Li-S,
bulk phase of electrode materials through redox reactions, resulting in sodium-ion, and Li-ion batteries. Compounds like Mn1− xFexP with sub
advanced energy density but lower power output compared to super stitutions at the nanoscale have been developed as anodes for Li-ion
capacitors. Recently, the desire for high-efficiency, resourceful batteries batteries. The in situ-generated composite materials, consisting of a
has become ubiquitous and tangible, with the numerous advantages and nano-network of Fe and Li–Mn–P alloying elements, along with the
demands of these batteries almost becoming common knowledge surrounding amorphous lithium phosphide, have improved electro
[31,32]. chemical performance by ensuring electron and ion transport, effec
tively buffering the accompanying volume variation, and preventing the
aggregation of the alloying elements. At a high current density of 2 A
3
Fig. 2. Size-dependent effective Mn centers in the faradaic charge storage of MnO2. (a) Size-dependent percentage of effective Mn centers of MnO2 polymorphs in the
faradaic reaction. (b) Size-dependent percentage of effective Mn centers contributing to the adsorption/desorption and insertion/extraction processes of
α-MnO2 [41].
g− 1, the Mn1− xFexP solid-solution phosphide electrodes showed a ca The optimized Cu3Si-SCG nanomaterials anode demonstrated
pacity of 360 mAh g− 1 after 100 cycles [42]. approximately 80 % capacity retention at an extreme current density of
The study addresses the utilization of self-supported Cu3Si-Si /car around 4 A g− 1. It exhibited high efficiency and carried a reversible
bon/graphene nanomaterials as an anode to mitigate substantial volume capacity of 483 mAh g− 1 after 500 cycles, making the nanocomposite a
fluctuations (>300 %) that occur during lithiation and delithiation ac significant anode material for high-performance Li-ion batteries [43].
tivities. These nanomaterials consist of a carbon shell and a Cu3Si − Si
core, with nanosheets of graphene anchoring the Cu foil directly to 2.2.1. Ti2Nb2O9 nanosheets as high-performance anode materials for
uniformly dominate core/shell particles. Additionally, a buffering me sodium-ion batteries
dium is employed to suppress volume shifts in Si during lithiation and Sodium assets are plentiful while sodium-ion batteries are inexpen
delithiation operations, facilitate the development of a stable SEI layer, sive, making them attractive options for grid storage of electricity. The
and allow for excellent transport kinetics. The components responsible fabrication of appropriate materials for electrodes is far from ideal, still.
for these functions are the carbon shell, highly elastic nanosheets of It was successfully possible to create MoP hollow nanospheres encased
graphene, and the Cu3Si phase formed in Si. in 3D reduced graphene oxide networks. Utilizing the advantages of
Fig. 3. Surface morphology by scanning electron microscopy (a), Transmission electron microscopy (b), and elemental mapping of F-FeS2 (c), Rate capabilities (d),
and cycling stabilities (e), of FeS2 and F-FeS2 [45].
4
hollow rGO’s nano-structure along flexibility, H-MoP@rGO’s improved based on cathodes Ni/PCNFO-S to demonstrate long cycle stability, an
performance of electrode was shown. After 600 cycles, the H-MoP@rGO outstanding rate capability of 780 mA hg− 1, and a high specific capacity
electrode’s specific capacity reached a maximum of 1 A g− 1 at 353.8 of 1320 mAh g− 1 [52].
mAh g− 1. Furthermore, after a total of 3000 cycles, it demonstrated an A freestanding electrode for Li-S batteries was proposed to be
exceptional rate accomplishment of 183.4 mAh g− 1 at an extremely high composed of a composite consisting of graphene (Gr) doped with 3D
current density of 10A g− 1 [44]. nitrogen along with titanium nitride (TiN). The highly conductive
Through a combination of solid-state sulfurization and solution porous Gr network provided efficient pathways for both electrons and
combustion synthesis, a foam-like FeS2 (F-FeS2) nanostructure was ions. Furthermore, the incorporation of TiN nanowires into Gr demon
synthesized, as depicted by SEM in Fig. 3(a). Comprising interconnected strated enhanced performance, attributed to the significant chemical
FeS2 nanomaterials with an average size of approximately 50 nm, the anchoring effect on the polysulfides. This beneficial interaction can be
resulting F- FeS2 product exhibited remarkable homogeneity, as evi observed in Fig. 4(a-e), which illustrates the diverse electrochemical
denced by TEM images (Fig. 3(b, c)). The small particle size, porous activities of the cathode materials.
architecture, and interconnected nature endowed the product with Flexible batteries have become indispensable components in various
excellent ion diffusion kinetics, high electrical conductivity, and a cutting-edge devices, including foldable electronics, wearable gadgets,
notable ability to mitigate volume expansion. Consequently, it demon and sensors. While significant efforts have been devoted to developing
strated outstanding rate capability, achieving a rate of 581 mAh g− 1 at flexible batteries based on one- and two-dimensional platforms, creating
5.0 A g− 1, a high capacity of 823 mAh g− 1 at 0.1 A g− 1, along with 97 % electrodes with both high energy density and robust structural integrity
cycle stability and retention over 80 cycles [45] (Fig. 3(c)). Additionally, remains challenging. To address this issue, a porous flexible cathode
Fig. 3(c) illustrates the cycling stabilities of FeS2 and F-FeS2 at 0.2 A g− 1. composed of reduced graphene oxide (rGrO), graphene crumples (GrCs),
A template-free hydrothermal method was employed to synthesize and sulfur particles was synthesized for application in lithium-sulfur
VS4 microspheres from nano-units with varying crystallinities, aiming to batteries.
improve the efficiency of self-assembled 3D architectures [46]. The re After undergoing 100 cycles at a current rate of 0.2C, the optimized
sults indicated that the crystal structure of the VS4 microspheres played rGrO/GrCs/S hybrid ribbon cathodes exhibited an impressive capacity
a crucial role in determining their electrochemical performance as an of 524 mAh g− 1 [53]. Furthermore, a shape-conformable battery pro
odes for sodium-ion batteries (SIBs). Despite being the least crystalline totype featuring a lithium anode and a rGrO/GrCs/S cathode demon
electrode material, the VS4 sample exhibited a respectable reversible strated stable discharge properties during repeated bending and
capacity of approximately 412 mAh g− 1 at 0.2 A g− 1 after 230 cycles. flattening cycles. Notably, the elastomer-supported lithium-sulfur bat
Furthermore, the selected voltage window of 0.50–3.00 V confirmed the tery prototype exhibited consistent discharge performance and robust
insertion process. Further investigation revealed that reducing the mechanical resilience, even with a 50 % expansion [54].
crystallinity of the nano-units could significantly enhance the pseudo- In a study by Zhang et al. [55], a highly efficient sulfur host was
capacitive behavior of the VS4 microspheres, which primarily contrib proposed: Fe3C-N/C hollow structures resembling frogspawn. Fe3C-N/C,
uted to the improvement of their sodium storage capabilities [46]. synthesized from a Prussian blue self-template, featured an N-doped
Ti2Nb2O9 nanosheets with a tunnel structure serve as promising carbon shell with excellent conductivity and a Fe3C metal-like core
anode materials for sodium-ion batteries (SIBs). These nanosheets were reminiscent of frogspawn. This unique architecture provided a wide
synthesized through liquid exfoliation and topotactic dehydration surface area, facilitating rapid electron and lithium-ion transfer, while
methods, resulting in a high reversible capacity of 250 mAh g− 1 at 50 the spacious hollow region accommodated the volumetric expansion of
mA g− 1 with an optimal voltage averaging around 0.7 V. The excellent the sulfur cathode [55].
performance of Ti2Nb2O9 nanosheets can be attributed to their low- Moreover, the polar Fe3C core and the N-doped carbon shell facili
energy diffusion barrier, increased interlayer spacing, and remarkable tated the catalytic conversion and trapping of intermediate polysulfides.
nanoporosity, which collectively enable high-rate capability through Both electrochemical behavior and theoretical studies supported the
pseudo-capacitive behavior. When compared to other sodium-insertion tightly coupled interaction between polar Fe3C and polysulfides.
anode materials, the Ti2Nb2O9 nanosheets exhibit superior characteris Remarkably, when utilized as an integrated sulfur host, the Fe3C-N/C/S
tics including high reversible capacity, outstanding rate capability, and electrode exhibited an exceptional capacity of approximately 1351 mAh
excellent cyclability, making them highly attractive for SIB applications g− 1 at 0.1C.
[47,48]. Noteworthy are the impressive rate capabilities and cycle stability
demonstrated by the Fe3C-N/C/S electrode. After 400 cycles, it exhibi
2.3. Advancements in lithium-sulfur batteries ted a minimal capacity degradation rate of 0.08 % per cycle at 0.5C,
while maintaining a high capacity of 792 mAh g− 1 [56].
Due to their abundant materials, affordability, low theoretical ca
pacity of 1675 mAh g− 1, and environmental friendliness, lithium-sulfur 2.4. Advancements in zinc-air batteries
(Li–S) batteries have garnered significant interest. However, various
Li–S batteries are known to suffer from serious disadvantages, including Zinc-air batteries offer a promising solution for large-scale energy
the shuttle effect of intermediate polysulfides, slow redox kinetics, and storage applications due to their high theoretical energy density, cost-
the insulating properties of sulfur [49–51]. effectiveness, safety, and extended lifespan. However, their limited
To address these challenges, an effective sulfur host for Li-S batteries power density has hindered their widespread adoption. To address this
has been proposed, consisting of porous carbon nanofibers combined challenge, nickel-doped CoO nanosheets (NSs) with multiscale struc
with nickel and functionalized with a carbonyl group (Ni/PCNFO). tural engineering have emerged as a potential solution, demonstrating
Nanostructured electrode materials offer several benefits for the elec improved durability and increased power density/energy density in
trode reaction. The spacious interior of PCNFs allows for both volume zinc-air batteries.
expansion and a high sulfur content. Additionally, the carbon nanofiber At the nanoscale, the robust two-dimensional structure and
structure, along with electrocatalytic nickel active species incorporated numerous nanopores within the nanosheets contribute to a high elec
into PCNFs, offers high electrical conductivity, greatly aiding sulfur trocatalytic active surface area and facilitate efficient O2 transport.
species’ redox kinetics. Furthermore, the carbonyl group anchored to Additionally, nickel doping significantly enhances the inherent oxygen
the Ni/PCNF may substantially reduce polysulfide action by exhibiting a reduction reaction activity per active site at the atomic scale. The inte
significant chemical affinity or adsorption with polysulfides. gration of these features in zinc-air batteries, employing a designed Ni-
These beneficial characteristics have enabled lithium-sulfur batteries doped CoO NSs electrode, has resulted in remarkable performance. This
5
Fig. 4. The electrochemical activities of the cathode materials, including 3DNGr, 3DGr, and TiO2. (a). Presents a comparison of the cyclic voltammetry (CV) patterns
of 3DNGr/TiN at a scan rate of 0.1 mV s− 1. (b). Depicts the cycling activity of 3DGr/TiO2, 3DGr/TiO2, and 3DNGr cathode materials at 0.5C for 100 cycles. (c). Shows
the performance rate of 3DNGr/TiN, 3DG/TiO2, and 3DNGr cathode materials. (d). Displays the charge–discharge patterns of 2DNG/TiN at different speeds within a
potential window from 1.6 to 2.8 V. (e). Illustrates the stability cycling of 3DNGr/TiN, 3DGr/TiO2, and 3DNGr cathode materials for approximately 200 cycles at
1C [57].
battery achieved a record-high discharge peak power density of 377 mW precipitation, these electrodes for supercapacitors can be fabricated
cm− 2 and maintained stability for over 400 h at 5 mA cm− 2. within alkaline electrolytes using commercially available rare earth and
Furthermore, the utilization of Ni-doped CoO NSs in rechargeable transition metal salts [61]. These colloidal supercapacitors enable
zinc-air batteries has led to unprecedented low charging and discharging multiple-electron faradaic redox processes, leading to ultrahigh specific
voltages of approximately 0.63 V, surpassing the capabilities of state-of- capacitance, often exceeding that of single-electron capacitance. This is
the-art catalyst-based Pt/C systems [58]. achieved through the utilization of various multiple-valence metal cat
The development of inorganic multifunctional nanomaterials has ions, including Sn4+, Cu2+, Sn2+, Ni2+, Er3+, Co2+, Mn2+, Yb3+, Fe2+,
significantly advanced battery technology in both commercial and Ce3+, and Fe3+ [45,64,65,68–74]. The proposed colloidal super
research settings. The ongoing exploration of novel nanomaterial capacitors represent promising candidates for high-performance, next-
structures holds promise for further enhancing battery performance. As generation energy storage solutions [61].
a result, a growing trend in energy storage applications involves the Vanadium ions were transformed into electro-active colloidal cath
implementation of efficient material screening techniques utilizing odes (CCds) within a KOH solution under the influence of an electric
artificial intelligence. field, employing an innovative in situ electrochemical activation tech
nique. Compared to previously reported vanadium-based super
capacitors, the vanadium-based activated carbon/colloids asymmetrical
2.5. Advancements in supercapacitors utilizing multiple-valence metal supercapacitor exhibited a higher energy density of approximately 50.4
cations Wh/kg, along with a power density of 250 W/kg [75]. In situ chemical
co-precipitation in a KOH solution, aided by an electric field, yielded
Supercapacitors have emerged as versatile energy storage devices, highly electro-active Mn7O135H2O colloids. These colloids demonstrated
bridging the gap between conventional capacitors and secondary bat an impressive unique capacitance of 2518F/g based on active Mn cat
teries. They offer a long lifespan, high energy density, and rapid charge ions at a current density of 5 A/g, showcasing efficient faradaic redox
and discharge rates [56]. Unlike conventional batteries, supercapacitors processes [71]. Water-soluble CoCl2 electrodes exhibited an excellent
store energy through redox processes or ion adsorption, with the ma pseudo-capacitance of 1962F/g. Utilizing commercial CoCl2 salt directly
jority of the charge being stored at or near the surface of the electrode as pseudo-capacitor electrodes in an aqueous electrolyte, without com
materials [59]. These capacitors boast an order of magnitude higher plex manufacturing processes, proved to be effective [66].
power density compared to lithium-ion batteries, making them ideal for Furthermore, Ni-based colloidal electrode materials with high elec
various applications requiring high-power density of at least 10 kW/kg. troactivity were developed by electrochemically activating a NiCl2
Carbon dots (CDs) have garnered attention in the realm of super electrode in situ. At a current density of 3 A/g, the activated Ni-based
capacitors due to their significant specific surface area. When incorpo electrodes demonstrated a maximum specific capacitance of 10,286F/
rated into carbon-based materials, CDs can greatly enhance the g, indicating a three-electron faradaic redox process (Ni3+ ↔ Ni). The
efficiency of symmetrical supercapacitors [60]. charge-transfer resistance decreased with potential cycling and contin
Xue’s research group has uncovered potential colloidal materials for uous potential activation, highlighting the effectiveness of utilizing and
electrodes that may offer greater capacitance compared to conventional activating multiple-electron processes to enhance the energy density of
pseudo-capacitors and electrical double-layer capacitors [41,61–67]. supercapacitors [73].
Using a combination of chemical and electrochemically assisted co-
6
The CuCl2 electrode undergoes a process of chemical evolution and contributes to a high practical specific capacitance, approaching its
has a charge storage mechanism. In the highly alkaline environment of theoretical value [68]. Another innovative approach involved the design
the electrolyte, the active Cu2+ cations are capable of forming bonds of a commercial ErCl3 salt electrode in an alkaline aqueous electrolyte,
with OH− ions, effectively becoming immobilized on the electrode showcasing a novel ErCl3 alkaline aqueous pseudo-capacitor device.
surface. This phenomenon is illustrated in Fig. 5(a). Water-soluble CuCl2 Through chemical co-precipitation of ErCl3 in KOH aqueous electrolyte
electrodes exhibited an impressive specific pseudo-capacitance of with an electric field, highly electroactive ErOOH colloids were in situ
approximately 5442 Fg− 1, accompanied by rapid and reversible redox crystallized, exhibiting a high cation utilization ratio of 86 % and a
reactions of Cu2+ → Cu+. The superior performance was attributed to specific capacitance value of 1811F g− 1. These ErOOH colloids, absor
the Cu2+ ions. Additionally, the chemical and crystallization changes of bed by carbon black and a PVDF matrix, demonstrated exceptional
the CuCl2 electrode were elucidated [72]. Upon immersion of the as- reactivity to oxidative stress, surpassing the theoretical capacitance
prepared CuCl2 electrodes into the KOH electrolyte, a noticeable color (Er3+ ↔ Er2+) through one-electron redox [64].
change was observed, transitioning from black to blue, then to yellow, Fig. 5(f, g) illustrates the manufacturing strategy and electro
and ultimately returning to black. This sequence of color changes indi chemical performance of this approach. Furthermore, high cation uti
cated successive chemical reactions leading to the formation of Cu(OH)2 lization ratio YbCl3 pseudo-capacitor electrodes were synthesized in
and CuO. Following these initial chemical reactions, sheet-like struc alkaline electrolytes, utilizing chemical co-precipitation and faradaic
tures began to emerge on the electrode surface (Fig. 5(c, d)). redox processes to crystallize electrochemically reactive YbOOH col
A novel technique was developed for in situ crystallization of tin loids. The study investigated how the kinetics of crystallization influ
chloride salt pseudo-capacitors. Through combined chemical and elec enced the electrochemical performance of the YbCl3 pseudo-capacitor,
trochemical crystallization processes, highly active SnO/Sn colloids achieving an ultrahigh specific capacitance of 2210F g− 1 [65].
were formed within the carbon black matrix. This design facilitated Surface morphology analysis by scanning electron microscopy and
rapid ion and electron transport and efficient utilization of active tin transmission electron microscopy to depict the sheet-like CuO structures
cations in the salt electrode. The SnCl4 electrode achieved a maximum formed by electrochemical reactions (c, d) [74]. The electrochemical
specific capacitance of 1592 Fg− 1 at a current density of 1 Ag− 1 and performance and fabrication process of the ErCl3 pseudocapacitor are
potential range of 0.42 V (Fig. 5(e)) [74]. depicted. Time vs potential charge/discharge curves were recorded at
Supercapacitors have utilized rare earth elements, such as commer various current densities across a 0.55 V potential range (e). The specific
cial Ce(NO3)3, which can be directly employed as an electrode material capacitance of the inorganic ErCl3 salt electrode, relative to the
in KOH electrolyte without further processing, achieving an ultrahigh discharge current density, was determined based on the weight of
specific capacitance of 2060F g− 1. The utilization of Ce3+/Ce4+ ErCl3⋅6H2O salt and Er3+ ion within a potential window of 0.55 V (f). A
Fig. 5. A visual representation is provided to illustrate the transformation process of CuCl2 supercapacitors in a 2 M KOH solution. This schematic outlines the
chemical and electrochemical reactions occurring during this transformation [73]. (a). Charge-discharge profiles were obtained at diverse current densities spanning
from 1 to 7 A/g (b).
7
schematic illustration illustrates the in situ manufacturing process of the [76–79]. Modern buildings equipped with smart windows have the
ErCl3 pseudocapacitor, initially involving the creation of the electrode potential to substantially reduce their energy consumption by efficiently
through slurry-coating with commercial ErCl3⋅6H2O salts (g) [64]. regulating the amount of heat and light entering the building [80].
Inorganic nanomaterials play a crucial role in the development of smart
2.6. Innovative energy-saving solutions: Highlighting advancements in windows due to their unique properties. By utilizing electrochromic
energy-saving technologies and materials for various applications materials with specific nanostructures, smart windows can adjust the
amount of sunlight and visible light they allow to penetrate. This
Building energy usage accounts for a significant portion, approxi capability helps to prevent overheating from the sun and enables control
mately 40 %, of global energy consumption, with air conditioning, over lighting, temperature, ventilation, and heating, thereby enhancing
ventilation, and heating contributing over fifty percent to this total the visual interaction between indoor and outdoor spaces [81].
Fig. 6. The specific capacities of the WO3 electrodes plotted against the current density (a), Electrochemical cyclic stability assessment of WO3 and NWO_10
electrodes, conducted at 6 A/g over 1000 cycles (b), [80]. Transmission electron microscopy images of RbxWO3-ZnO (c), KxWO3-ZnO (d) [93]. The powder deNOx
capabilities of various samples including pure representative Rbx WO3, Kx WO3-ZnO, Rbx WO3-ZnO, P25 powders, pure ZnO, and (NH4)x WO3-ZnO. Additionally, the
corresponding film photocatalytic activities for the composites are shown concerning the mercury lamp irradiation time (e, f) [93].
8
Tungsten trioxide, one of the most common electrochromic mate their potential practical utility, the deNOx performance of the composite
rials, has garnered significant attention recently and is recognized as an films was also assessed, as depicted in Fig. 6(e, f) [93].
excellent option for smart window applications. Its sophisticated char In another development, a titanium dioxide mesoporous nanotube
acteristics, when compared to organic electrochromic materials, include network film was engineered as a planned lithium-ion insertion-type
reversible color transition from deep blue to optical transparency, material layer on a fluorine-doped tin oxide substrate. This film, while
outstanding electrochromic activity, and stability. Additionally, phos maintaining window transparency, exhibited rapid Li-ion insertion ki
phorus (P) doped WO3 films with tunneling properties are currently netics [95]. The system demonstrated high-rate capability during short
being synthesized for further enhancement [82–85]. galvanostatic charge/discharge cycles owing to its quick Li-ion insertion
Enhancing the electroactive interaction between the electrolyte and kinetics, which included an improved pseudocapacitive effect and Li-ion
the complex architecture of the tunnelled structure not only improves diffusion coefficient. Charging or discharging at 1 A g− 1 took only 232 s,
switching speeds and coloration effectiveness values but also enhances yielding a high, reversible, and stable specific capacity of 60 mAh g− 1.
cycling stability. This improvement can result in cycling stability NaWO3 has demonstrated effective near-infrared light shielding
reaching 91.5 % after 1000 cycles by facilitating charge diffusion along while maintaining good visible light transmission. In simulated sunlight
with the contraction and expansion of the WO3 films. Moreover, exposure tests mimicking typical household lighting conditions, the
increasing the degree of electron sharing, the accelerated impact of P- temperature difference compared to blank glass was consistently at least
doping on the WO3 films enhances electrical conductivity and favors 4.5 ◦ C over a period of 60 min. The integration of tungsten bronze
electrochromic efficiency. It is noteworthy that as multifunctional ma materials has notably improved quality of life by reducing CO2 emis
terials advance, smart window materials now incorporate features for sions and energy consumption. However, for practical applications,
both energy storage and energy conservation. One such device con there is a need to enhance the visible light transmittance and UV light
structed from this material is the electrochromic energy storage win blocking capabilities of hexagonal tungsten bronzes due to their rela
dow, which is currently under active investigation [86–88]. tively small band gap (approximately 2.5–3 eV). To address this,
At a wavelength of 633 nm, the mesoporous WO3 film exhibited nanomaterials of KxWO3 doped with Pt were developed [91]. Trace Pt
enhanced electrochromic characteristics, achieving a high level of doping has shown potential to significantly improve NIR performance
transparency in the bleached state with an optical transmittance of 99.5 while promoting uniform growth of hexagonal KxWO3 nanorods. In
%. This superior stability and transparency of the mesoporous film may thermal insulation tests, samples coated with Pt-doped KxWO3 film
be attributed to the WO3 nanomaterials covering the substrate’s gran exhibited superior performance, with temperatures reaching as high as
ular gaps and reducing surface roughness simultaneously. The film 60 ◦ C for blank glass and PVA film after 40 min of exposure to a 250 W
exhibited rapid response to color change, with a coloration time of 2.4 s infrared source [90].
and a bleaching time of 1.2 s. Furthermore, it achieved significant op The investigation into self-cleaning capability involved monitoring
tical modulation of 75.6 % at 633 nm and high coloration performance the degradation of rhodamine B in the presence of light. Following two
of 79.7 cm2 C− 1. Additionally, the mesoporous WO3 sheet served as an hours of exposure to visible light, the degradation rate of RhB through
energy storage medium, demonstrating a specific capacity of 75.3 mAh the K0.3WO3 film was only 29 %, whereas the photo-degradation rate of
g− 1 (Fig. 6(a)). Furthermore, electrochemical cyclic measurements were the K0.3WO3 / Ag2O film reached 74 %. In this process, the holes from
conducted on both WO3 and NWO_10 electrodes. Illustrated in Fig. 6(b) Ag2O migrate to the valence region of K0.3WO3, while the photo
the capacity of WO3 remains highly stable, exhibiting minimal degra generated electrons from K0.3WO3 move to the conduction band of
dation even after 1000 cycles at 6 A g− 1 [80]. Ag2O. Subsequently, these separated photoelectrons and holes can react
By selectively blocking near-infrared (NIR) light, tungsten bronze with adsorbed water and oxygen molecules to produce •O2− and •OH,
(MxWO3, M = NH4, Cs, Rb, K, Li), a novel transparent conducting oxide, leading to the breakdown of dye particles.
exhibits NIR shielding induced by localized surface plasmon resonance. Dispersions of nanostructures that may be mixed with liquids to
This material holds promise for applications in energy conservation and develop stable systems are known as nanofluids. They have no effect on
smart window technology [89–92]. Synthesis of CsxWO3 nanorods with the system’s rheological characteristics. Compared to liquids, nano
high light transmittance and effective NIR shielding was achieved by materials in nanofluids have greater ability to transfer heat surfaces due
adjusting various synthesis parameters [89]. Thermal insulation tests to their large surface area [96,97]. Because of their increased thermal
revealed that after one hour of exposure to light, the temperature inside efficiency, nanofluids are frequently employed in heat-transfer tech
a box covered with regular glass reached 77 ◦ C, whereas the temperature nologies. The size of the heat-transfer system, the associated pressure
inside a box coated with CsxWO3 film remained at only 50 ◦ C. Addi distortions, and the requirement for future pumping power may all be
tionally, annealing of an amorphous nonstoichiometric WO3− x (0 < x < decreased when using nanofluids to heat buildings. Indirectly, this can
1) film deposited on conventional glass resulted in the formation of lessen harmful emissions by lowering a power plant’s energy usage [98].
NaxWO3 [92]. The escalating global energy consumption trend is significantly
ZnO, an n-type semiconductor with a rich defect chemistry and driven by refrigeration and air conditioning systems, accounting for
intriguing electrical, thermal, and optical properties, has become highly approximately 15 % of the total power usage [99]. To mitigate energy
sought-after for gas sensing and optoelectronic applications due to its consumption in these systems, reducing refrigerant volume and
exceptional adaptability to various nanoscale morphologies [93]. To enhancing compressor efficiency are pivotal strategies. Achieving these
address multiple requirements such as air decontamination, heat insu goals requires multifunctional materials with diverse chemical, me
lation, UV ray blocking, and high visible light transmission simulta chanical, and thermal properties, akin to those of inorganic materials.
neously, several composites of MxWO3-ZnO (M = NH4, Rb, K) have been Notably, stability and eco-friendliness are paramount considerations.
developed [94]. The combination of these elements significantly en Introducing nanotechnology offers a promising avenue to decrease
hances the efficiency of tungsten bronze and elevates its potential for use refrigerant volume while improving thermal conductivity and lubricant
in commercially viable smart windows. Fig. 6(c, d) illustrate that the fluidity, thereby alleviating compressor stress and conserving energy
MxWO3-ZnO (Mx = Rb, K) particles exhibit a uniform nanorod [100].
morphology, approx. 500 nm in length and 100–200 nm in width. In this context, multifunctional nanoparticles crafted from inorganic
Notably, the composites formed by coupling MxWO3 particles with ZnO, materials play a vital role in energy-saving applications. For instance,
including (NH4)xWO3-ZnO, RbxWO3/ZnO, and KxWO3-ZnO displayed boron nitride nanosheets exhibit outstanding insulating properties and
remarkable deNOx capabilities, surpassing pure RbxWO3 and even out high thermal efficiency. Exploring the impact of boron nitride nanosheet
performing commercial P25. This enhancement is attributed to the high nanofluids on heat conduction further underscores their potential. These
weight ratio of ZnO, constituting about 2/3 of the composite. To validate nanofluids exhibit a remarkable 298 % increase in heat conductivity
9
compared to water, with a heating capacity reaching 2.39 W m− 1 K− 1. importance of considering various dispersion methods and material
The temperature dependence of boron nitride nanosheet nanofluids, value chain stages [104].
examined between 25 and 50 ◦ C, revealed their unique thermal con In the context of automobile air conditioning systems, ensuring the
ductivity, attributed to minimal Brownian motion owing to the large size stability of nanolubricants is paramount to prevent issues like clogging
of the nanosheets [100,101]. or sedimentation over prolonged usage. Sonication was employed to
Apart from its amazing qualities, graphene, which has a two- synthesize SiO2/PAG nanolubricants effectively. A comparative analysis
dimensional layered structure, has distinct friction and wear features between automobile air conditioning systems using SiO2/PAG nano
that are uncommon in other materials [101]. To increase heat trans lubricants and PAG lubricants revealed significant improvements in ef
mission and hydrodynamic qualities, well-dispersed, clove-treated gra ficiency and energy savings. Specifically, the system’s condenser
phene nanoplatelet coolants were created. Additionally, thermophysico pressure and pressure ratio decreased by an average of 10.8 % and 5.6
features of the graphene nanoplatelet–water nanorefrigerant treated %, respectively, while experiencing a 3 % increase in volumetric heat
with cloves were seen to be significantly improved. At a fluid temper absorbance and a notable 21 % enhancement in the coefficient of per
ature of 45 ◦ C, the sample containing 0.1 wt% of clove-treated graphene formance. Additionally, compressor work and power usage decreased by
nanoplatelets had a maximum improvement in thermal conductivity of 16.5 % and 4 %, respectively [105].
22.92 %. Furthermore, the density and dynamic viscosity of the water- Incorporating a sonication step ensured a consistent dispersion of
graphene nanoplatelet nanofluids treated with cloves were similar to nanoparticles and mitigated agglomeration. Hybrid nanofluids have
those of water that had been deionized [102]. demonstrated potential in reducing both pumping power and coolant
The synthesis of Gr-oxide–TiO2 composites was achieved through an side pressure drop [106]. Among the combinations tested, Al2O3 +
easy solvothermal process among Gr-oxide (GrO) and tetra-butyl tita MWCNT exhibited the largest decrease in pumping power (11.2 %),
nate [103]. Test findings demonstrated that TiO2 spherical were effec while Al2O3 + Ag showed the lowest (9.6 %). Hybrid nanofluids also
tively fixed on the nanosheets of GrO, and GrO–TiO2 nanofluids resulted in longer payback times, with Al2O3 + Ag ranging from 9.8
demonstrated superior wear and friction features compared to a lubri years to a maximum of 247 years for Al2O3 + TiO2. Improving nanofluid
cant containing nanosheets of GrO, TiO2 nanoparticles, a mixture Gr- stability and reducing nanoparticle costs could expedite the payback
oxide and TiO2. The lubricant containing Gr-oxide–TiO2 had the period, underscoring the utility of nanofluids across various industrial
biggest thickness of the film of all the lubrication states, measuring applications.
28.07 nm.
Fig. 7 illustrates the Gr oxide–TiO2 lubricating strategy based on 2.7. Energy transmission applications
experiments and test findings. Because graphene oxide–TiO2 has strong
distribution durability and hydrophilicity, it can lubricate in flakes more One of the primary challenges facing contemporary civilization is the
effectively and fit into the spaces between the rollers and strips. development of reliable and environmentally friendly methods for en
Furthermore, the integrity of the film development is ensured by the ergy consumption [20]. The combustion of fossil fuels generates a sig
GrO–TiO2 coexistence at the rough peak. Lastly, the rise in flaws in the nificant amount of greenhouse gases, contributing to climate change and
TiO2-graphene oxide nanosheets suggested that the lubrication mecha global warming. Therefore, a viable strategy to reduce the release of
nism would cause the composites to wear down or break into smaller greenhouse gases is to replace fossil fuels with sustainable and renew
pieces. able energy sources [107]. However, a significant challenge arises as
Reports have surfaced regarding the enhanced tribological proper many clean energy resources, such as hydro, wind, and solar energy, are
ties of a mineral base oil infused with an antifriction nano-additive often located far from densely populated areas, requiring the integration
derived from reduced graphene oxide nanosheets. Notably, industrial- of electricity generation from these remote renewable sources with cost-
grade graphene oxide nanosheets exhibited no discernible acute effective energy transmission systems [12].
toxicity. The author proposed a methodology for evaluating the toxicity Multifunctional inorganic nanomaterials, with a primary focus on
of reduced graphene oxide-based nanolubricants, emphasizing the superconducting materials and smart electricity networks, represent a
vast materials class with substantial promise for energy transmission
applications [7]. The realization of a room temperature superconductor
has been a goal of scientists ever since the discovery of superconducti
vity [108]. Recent experimental developments on inorganic nano
materials have revealed a variety of unusual physical and electrical
phenomena for superconductors, including 2D superconductivity and a
decrease in superconducting transition temperature as sample thickness
is reduced to the nanoscale [109–114].
High-voltage direct-current (HVDC) insulating materials pose a sig
nificant challenge in the research and development of smart grid ap
plications, as higher voltage levels are required to further minimize
energy transmission losses. Nanoparticles of metal oxide with an ultra
low loading volume (>1 vol%) exhibit reduced charge transportation
and direct current conductivity. These nano-dielectrics, or nano
composites, are currently being explored as a potential group of mate
rials for electrical insulation applications [115–118].
2.8. Exploring the frontier of superconductivity: Investigating the diverse

phenomena and potential applications of superconductors, from bulk
materials to nanostructures
Since the initial discovery of superconductivity, it has been estab

Fig. 7. Various perspectives on the rolling lubrication operation of graphene lished that various metallic elements and chemical compounds possess
oxide–TiO2 nano-fluids as reported (a) Top view, (b) estimate peak view, and the remarkable ability to conduct electricity without offering any
(c) estimate valley view [103]. resistance to the passage of an electrical current once cooled to a specific
10
critical temperature (Tc) [108]. This discovery has revealed a dual cri terms of their function regarding phase difference, chemical potential,
terion for this extraordinary state of matter: that all known supercon and magnetic field (Fig. 8(a-c)). According to the current effort, phase
ductors below Tc exist as coupled states of electrons or holes, and that a control may provide an additional tuning parameter to access the to
supercurrent is known to flow across these paired states [119]. pological domain that has not yet been investigated [129].
The development of an ambient-temperature superconductor could It is reported that crystalline shells of niobium and aluminium grew
have significant implications for energy transfer due to the exceptional in situ nanowires of indium arsenide (InAs) by molecular beam epitaxy.
conductivity of superconductors. Nobel laureate Nevill Mott once sug Further study is now feasible within a wider temperature range and
gested that someone with expertise in chemical synthesis, coupled with critical areas because to the realisation of additional combination of
intuition and understanding of the laws of physics and materials science, material such as Nb/InAs in additionally to Al/InAs [130]. Researchers
would be the ideal candidate to create the first ambient temperature have previously employed hybrid devices based on III-V nanowires and
superconductor [119]. ex situ e-beam deposited vanadium contacts to study superconducting
Superconducting nanoparticles exhibit fascinating phenomena such quantum interference devices and Andreev bound states [131,132].
as vortex ratchet and quantum size effects, which are not present in bulk Vanadium deposited on InAs nanowires has already been the subject of a
superconductors [119]. When a sample’s size is reduced to near its combined structural and electronic investigation that has been previ
typical coherence length (ξ0) and penetration depth (λL) [112], various ously described. The out-of-plane critical field of nanoscale super
effects occur, including a decrease in Tc in thin films [120], transitions conducting vanadium was significantly higher than both the Al on
from superconductor to insulator in thin films and nanowires [121], and nanowires of InAs and bulk value. The electrical behaviour of devices
the simultaneous presence of superconductivity and charge-density- made from those crystal growths was primarily influenced by the large
wave (CDW) order [109]. range of grain sizes. This work indicated that in order to generate
Superconductivity at the nanoscale enables applications in quantum epitaxially matched vanadium/semiconductor hybrids, improved
information, allowing for the use of single-photon detectors such as hybrid devices require more crystallographic optimisation and the ne
nanowires or superconducting circuits based on Josephson junctions cessity to identify a more compatible semiconductor [123]. Further
[122,123]. Additionally, significant research is being conducted on more, because of their special qualities that rely on size and form, small
using superconducting quantum interference devices for high sensitivity size and low dimension superconductors are promising options at
magnetometry, as well as studies on nanopatterned superconductors, nanoscale systems for researching electrical transport. Nanowires of
nanoarchitectures, and vortex dynamics in nanostructures [124–126]. YBa2Cu3− xNixO7− δ were synthesised using electrospinning method.
Current research in semiconductor hybrid structures/high-quality These nanowires temperature dependent megnetization showed dia-
superconductors, such as V/InAs and Al/InAs, is primarily focused on magnetic transition at the Tc, which was connected to the materials’
two areas: quantum information and Gateable Josephson junctions (JJs) superconductor transition. This phenomenon might be explained as a
[127–129]. In a heterostructure consisting of aluminum on indium dispersion of the transition temperatures brought on by granular effects,
arsenide nanowires, phase-dependent conductance of zero bias peaks structural changes brought on by the synthesis process, and an uneven
has been observed via tunneling spectroscopy at Josephson junction distribution of Ni atoms [133].
terminations. The planar JJs of this heterostructure were examined in Berezinski Kosterltz Thoules transition, along with quantum phase
Fig. 8. Phase dependency of the critical field in planar JJs. As a function of B‖ and Φ, the lock-in amplifier measures the third harmonic of the current I3ω (Vsd = 0)
at zero bias for various gate voltage V1 values at (a), − 116mv, (b), − 118.5mv, and (c), − 120mv [129]. Electronic phases that may be adjusted using a displacement
field. The system is tunable between four distinct electronic states as a function of D, ranging from left to right: superconducting, correlated resistive state, metal, and
correlated insulating state (d) [139]. Very transparent Josephson junction device built on a heterostructure of 2D α-Mo2C crystal and graphene produced by CVD (e,
f) [140]. NbSe2 temperature (g) and magnetic-field (h) dependent superconducting behaviours [120].
11
(QPTs) transitions at temperature of zero, excess conductivity resulting induced deposition (FEBID and FIBID). According to electrical transport
from superconducting fluctuations, Cooper pairs and electron localiza studies, FEBID nanowires exhibited variable-range-hopping behaviour
tion, shift temperature fluctuations induced by quantum size (QSEs) and were very resistant. On the other hand, at 5 K, FIBID planar nano
effects, and many other intriguing properties are found in 2D super wires become superconducting. Furthermore, free-standing 3D nano
conductors [134]. Van der Waals 2D heterostructures materials have wires showed a critical temperature of up to 11 K, which was nearly
emerged, creating an exciting future for quantum materials via the equal to the value of bulk NbC. These findings indicated that FIBID-NbC
continuous development about novel methods for mechanical exfolia was a material with promise for the development of 3D superconducti
tion, interface or surface reconstruction, and the fabrication of field- vity, with potential applications in quantum information processing and
effect devices, as well as for preparing and arranging of ultrathin 2D nanoelectronics [119]. Using a He+ focused-ion-beam microscope in
materials with atomic layers, like MBE [135–138]. It is possible to conjunction with the W(CO)6 precursor, 3D superconducting WC1-x
produce novel physical features, including high temperature supercon hollow nanowires were reported to grow. These nanowires became
ductivity, by changing the external electric field or the composition and superconducting at 6.4 K and displayed a large critical magnetic field
stacking orientation of different layered materials. Hexagonal boron and critical current density, which were the result of their quasi-1D
nitride (hBN) and ABC-trilayer graphene (TLG) moiré superlattices were superconducting character. Future nano-electronic devices based on
recently discovered to have adjustable superconductivity characteris 3D nano-superconductors have been made possible by research [133]. A
tics. By adjusting the vertical displacement field, transitions from the paradigm shift in the development of next-generation electronic nano
candidate superconductor to a Mott insulator and metallic phases may devices with applications in quantum computing and advanced sensing
be seen (Fig. 8(d)). Here demonstrated that heterostructures of ABC- may result from the utilisation of three dimensions in nano-
TLG/hBN provided appealing model systems to investigate the superconductivity. This is because 3D nano-superconductors have the
connection between high Tc superconductivity and the Hubbard model unique ability to achieve extreme in-plane and out-of-plane magnetic-
[139]. Furthermore, studying mesoscopic type superconductivity along field sensitivity, which has made them useful as a local probe for nano-
with interaction between quantum Halleffect and superconductivity was magnets and nano-superconductors.
made possible by the hybrids or heterostructures of superconductors and
graphene. Chemical vapour deposition was used to directly create high- 2.9. Insulating materials
level Gr/2Di superconductors (α-Mo2C ultrathin nonlayered crystal)
with vertical heterostructures and strong interface coupling and The utilization of three-dimensional (3D) nano-superconductors has
consistently well-aligned lattice orientation. Based on these tightly the potential to drive a paradigm shift in the development of next-
linked high-quality heterostructures, as seen in Fig. 8(e, f) very trans generation electronic nanodevices, particularly in fields like quantum
parent Josephson junction devices were realised, whereby a distinct computing and advanced sensing. These nano-superconductors offer
Fraunhofer pattern of the critical supercurrent caused by the magnetic unique capabilities, allowing for extreme sensitivity to both in-plane and
field was detected. The infrastructure this study created for future out-of-plane magnetic fields. As a result, they have proven invaluable as
research on unusual quantum transport characteristics, such Majorna local probes for nano-magnets and nano-superconductors [107].
modes, looks intriguing [140]. In recent studies, nano-dielectrics based on metal oxide nano
Niobium diselenide (NbSe2), classified as a transition metal dichal particles with an ultralow loading volume (<1 vol%) have emerged as a
cogenide, is an extensively researched van der Waals material due to its promising material group for electrical insulation applications. Unlike
demonstration of both superconductivity and charge density wave pristine insulation materials, these nano-dielectrics exhibit lower charge
(CDW) phenomena at low temperatures [120]. Through combined op mobility and DC conductivity. Notably, the conductivity of these metal
tical and electrical transport studies, the collective order phase diagram oxide nanoparticles surpasses that of pure low-density polyethylene
of NbSe2 has been investigated down to a thickness of a single mono (LDPE) matrices. This enhanced conductivity is achieved through the
layer. Remarkably, both CDW and superconducting phases were trapping and adsorption of charge carriers, including electrons, holes,
observed down to the monolayer limit. Notably, the observed CDW and polar/ionic species [144,145].
transition temperature increased significantly from 33 K in the bulk to The nanoparticles employed in these nano-dielectrics can be either
145 K in the monolayer, suggesting enhanced electron–phonon in insulating, such as Al2O3, MgO, and SiO2, or semiconducting, like TiO2
teractions in 2D NbSe2. While previous studies reported a decrease in and ZnO. The electrical characteristics of the resulting nanocomposites
superconducting transition temperature with decreasing layer thickness, are influenced by various factors, including the degree of nanoparticle
this work highlights the potential of van der Waals materials as an dispersion, as well as their size, shape, and crystal surfaces [107].
excellent platform for studying CDWs and their interplay with super Because ZnO can be tailored into a wide variety of particle sizes and
conductivity in the two-dimensional limit [8]. shapes using a straightforward nonsurfactant water precipitation pro
Furthermore, high-quality NbSe2 nano-plates were successfully cess under controlled synthesis circumstances, it stands out among these
synthesized using a one-step chemical vapor deposition process, metal oxide particles. A range of silanes with terminal alkyl groups of
enabling the examination of their superconducting properties concern varying lengths (methyl, octyl, and octadecyl groups) were employed to
ing temperature and magnetic field (Fig. 8(g, h)). These NbSe2 nano- change the surface of high-purity, narrow-size-distribution ZnO nano
plates exhibited significant anisotropy and displayed two-dimensional particles with varying sizes and morphologies. Because of their great
superconducting transitions when oriented in a magnetic field direc compatibility with both particles and polymers, these modified hydro
tion, indicating their potential as promising platforms for exploring phobic particles displayed good dispersion and distribution in the LDPE
novel physics in nanoelectronic devices. Given these findings, there is a matrix. The addition of 3 wt% nanoparticles made from ZnO with
growing demand for the development of new characterization and regulated capabilities was enough to reduce the conductivity of pristine
manufacturing techniques for 2D nanostructured superconductors in the polyethylene by more than two orders of magnitude. The hierarchical
future. flower-shaped ZnO particles with a nanosized porosity accessible to the
Superconducting planar nanostructures are widely employed in LDPE chains demonstrated a high interfacial surface area and additional
several applications, as was previously described. On the other hand, electron traps for charge carriers at the polymer/particle interface
only a few groundbreaking investigations have explored 3D super [115].
conducting nanostructures, despite their promise in quantum informa Furthermore, due to its insulating qualities and significance as a new
tion processing and nanoelectronics [141–143]. Planar nanowires and low-cost industrial nanoparticle material, magnesium oxide (MgO) has
free-standing 3D nanowires have been compared utilising the precur emerged as a research hotspot. By using melt blending, MgO/PP/POE
sor Nb(NMe2)3(N-t-Bu) and focused electron- and ion (Ga+)-beam nanocomposites were created. An analysis of the electrical
12
characteristics showed that the addition of surface-modified MgO The performance of PSCs relies significantly on electron-transporting
nanoparticles significantly increased the DC electric breakdown strength materials due to the distinct diffusion lengths of electrons and holes.
and space charge suppression effect. Additionally, the synergistic ZnO nanomaterials exhibit comparable physical properties and energy
toughening of the POE and MgO nanoparticles led to noticeable im band positions to TiO2 but with significantly higher electron mobility.
provements in the strength and tensile modulus. The broad interfacial This characteristic has the potential to enhance the efficiency of electron
zones and good adhesion properties between the nanoparticles and transport and minimize recombination losses when used as an electron-
polymer matrix were strongly linked to all of these improvements in the transporting material [152–154]. ZnO also possesses excellent visible
mechanical and electrical capabilities. Based on these findings, it is light transmittance and is notably cost-effective. Furthermore, it dem
possible that MgO/PP/POE nanocomposites, which have improved onstrates ease of crystallization and dopability. Its layered crystal
mechanical and electrical characteristics, might be employed as recy structure results in varying growth rates along diverse directions,
clable insulation for high-voltage DC cables that have high operating making it convenient to fabricate a wide range of ZnO nanostructures.
temperatures and significant transmission capacity [144]. Additionally, Researchers have documented the development of high-efficiency ZnO
18 units long hydrocarbon functional silsesquioxane coatings were solar cells based on a co-alloyed formamidinium triple-cation PV,
synthesised to encase 70 nm hexagonal MgO nanoparticles. With 3 wt% incorporating methylammonium and Cs. Solar cells utilizing ZnO as the
surface-coated nanoparticles, the lowest volume conductivity was substrate and a multiple cation PV absorber with excellent crystalliza
around 7 × 10− 16 S m− 1, a two-fold decrease in conductivity over pure tion properties have demonstrated impressive efficiencies exceeding 20
LDPE [145]. % [152].
Carbon-based materials like fullerene (C60) have garnered attention A photostable material with a high degree of crystallinity and
for their potential in effectively suppressing electrical trees, thanks to composition, specifically [HC(NH2)2]0.83Cs0.17Pb(I0.6Br0.4)3, has been
their low ionization energy and strong electron affinity, alongside metal reported. This material possesses an 1.74 eV optical band gap approxi
oxide particles [146]. However, achieving uniform dispersion of nano mately [155]. The PVs that were manufactured achieved an 1.2 V open-
particles poses a significant processing challenge in nanocomposites. circuit voltage and demonstrated power efficiency conversion around
The quality of dispersion plays a pivotal role in determining the overall 14.7 % on cells with an area of 0.715 cm2. The combination of these PVs
characteristics of the nanocomposite, particularly affecting the in with a 19 % efficient silicon cell offers the potential for the realization of
terfaces between the organic and inorganic components [147]. four-terminal tandem cells with a feasibility of reaching 25 % efficiency.
Moreover, the quest for high-purity nanoparticles that do not The PV performance was enhanced when rubidium cations were added
conduct counterions on their surfaces is critical for the development of to the PSC. The SCs attained stabilized efficiencies of up to 21.6 % on
ultralow electrical conductivity nanocomposites [148]. Ensuring such small areas, and a stabilized efficiency of 19.0 % on a cell with an area of
purity is essential for optimizing the performance and functionality of 0.5 cm2. Additionally, an electroluminescence of 3.8 % was observed
these materials in various electrical insulation applications. [156]. When perovskite films composed of CH3NH3PbI3 were subjected
to light and oxygen, they experienced rapid degradation [157]. The
2.10. Advancing solar cell efficiency: From materials to applications CH3NH3PbI3 films exhibited rapid oxygen diffusion, which coincided
with photoinduced generation of very responsive superoxide species. PV
Critical performance parameters for solar cells include internal films consisting of smaller crystallites display increased superoxide
photocurrent efficiency, external quantum efficiency, and energy con yields and reduced stability. Additionally, Ab initio simulations have
version efficiency. These metrics gauge the proportion of absorbed revealed that vacancies in iodide serve as the favored sites for facili
photons converted into electrical current, the fraction of incident pho tating photoinduced generation of super-oxide species from O2 [157].
tons converted into electrical current, and the overall efficiency of en The use of N2 blow-drying technique improved the hole conducting
ergy conversion, respectively [20]. Despite significant progress in properties of nickeloxide in printable PSC [158]. A SC utilizing the film
photovoltaic devices, there remains a pressing need for substantial im of Sb2S3 attained remarkable power efficiency conversion of approxi
provements in solar cell conversion efficiency [78,149]. mately 4.3 %, representing the highest reported value among solution-
Silicon currently dominates as the absorber material in PV devices processed planar heterojunction SCs incorporating Sb2S3 films [159].
and commands the largest market share. Modern silicon-PV systems, The introduction of MA+ as a partial substitute for FA+ during low-
employing p-n junctions, commonly referred to as first-generation solar temperature conditions promotes the formation of the α phase, which
cells, can achieve efficiencies of up to approximately 25 %. The pursuit contributes to improved stability in perovskite materials. In addition,
of enhancing efficiency has driven the development of second- the incorporation of a caesium cation (Cs+) as a partial substitute for
generation PVs, which explore thin-film technologies. However, it’s FA+ not only enhances stability against moisture and light illumination
worth noting that the efficiency of second-generation PVs currently lags but also further improves stability when coupled using three cations
behind silicon-based PVs. Third-generation PVs harness emerging combination: FA+/MA+/Cs+ [149]. CuSCN-mediated nanostructures
technologies such as quantum dot SCs, dye-sensitized SCs, and organic facilitated the growth of highly efficient inverted perovskite solar cells
PV cells [22]. Perovskite materials have garnered significant attention [160]. Three distinct nanostructures of CuSCN were employed for the
and popularity in the solar cell field globally, rendering them highly first time as p-type inorganic hole-transport layers in inverted hetero-
attractive for photovoltaic applications. junction perovskite solar cells. These nanostructures were fabricated
In recent years, photovoltaic (PV) materials have emerged as a using a moderate room temperature electro-deposition method. The
promising option for developing highly efficient, flexible, and low-cost relationship between the crystal structure, CuSCN layer thickness,
solar cells. Despite their processing advantages, addressing their poor crystal orientation and morphology of PV absorbing layers was discov
stability in the presence of oxygen, light, heat, and humidity is crucial ered. These factors play a crucial role in determining the performance of
before successfully commercializing the technology [150]. the photovoltaic device.
Cubic nanocrystals of CsYbI3 have demonstrated robust independent Incorporating a bication lead iodide 2D PV component has been
excitation emission along with a notable photoluminescence quantum found to enhance the stability of the inorganic α-CsPbI3 perovskite
yield of approximately 58 % [151]. Perovskite solar cells (PSCs) have phase, leading to the development of high-efficiency solar cells.
witnessed substantial advancements in recent years, with their power α-CsPbI3, which possesses an optimal band gap for tandem SC applica
conversion efficiency now surpassing 20 %. The exceptional perfor tions, encounters challenges related to phase instability when exposed to
mance of PSCs can be attributed to the unique characteristics of PV environment. Incorporating insignificant quantity of 2D EDAPbI4 PV
materials, including remarkable light absorption across the visible that includes the ethylenediamine (EDA) cation has been found to sta
spectrum and extended diffusion length [152]. bilize α-CsPbI3 and prevent the development of the nonperovskite δ
13
phase [161]. Caesium doping enables the attainment of stable and yield [168].
highly efficient 2D PVSC [162]. Cs+ doping in 2D (BA)2(MA)3Pb4I13 PSC Among them, inorganic halide perovskites have attracted more and
resulted in a remarkable power conversion efficiency of up to 13.7 %. more interest because of how well they resist heat, light, and moisture.
This efficiency represents the highest reported among 2D devices and is Interestingly, inorganic halide perovskites contain inorganic Cs+ and
accompanied by exceptional resistance to humidity [163]. Cation- other A-site cations. These materials offer controllable morphologies,
transmutation offers a potential solution to enhance the stability of enhanced quantum performance and tunable optoelectronic features, as
inorganic Pb-free halide PSCs, addressing the issue of poor device sta illustrated in Fig. 9 [169].
bility related with their intrinsic material instability. The concept in Innovative transport-electron materials in PVSCs were synthesized
volves converting two Pb2+ ions into one monovalent M+ ion and one by preparing core–shell ZnO@SnO2 nanoparticles. Due to high mobility
trivalent M3+ ion, resulting in the formation of a diverse range of qua of electron in these core shell nanomaterials contributed to achieving a
ternary halides within a double-PV structure [164]. power conversion efficiency (PCE) of 14.35 % in the solar cells [170]. In
Defect passivation techniques have been elaborated using quater Cu(In,Ga)Se2 solar cells, TiO2-SiO2 core–shell nanostructured anti-
nary ammonium halide cations as well as anions in hybrid perovskite reflective coatings were introduced. These coatings prolonged the op
solar cells (PVSCs) [165]. An inorganic interlayer of spinel Co3O4 has tical path length through scattering effects and the creation of a gradient
shown significant improvements in the performance of carbon-based in refractive index. Using the TiO2-SiO2 core–shell nanoparticles led to
PVSCs. This interlayer effectively suppresses charge recombination an improvement in PCE, which increased from 6.32 % to 7.00 % due to
and enhances hole extraction, addressing limitations imposed by the the reduction of reflectance [171]. The n-ZnO/p-SnS core–shell nano
transport of charge carriers and recombination mechanisms at the wire array-based flexible solar cells’ efficiency of conversion was suc
interface between PV and carbon. Solar devices incorporating screen- cessfully increased by employing the piezo-phototronic effect. The
printed Co3O4 interlayers demonstrated an 18 % higher power conver application of this effect resulted in improved relative conversion effi
sion efficiency of 13.27 % compared to universal carbon devices [166]. ciency [172]. To address the limitations of trap states in quantum dot
A monolithic perovskite/Cu(In, Ga)Se2 tandem solar cell achieved an solar cells used for trap state passivation, PbS-CdS core–shell quantum
impressive 22.43 % efficiency in the field of tandem solar cells. dots exhibited lattice defects on their surface.. The CdS shell improved
Remarkably, non-encapsulated electronics withstood 500 h of aging the passivation of the PbS surface, leading to a lower electron trap
under constant 1-sun irradiation in ambient settings and retained 88 % density [173]. Perovskite solar cells benefited from the application of a
of their initial efficiency [167]. nanomaterials core–shell WO3-TiO2 electron-transporting material. The
Nanostructured CuInS2 photovoltaic devices face limitations pri improved performance observed in these cells could be attributed to
marily due to inadequate charge carrier transfer in films of CuInS2 increased charge transport diffusion length, quicker separation of
nanoparticles, resulting in restricted current density. In the passivation charges, and reduced recombination of charges within the WO3/PV
of CuInS2 core nanoparticles, ZnS is commonly used as a shell material, interface [174]. In solar cells, PbSe/PbS core/shell quantum dots were
resulting in a notable improvement in photoluminescence quantum utilized, demonstrating an enhancement in short-circuit current without
Fig. 9. Diagram illustrating how to build common inorganic halide perovskite crystal structures (ABX3) to diverse nanostructures and then integrate them into
numerous applications.
14
compromising the open-circuit voltage by adjusting the shell thickness. of formic acid. The remarkable catalytic performance of PdCu nano
The PbS shell creation on the PbSe core assisted in reducing the conflict sheets in formic acid oxidation can be attributed to their ultrathin
between the density of short-circuit current and open-circuit voltage morphology, distinctive electronic structure, and synergistic effect
[175]. arising from the combination of Pd and Cu [203]. In this study, a nickel
catalyst supported on carbon nanotubes was developed for use in fuel
2.11. Advancing fuel cell technologies: Overcoming challenges and cells. The redox nanomaterial with functionalization demonstrated
innovations reversible electro-catalytic performance for the interconversion of H2/
2H+ over a wide pH range of 0 to 9. The catalyst consistently exhibited a
Fuel cells utilize a reaction with O2 and/or various oxidizing agents preference for the oxidation of H2across all pH values [204].
to convert chemical energy from a fuel into electrical energy. Their The membrane less fuel cell configuration depicted in Fig. 10 utilizes
progress is intricately linked to hydrogen storage and production a thick 5 mm Teflon chamber instead of a conventional proton exchange
[20,176–181]. However, integrating fuel cells into electronics faces membrane (PEM). The hybrid fuel cell operated at a temperature of 25
numerous challenges: (i) selecting electrodes compatible with flexible ℃, utilizing humidified streams of H2 at atmospheric pressure for the
electronics, (ii) substituting costly precious metals like gold, ruthenium, anode and air for the cathode. Fig. 6b presents the polarization and
platinum, and their alloys with electro-catalysts, and (iii) addressing the power curves obtained through successive galvanostatic discharges,
necessity of preventing metal electrode toxicity and poisoning each measured for a duration of 30 s [204].
[20,182–186]. Overcoming these challenges requires the advancement A carbon nanofibers substrate was utilized for the growth of a Pt-C
of an innovative class of advanced materials that are inexpensive, highly core shell structure, which was subsequently employed as a cathode
efficient, and durable, essential for fuel cells to be considered a viable catalyst in PEMFCs for the ORR. The as prepared catalyst from Pt-C
alternative for energy conversion in electronic devices [187–193]. core–shell, exhibited exceptional stability with minimal cell voltage
Fuel cells are garnering increasing attention as a potential energy loss, maintaining nearly full unit cell activity throughout 30,000 test
source due to their high efficiency and minimal pollution emissions. cycles stability. The remarkable performance of the catalyst can be
Proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs) and direct methanol attributed to the strong and durable carbon shells that effectively pro
fuel cells (DMFCs) are particularly promising due to their low operating tected the Pt nanoparticles [205]. Synthesis of IrNi-Pdlr/C involved the
temperature and excellent power density, making them suitable for utilization of a galvanic replacement reaction. The catalyst demon
portable devices like personal digital assistants, laptops, and cell phones strated improved hydrogen oxidation performance when used in alka
[149]. Traditionally, platinum and its alloy-containing nanomaterials line anion exchange (AAEMFCs) membrane fuel cells. XPS and XRD
have been used as fuel cell catalysts due to their excellent catalytic ac analyses indicated that the increased performance could be credited to
tivity. However, the high cost of catalysts poses a significant barrier to the weakening of H2 binding to the PdIr over layers, which was induced
the commercialization of DMFCs. Therefore, increasing platinum cata by the presence of the IrNi core [206]. Electro-catalytic activity of core
lytic performance while simultaneously reducing the quantity of catalyst shell nanoplates of Pd-PtCu showed significant enhancements for
required is a major research goal. One potential approach is using sup methanol oxidation and oxygen oxidation reactions in FCs [207]. A
porting materials to enhance catalyst performance. Supporting materials catalyst consisting of a RhxSy-shell and Pt-core was prepared for the HOR
for catalytic applications in fuel cells must be stable and evenly and HER in H2-Br2 FCs. The findings indicated that the core–shell cat
distributed [149]. alysts exhibited a larger active surface area in comparison to a
Recent studies suggest that innovative nanostructured carbon-based commercially available catalyst. In fuel cell cycling tests, the core shell
materials may serve as superior catalytic supports in fuel cells due to catalysts demonstrated superior stability associated to the Pt-catalysts
their excellent electrical conductivity and affordability [194–196]. [208].
Various nano-architectures have shown significant ability to catalyze
sluggish anodic and cathodic reactions, with factors such as structure, 3. Conclusion and future trends in inorganic nanomaterials for
composition, shape, and size playing crucial roles [197]. For instance, a energy applications
precisely distributed Co-doping carbon-based catalyst with a core–shell
architecture displayed unparalleled oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) Nanomaterials have emerged as pivotal components in the devel
activity and improved stability in corrosive acidic conditions [198]. opment of next-generation energy technologies, particularly in the
Additionally, a reversible protonic ceramic electrochemical cell based realm of batteries and energy materials. With their unique thermal,
on a triple-conducting oxide steam/air reversible electrode showed mechanical, optical, and electrical properties, inorganic nanomaterials
promising performance, achieving high electric-to-hydrogen energy have garnered significant attention for various energy applications.
conversion efficiency and faradaic efficiency [199]. However, to fully harness their potential, it is imperative to address the
In acidic fuel cells, N-doping carbon-based nanomaterials have been challenges posed by scaling relationships within energy devices and
employed as catalysts for the oxygen reduction reaction (ORR). Metal- inorganic nanomaterials.
free carbon nanotubes and their graphene composites, which are ratio Inorganic multifunctional nanomaterials play vital part in energy
nally designed and nitrogen-doped, have demonstrated superior long- storage, energy generation, energy saving, energy conversion as well as
term operational stability and comparable gravimetric power densities in energy transmission applications owing to their distinctive properties,
compared to the most effective nonprecious metal catalysts available for like chemical stability, higher surface area, outstanding thermal and
acidic polymer electrolyte membrane cells [200]. electrical conductivity. Lower toxicity, lower cost, more functions and
Extensive research interest is currently focused on multimetallic higher performance are the path being developed for future energy
nanosheets, which possess a single or few atoms thickness. These related applications using inorganic multifunctional nanomaterials.
nanosheets have garnered attention due to their exceptional properties Despite they have terrific potential possibility, the scientific research
compared to their bulk counterparts. Notably, they exhibit unsaturated community yet wants to make huge efforts to address their execution as
surface coordination, high electron mobility, and unique chemical, well as achievement in extensive implementations. Inorganic multi
physical, and electronic properties [201]. Recently, a cathode catalyst, functional nanomaterials, mechanism of working is currently remains
not based on platinum (non-Pt), has shown the capability to efficiently fuzzy. Therefore, to get more knowledge of the properties-structure re
reduce both H2O2 and O2 simultaneously, demonstrating its effective lations of inorganic multifunctional nanomaterials, in depth and
ness in a fuel operating with O2 / H2O2 and H2/CO [202]. comprehensive characterization employing cutting-edge tools and
Furthermore, ultrathin nanosheets composed of a PdCu alloy have techniques coupled with scientific research interpretation models ought
been found to be extremely effective electro-catalysts for the oxidation to be altered. The features of materials have a direct impact on how
15
Fig. 10. Schematic representation of H2/air FCs and showcases the polarization in (black) while power in (blue) curves for two different catalyst systems: (a) single-
walled CNTS1Myrothecium verrucaria-CNTs (f-MWCNTs) in a phosphate buffer pH 5, 25 ℃, while (b) single- WCNTs1Pt/C in PEMFC, at temperature of 60 ℃ with a
Nafion membrane [204].
devices work. area of energy-related applications have shown the potential for future
The absence of effective methods for exploring the wide range of development.
potential candidate structures and elemental compositions hampers the
discovery of innovative materials. The development of inorganic CRediT authorship contribution statement
multifunctional nanomaterials is closely tied to the presently hot sci
entific research approach, artificial intelligence. Al is being used in the Osama Gohar: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft,
area of materials to screen various element combinations in a predefined Visualization, Validation, Supervision, Software, Resources, Project
framework, which is an innovative way to mimic material features and administration, Methodology, Investigation, Funding acquisition,
identify novel materials. Currently, elemental combinations are Formal analysis, Data curation, Conceptualization. Muhammad Zubair
screened based on human bias, and the hunt for new potential materials Khan: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft, Visualiza
is still empirical. Researchers frequently concentrate on the fascinating tion, Validation, Supervision, Software, Resources, Project administra
combinations of numerous elements. Al can effectively sort through tion, Methodology, Investigation, Funding acquisition, Formal analysis,
every potential combination of components, producing a limited num Data curation, Conceptualization. Iram Bibi: Writing – review & edit
ber of potential materials and significantly increasing the effectiveness ing, Validation, Methodology, Investigation, Funding acquisition,
of searching for new desire materials. Formal analysis, Data curation, Conceptualization. Nadia Bashir:
Finally, innovative inorganic multifunctional nanomaterials for Writing – review & editing, Validation, Methodology, Investigation,
advanced energy applications are moving towards greater performance Funding acquisition, Formal analysis, Data curation, Conceptualization.
along with enhanced functionality in the future. In several energy- Urooj Tariq: Writing – review & editing, Validation, Methodology,
related applications, core–shell nanomaterials exhibit notable material Investigation, Funding acquisition, Formal analysis, Data curation,
benefits over a single material. Unfortunately, it remains challenging to Conceptualization. Manahil Bakhtiar: Writing – review & editing,
develop superior core–shell hollow nanomaterials that meet all the Validation, Methodology, Investigation, Funding acquisition, Formal
needs of energy applications. The functionality of nanomaterials can be analysis, Data curation, Conceptualization. Muhammad Ramzan
significantly improved by compounding materials. The roles of the Abdul Karim: Writing – review & editing, Validation, Methodology,
distinct components might complement one another through material Investigation, Funding acquisition, Formal analysis, Data curation,
recombinations, yielding a composite material that can perform several Conceptualization. Farman Ali: Writing – review & editing, Validation,
tasks simultaneously. A significant field of scientific research involves Methodology, Investigation, Funding acquisition, Formal analysis, Data
the use of AI to screen components and combinations of materials, as curation, Conceptualization. Muhammad Bilal Hanif: Writing – review
well as predict their features. In order to meet future demands, we must & editing, Writing – original draft, Visualization, Validation, Supervi
continuously work to create inorganic multifunctional nanomaterials sion, Software, Resources, Project administration, Methodology, Inves
with higher performance, even though significant advancements in the tigation, Funding acquisition, Formal analysis, Data curation,
16
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Materials & Design 241 (2024) 112930

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Materials & Design

Nanomaterials for advanced energy applications: Recent advancements and

2.8. Exploring the frontier of superconductivity: Investigating the diverse

Since the initial discovery of superconductivity, it has been estab

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Materials & Design 241 (2024) 112930

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Materials & Design

Nanomaterials for advanced energy applications: Recent advancements and

2.8. Exploring the frontier of superconductivity: Investigating the diverse

Since the initial discovery of superconductivity, it has been estab­

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Since the initial discovery of superconductivity, it has been estab