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Introduction
Control Systems
Dr. Arshad Javed
BITS Pilani Asst. Prof.
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Hyderabad Campus

What is a Control System ?

• The engineered systems have a tendency to settle or achieve

stable condition according to its own physical characteristics and
behavior.

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What is a Control System ?

• In order to achieve a desired output i.e. work done (physical motion) or

energy flux (temperature, pressure variation etc.)etc., it is required to
supervise the very natural behavior of engineered system through reading
or knowing its state and counter acting the output through external
actions, is required.

In 1 sec. with 1 N force,

With maximum overshoot of 5%

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What is a Control System ?

• Such system is capable to provide a controlled output through

external sensory and action loop, thus called as control system.

Motor with encoder In 1 sec. with 1 N force,

With maximum overshoot of 5%

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Basic Classification

1. Regulator system automatically maintains a parameter at (or

near) a specified value.
A heating system maintaining a set temperature despite changing outside
conditions.
•Temperature measuring range: -50
– 99°C.
•Resolution : 0.1°C.
•Accuracy : ±1°C (-50 – 70°C).
•Sensor error delay: 1 minute.
•Power supply: 220VAC±10%,
50/60Hz
•.Power consumption: ≤3W.
•Sensor: NTC sensor (1PC).

Digital Temperature Controller Thermostat Module with Temperature Sensor

Probe

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Basic Classification

2. Follow-up system causes an output to follow a set path that has

been specified in advance.
An industrial robot moving parts from place to place.

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Basic Classification

3. Event control system controls a sequential series of events.

A washing machine cycling through a series of programmed steps.

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Basic Terminologies

Controlled Variable and Control Signal or Manipulated Variable.

Plants: any physical object to be controlled, such as a mechanical device, a heating furnace, a chemical reactor,
or a spacecraft is a plant
Processes: any operation to be controlled a process. Examples are chemical, economic, and biological processes
Systems: A system need not be physical, eg. physical, biological, economic systems.
Disturbances: Internal and External
Feedback Control
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Types of control systems

• Open-loop control system:

• The controller independently calculates exact signal (voltage or current)
needed by the actuator to do the job and sends it.
• The controller never actually knows if the actuator did what it was
supposed
• There is no feedback
• Closed-loop control system
• In a closed-loop control system, the output of the process (controlled
variable) is constantly monitored by a sensor

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Open-Loop Systems

Characteristics of
motor at rated voltage:
5 degree/seconds

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Closed-Loop System

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Structure and elements of control

system
▪ Control Objective: maintain house temperature
at SP in spite of disturbances
▪ Process Variable: house temperature
▪ Measurement Sensor: thermistor; or bimetallic
strip coil on analog models
▪ Measured Process Variable (PV) Signal: signal
transmitted from the thermistor
▪ Set Point (SP): desired house temperature
▪ Controller Output (CO): signal to fuel valve
actuator and furnace burner
▪ Final Control Element (FCE): solenoid valve for
fuel flow to furnace
▪ Manipulated Variable: fuel flow rate to furnace
▪ Disturbances (D): heat loss from doors, walls
and windows; changing outdoor temperature;
sunrise and sunset; rain

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Closed-Loop System

Speed Control System Temperature Control System.

Controlled Variable
Process
System
Feedback element
Control Signal
Error

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Comparison

Parameters Open-loop Closed-loop

Simplicity Simple Complex
Cost of development Low High
Applicability When the sensory data is Easy when one or few feed
difficult to gather back is enough

Calibration Required Not required

Effect of disturbance significant No effect
Robustness Not possible or difficult Possible

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Transfer Function

A transfer function (TF) is a mathematical relationship between the

input and output of a control system component.

TF = Output/input
Must describe
time-dependent and the steady-state characteristics

TFss = SS Output/SS input = Gain

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Transfer Function- open-loop

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Transfer Function- open-loop

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Control modes

• Switching Controller, Multi-mode control (Two – Step mode)

• Proportional mode (P)

• Derivative mode (D)

• Integral mode (I)

• Combination of modes: PD, PI, PID

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Terminology

• Error, e = input, SP (r) - feedback signal (b)

Error percentage, Ep = (r-b)x100/(bmax-bmin)

• Controller output (u) e=r-b

r u
Percentage of full scale, Controller

P=(u-umin )x100/(umax-umin) b

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Examples

Example 1: Pressure in a tank varies from 20 to 120 Pa. the desired

value is 50 Pa. Determine full scale error, if the instant value is
30Pa.

Full Scale Error = (Instant Value−Desired Value)/Full Scale Range × 100%

Calculate the error, Error= 50-30 = 20Pa

Calculate Full Scale Error

= Error × 100/ (full range)
= 30 × 100 / 100
= 30%

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Examples

Example 2: Controller output range is from 5-20mA, to linearly control the

height of liquid in a tank from (system variable) 155-200cm, respectively.
• Determine the height (Variable value) for 15mA controller output
• Controller output for 173cm, in terms of full scale o/p
rpm = Slope × I + intercept
155 = 5 × I + intercept ---(1)
200 = 20 × I + intercept ---(2)

For 173cm, find I

P=I-5/(20-5) x 100

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Two –step mode

• It keeps a constant value of the variable by on and off

• Set point: 100% or Zero controller output
• Eg. Bimetallic thermostat
Temp.

• Oscillation of controlled variable

on

off
T

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Two –step mode

• Can be avoided by,

Instead of a single value of variable a range is
specified called dead band
or neutral zone, or differential gap
• Large dead band:
large fluctuation of the variable
• Small dead band:
increased the frequency of switching

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Example 3

For a 2 position linear control system. The controller range is 5 to

35mA. Corresponding rpm range is 200 to 500. A relay opens and
closes the circuit at 10 mA and 20 mA.
(a) Find the relationship,
(b) Neutral zone in rpm

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Multi position control

• In two mode: only two mode, 0 or 100%

• Error : 25%, 50%, 100%

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Time proportional control

• Output is fixed at 100%. The final output of the controller is

discontinuous, pulse wise
• Let, error=0%, duty cycle: 100%
error=50%, duty cycle: 50%
error=100%, duty cycle: 0%

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Example 4

• Water Tank
• Temperature drop: 2 deg. C/ min
• Heater ON, Temperature rise: 4 deg. C/min
• Thermocouple for temperature sensing: Lag of 0.5 min
• Neutral zone: +/- 4%
• Set point: 323 deg C
• Plot the curve and find the oscillation period considering heater off and
temperature drop condition at the beginning.

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Implementation

DC Geared motor: Position control

Two mode control
P - Control

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Proportional mode (P)

• Size of controller output is Prop. band

100%
proportional to the size of error

Controlled o/p
• Controller o/p is expressed as a set point
% of the full range of possible
o/p within the prop. band 0%

• Also, the error is expressed as a - 0 +

% of the full range of value error

% change in controller output = Kp x % change in error

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Proportional mode (P)

• The output is proportional to the error,

• Gain = xly.
• Output (movement) = (xly) x (the error)

Self-Operating Proportional controller

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Proportional mode (P)

Ex.: a controller is an amplifier which gives an output which

is proportional to the size of the input.
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Proportional Band-Offset error

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Proportional Band-Offset error

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Effect of Kp value

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A proportional controller is used to control the height of water in a

tank where the water level can vary from 0-9 m. Calculate the valve
of PB and Kp; that will set the water level at a desired height of 5.0
m. The controller is required to fully close the inlet valve A when
water level rises to 5.5 m and fully open the inlet valve A when the
water level falls down to 4.5 m.

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Proportional mode (P)

Controller output Pout = Kpe + Po

Pout= o/p percentage at percentage error e

Po = controller o/p at zero error (or set point)
Kpe = change in controller o/p from set point
Taking laplace transformation
Change in o/p (s) = Kp E(s)
TF =Change in output (s) / E(s) = Kp

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Example 4

Valve A is linear with a flow scale factor of 10

m3/hr per percent controller output. The
A
controller output is normally 50% with Kp=10%
per %. A load change occurs when the flow
through valve B changes from 500 to 550 m3/hr. B

Set point is 6m and the liquid level may vary from

1 to 13m. Calculate the new level upon load
change. Make a note on OFF-SET error.

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e% b
6 6.1
5 6
5.9
4
5.8
3 5.7

2 5.6
5.5
1
5.4
0 5.3
0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80

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Integral Control

error
Rate of change of control o/p is
proportional to the i/p signal T

dP/dt = KIe

Controlled o/p
P – Po =  KIe dt

TF = (1/s) KI

T
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Integral Control

• dP/dt = Kie
=(1/Ti).e,  Ti=i/Ki Integral time or reset time (Ti)
• Controller output is limited to 100% value.
• Does not produce off-set error
• Response is inversely proportion to Ti
• Integral of reset time Ti=1/Ki

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Example 5

• Range: 0-250 deg. C

• Set point: 150 deg. C
• At e=0, controller output= 20%
• Reset rate is -0.1%/sec. per % error
• Instant temperature 180 deg. C
• Calculate controller output after 5 sec.

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Derivative control

• The change on controller o/p from the set point value is

proportional to the rate of change with time of the error signal,

Change in o/p of controller = Pout – Po = KD(de/dt)

Laplace transformation

(Pout – Po)(s) = KD sE(s)

TF = KD s
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Derivative control

• It can not react for a constant steady

error.

error
• Rate, predictive, or Anticipatory Mode T

• That’s why it is always employed with

Controlled o/p
Proportional control
• Kd is controller output % / (%/sec) error

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Kp, Ki and Kd

Kp = % change of controller of Output per % of error

Ki = 1/Ti (sec-1)

= % change of controller of Output per % of error per sec.

Kd = % change of controller of Output per % of error/sec.

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Comparison

Mode Merits Demerits

Proportional • Rapid adjustment • Non-zero offset
• Speeds dynamic response • Instability

Integral • Zero offset • Slow dynamic response

• Instability

Derivative • Rapid response • Non-zero offset

• Sensitive to noise in
controlled variable

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PI controller

Pout = Kp e + Kp KI ∫ e dt + Po

For constant error e and, t= Ti

Pout = Kp e + Kp KI e Ti + Po

Pout = Kp e + Kp e + Po In one Ti the contribution of Integral controller is

equivalent to P controller

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PI controller

Ti

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PI controller

• Good for the systems with large load changes

• P: stabilizing influence
• I: action to continue correction until reset
• Dynamic systems
• Large overshoot may occur

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Example 6

• Range: 0-160 deg. C

• Controller output: 0-10 V
• PB is 40%.
• Ki: 1 repeat in 5 min
• Desired temperature: 80
• Instant temperature : 60
• Controller output after 1 min

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PD Control
error

Change in o/p T
= Kpe + Kp KD(de/dt)
Controlled o/p

Prop. Element

Derivative Element

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PD control

• Can not eliminate initial offset

• Good for frequent load change
• No overshoot

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Example 7

• Input is subject to linear change of 10%/min

• Output is observed as, initial step change of 5%, followed by
gradual change of 2%/min. Determine Kp and Kd

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Example 8

• Kp=5
• Kd=0.5s 1

• P0=20% 0
1 2 3 4

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PID control

Pout = Kp e + Kp KD(de/dt) + Kp KI ∫ e dt + Po

P: reducing rise time

I: Steady State error
D: increase stability and reduce overshoot

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PID response

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PID response

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Example 9

• Error is given as, E= t% (0-1 sec)

E= 1% (1-3 sec)
E= (-0.5t + 2.5)% (3-5 sec)
• Kp= =5%, Ki=0.5 per sec., Kd= 0.5sec, P0=50%

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ANALOG AND DIGITAL CONTROL

SYSTEMS
Analog control system, the controller consists of traditional analog
devices and circuits, that is, linear amplifiers.
• It was the very first control systems
• Any change in either set point or feedback is sensed immediately,
and the amplifiers adjust their output (to the actuator)
accordingly.
Digital control system, the controller uses a digital circuit.
• A computer, usually microprocessor- or microcontroller-based.
• The computer executes a program that repeats over-and-over
(iteration or scan).
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ANALOG AND DIGITAL CONTROL

SYSTEMS
• Digital vs Analog control system: scan time and lag

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Digital Controller

Ana Digi Digi Ana O/P

+ Correction
ADC Micro-Pro DAC Process
Element
-

Clock

Measurement

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Digital Control
• A Micro –processor is in close loop control
• This receives inputs from sensors & provide o/p to the actuators.
• Components may have analogous signal so it uses ADC & DAC
• Clock supplies pulse to the control components

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Advantages & Disadvantages

• Any mode of controlling can be applied at any instant of time by
changing the only the program
• Many separate process => Single controller, by multiplexing
• Better accuracy (no drift with time, temperature etc.)

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Velocity control

• Shows oscillations when controlled by P

• PD is a solution
• Use a second feed back, called vel. feed back.
• It may use a techo-generator for sensing rotational speed

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Adaptive Control
• Adapts the changes and change the parameter (optimum) itself
• Based on use of microprocessor or micro controller
• Three stage of operation
• Start operating at assumed condition
• Desired performance compared with actual
• Minimize the error

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