ICE 4105 : Optical Communication

Optical Detectors
Dr. Saeed Mahmud Ullah
Professor
EEE, DU
Books:
• Optical Fiber Communications: Principles and Practice
by John M. Senior
Third Edition
• Chapter 8
Optical Detector
• The detector is an essential component of an optical fiber communication system.
• Its function is to convert the received optical signal into an electrical signal, which is then
amplified before further processing.
The following criteria define the important performance and
compatibility requirements for detectors:
• High sensitivity at the operating wavelengths:
• The sensitivity of the detectors are wavelength dependent. It is important to have detectors
optimized for 1.3 mm and 1.55 mm.
• High fidelity:
• To reproduce the received signal waveform with fidelity, for analogy transmission the response of
the photodetector must be linear with regard to the optical signal over a wide range.
• Large electrical response to the received optical signal:
• The photodetector should produce a maximum electrical signal for a given amount of optical
power; that is, the quantum efficiency should be high. It is usually expressed in terms of
responsivity, measured in amperes per watt (A/W) or volts per watt (V/W).
• Short response time to obtain a suitable bandwidth:
• A short response time in an optical detector means it can quickly respond to changes in the
incoming optical signal. This is crucial for detecting fast-varying signals, such as in high-speed
communication systems.
• To achieve this, the detector needs a suitable bandwidth, which refers to the range of frequencies
it can handle effectively. A wider bandwidth allows the detector to process high-speed (high-
frequency) signals without distortion.
• Current single-channel, singlemode fiber systems extend up to many tens of gigahertz
• Minimum noise introduced by the detector:
• Dark currents, leakage currents and shunt conductance must be low. Also the gain mechanism
within either the detector or associated circuitry must be of low noise.
• Stability of performance characteristics:
• Ideally, the performance characteristics of the detector should be independent of changes in
ambient conditions.
• Small size:
• The physical size of the detector must be small for efficient coupling to the fiber and to allow easy
packaging with the following electronics.
• Low bias voltages:
• Ideally the detector should not require excessive bias voltages or currents.
• High reliability:
• The detector must be capable of continuous stable operation at room temperature for many years.
• Low cost:
• Economic considerations are often of prime importance in any largescale communication system
application.
Device Types
• Ultraviolet (UV) Detectors
• Wavelength Range: 10–400 nm
• Examples:
• Photomultiplier Tubes (PMTs): Sensitive across UV and visible regions.
• Silicon Carbide (SiC) Detectors: Specifically designed for UV detection.
• Gallium Nitride (GaN) Detectors: UV-sensitive for high-efficiency applications.
• Applications: UV spectroscopy, flame detection, and astronomical studies.
• Visible Light Detectors
• Wavelength Range: ~400–700 nm
• Examples:
• Silicon Photodiodes: Widely used for detecting visible and near-IR light.
• Charge-Coupled Devices (CCDs): Used in cameras and optical sensors.
• Applications: Imaging systems, laser detection, and ambient light sensors.
• Near-Infrared (NIR) Detectors
• Wavelength Range: ~700–2500 nm
• Examples:
• Silicon Photodiodes: Sensitive up to ~1100 nm.
• InGaAs (Indium Gallium Arsenide) Photodiodes: High sensitivity up to 2500 nm.
• Germanium (Ge) Detectors: Effective in the 800–1600 nm range.
• Applications: Fiber-optic communication, spectroscopy, and night vision.
Optical Detection Principle
• The basic detection process in an intrinsic absorber is illustrated in Figure 8.1 which shows a p–n
photodiode.
• This device is reverse biased and the electric field developed across the p–n junction sweeps
mobile carriers (holes and electrons) to their respective majority sides (p- and n-type material).
• A depletion region or layer is therefore created on either side of the junction. This barrier has the
effect of stopping the majority carriers crossing the junction in the opposite direction to the field.
• However, the field accelerates minority carriers from both sides to the opposite side of the junction,
forming the reverse leakage current of the diode.
• A photon incident in or near the depletion region of this device which has an energy greater than or
equal to the bandgap energy Eg of the fabricating material (i.e. hf >=Eg) will excite an electron
from the valence band into the conduction band.
• This process leaves an empty hole in the valence band and is known as the photogeneration of an
electron–hole (carrier) pair, as shown in Figure 8.1(a).
• Carrier pairs so generated near the junction are separated and swept (drift) under the influence of
the electric field to produce a displacement by current in the external circuit in excess of any
reverse leakage current (Figure 8.1(b)).
• Photogeneration and the separation of a carrier pair in the depletion region of this reverse-biased p–
n junction is illustrated in Figure 8.1 (c).
• The depletion region must be sufficiently thick to allow a large fraction of the incident light to be
absorbed in order to achieve maximum carrier pair generation.
• However, since long carrier drift times in the depletion region restrict the speed of operation of the
photodiode it is necessary to limit its width.
• Thus there is a trade-off between the number of photons absorbed (sensitivity) and the speed
of response.
Absorption Coefficient
• The absorption of photons in a photodiode to produce carrier pairs and thus a photocurrent is
dependent on the absorption coefficient a0 of the light in the semiconductor used to fabricate the
device.
• At a specific wavelength and assuming only bandgap transitions (i.e. intrinsic absorber) the
photocurrent Ip produced by incident light of optical power Po is given by

• where e is the charge on an electron, r is the Fresnel reflection coefficient at the semiconductor–air
interface and d is the width of the absorption region.
Quantum Efficiency
• The quantum efficiency h is defined as the fraction of incident photons which are absorbed by the
photodetector and generate electrons which are collected at the detector terminals:

• where rp is the incident photon rate (photons per second) and re is the corresponding electron rate
(electrons per second).
Responsivity
• Responsivity of a photodiode is a measure of its ability to convert incident optical power into an
electrical current.
• It is defined as the ratio of the generated photocurrent (I P) to the incident optical power (PO)on the
photodiode:

• The incident photon rate rp may be written in terms of incident optical power and the photon
energy as:
Long Wavelength Cutoff
• The intrinsic absorption process that the energy of incident photons be greater than or equal to the
bandgap energy Eg of the material used to fabricate the photodetector. Therefore, the photon energy:

• The expression given in Eq. (8.14) allows the calculation of the longest wavelength of light to give
photodetection for the various semiconductor materials used in the fabrication of detectors.
p-i-n Photodiode
• In order to allow operation at longer wavelengths where the light penetrates more deeply into the
semiconductor material, a wider depletion region is necessary.
• To achieve this the n-type material is doped so lightly that it can be considered intrinsic, and to
make a low resistance contact a highly doped n-type (n+) layer is added. This creates a p–i–n (or
PIN) structure, as may be seen in Figure 8.6 where all the absorption takes place in the
depletion region.
• Figure 8.7 shows the structures of two types of silicon p–i–n photodiode for operation in the
shorter wavelength band below 1.09 mm.
• The front-illuminated photodiode, when operating in the 0.8 to 0.9 mm band (Figure 8.7(a)),
requires a depletion region of between 20 and 50 mm in order to attain high quantum efficiency
(typically 85%) together with fast response (less than 1 ns) and low dark current (1 nA).
• Dark current arises from surface leakage currents as well as generation–recombination currents in
the depletion region in the absence of illumination.
• The side-illuminated structure (Figure 8.7(b)), where light is injected parallel to the junction
plane, exhibits a large absorption width (500 mm) and hence is particularly sensitive at wavelengths
close to the bandgap limit (1.09 mm) where the absorption coefficient is relatively small.
Step by step operation of p-i-n photodiode
• Incident Light Absorption
1. Photon Absorption:
1. Light (photons) enters the photodiode and is absorbed in the intrinsic (i) region.
2. The energy of the photons must be greater than the bandgap of silicon (~1.1 eV) for
absorption to occur.
2. Electron-Hole Pair Generation:
1. Absorbed photons excite electrons from the valence band to the conduction band,
creating electron-hole pairs.
2. Most of this occurs in the intrinsic region because it is designed to maximize the
depletion region width.
• Separation of Charge Carriers
1. Electric Field:
1. A built-in electric field exists across the depletion region due to the junction between P
and N regions.
2. This field is enhanced if a reverse bias voltage is applied, widening the depletion region
and increasing sensitivity.
2. Drift Motion:
1. The electric field drives the electrons toward the N-region and holes toward the P-region,
creating a photocurrent.
• Generation of Photocurrent
1. Current Flow:
1. The separated electrons and holes generate a photocurrent proportional to the incident
light intensity.
2. This current flows through an external circuit connected to the photodiode.
2. Dark Current:
1. In the absence of light, a small leakage current (dark current) flows due to thermally
generated carriers. This is minimized in well-designed photodiodes.

• Signal Output
• The photocurrent is collected by external circuitry and converted into a voltage or processed as
needed for applications such as optical communication, light sensing, or spectroscopy.