MOI UNIVERSITY MAIN CAMPUS

SCHOOL OF ARTS AND SOCIAL SCIENCES

COURSE TITLE: HISTORY OF SCIENCE

QUESTIONS:
1.With relevant examples, discuss Islam/Arab contribution to the development of Science.
(30 marks).
Introduction
Science is the study of physical and natural world phenomena especially by using systematic
observation and experimentation.
The period between the 7th to the 15th Centuries is considered as the ‘Golden Age of Islamic
Civilization.’ During this period there was great emphasis on the pursuit of knowledge.
Consequently, there were individuals who lived scholarly and pious lives, such as Ibn Sina, Al-
Khwarizmi, and Al-Biruni, who in addition to excellence in the study of religious texts also
excelled in Mathematics, Geography, Astronomy, Physics, Chemistry and Medicine. At this time
Islam was not just a set of religious beliefs, but a set of ideas, ethics and ideals encompassing all
aspects of human life. This resulted in the establishment of the Islamic civilization. Thus, the
motivating force of this civilization was its Islamic faith and its language was Arabic (Khettani,
1976).
While the progress of scientific knowledge in Europe languished during the Dark Ages, science
flourished in the Golden Age of Islam. The renaissance that subsequently occurred in Europe
might not have taken place without the contribution of Arabs or Muslims science in the
preceding period (Sarton, 1927). Many Muslim and Arab scholars in the Golden Age of Islam
studied nature in the context of the Quran. The Quran depicted the relationship between nature
and man and this inspired the Muslim/Arab scholars to study natural phenomena, in order to
understand God. The contributions of Islamic and Arab scholars to the development of science
are profound and have significantly shaped various fields, including Mathematics, Astronomy,
Medicine and Chemistry. Here are some key areas where their contributions stand out, along
with relevant examples;
1.Mathematics
a). Al-Khwarizmi: He is often referred to as the “father of Algebra,” the Persian mathematician
Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi wrote the seminal book, “Al-Kitab Al-Mukhtasar fi Hisab
al-Jabar wal-Mukabala” in the 9th Century. This work laid foundations for algebra as a distinct
mathematical discipline. The term “algebra” itself is derived from ‘al-Jabr,” one of the
operations he described.
Numerals: The adoption of the Arabic numeral system (0-9) revolutionized Mathematics and
facilitated calculations. This numeral system was introduced to Europe through translations of
Arabic Mathematical texts, replacing the cumbersome Roman numeral system.

2.Astronomy
a). Al-Battani: A notable Arab astronomer from the 9th Century, Al-Battani made significant
advancements in astronomical observations. He improved the accuracy of measurements of
celestial bodies and formulated new methods for calculating the positions of the sun and moon.
His work influenced both Islamic astronomy and later European astronomy.
b). Al-Zarqali (Known as Arzachel in Europe), was an 11th Century astronomer who developed
the ‘Toledo Tables,’ which were crucial for European navigators in the Middle Ages. His
contributions included improvements in the astrolabe and the development of more accurate
astronomical tables.
3.Medicine
a). Ibn Sina (Avicenna-(980-1037)): A polymath of the Islamic Golden Age, Ibn Sina wrote,
“The Canon of Medicine,” which became a standard medical text in both the Islamic world and
Europe for several centuries. This comprehensive work covered various medical topics,
including the principles of diagnosis and treatment, and it introduced concepts such as the
importance of clinical trials.
b). Al-Razi (Rhazes- (865-925)): He is another prominent figure in Islamic medicine, Al-Razi is
credited with distinguishing between measles and smallpox, contributing to the understanding of
infectious diseases. His writings, including ‘Kitab al-Hawi,’ compiled medical knowledge of the
time and influenced both Islamic and European Medicine.
4.Chemistry, Pharmacology and Pharmacy
a). Al-Razi: In addition to his work in medicine, Al-Razi is considered one of the ‘fathers of
chemistry.’ He conducted experiments and is known for the discovery of sulphuric acid and
alcohol. His scientific approach laid the groundwork for the modern scientific method. In his
book Secret of Secrets known as Liber secretorum bubacaris, described the chemical processes
and experiments he conducted. That book foreshadowed a ‘laboratory manual,’ (Hill, 1993: 83).
It deals with substances, equipment and procedures.
b). Jaber ibn Haiyan (Geber in Latin): He is often referred to as the ‘father of chemistry.’ He
was a prolific scholar who wrote extensively on alchemy and chemistry. His works introduced
experimental techniques and concepts such as the distillation process, crystallization and the
classification of substances based on their properties. He prepared many chemical substances:
the sulphide of mercury, oxides and arsenic compounds.
Muslim chemists developed recipes for products that had industrial and military applications.
The discovery of inorganic acids during chemical experiments had valuable industrial
applications in the centuries that followed. In the fields of pharmacology and pharmacy, Muslims
made notable progress. The fields involved scientific investigation into the composition, dosages,
uses and therapeutic effects of drugs.
c). Ibn al-Baytar’s book Al-Jami’fi al-Tibb (Collection of Simple Diets and Drugs) contained
detailed records of the plants in the lands along the length of the Mediterranean coast between
Spain and Syria. Additionally, he systematically compared this knowledge with that of the
scientists of previous eras. His book on botany was used until the Renaissance by Europeans.
5.Optics
a). Ibn Al-Haytham (Alhazen): A pioneering figure in optics, Ibn Al-Haytham authored ‘Book
of Optics,’ where he conducted experiments on light, vision and lenses. He is often credited with
the formulation of the scientific method and is considered one of the first to explain the process
of vision by arguing that light travels in straight lines.
6.Geography
7.Botany
8.Cosmology
9.Telescope
10.Objective Experiment
11.Histography
12.Humanity
CONCLUSIONS
Modern science works with theories and models that must be tested empirically, starting in the
fields of mathematics, astronomy and medicine. The Muslims developed the procedures for
testing knowledge both empirically and logically. An important characteristic of Islamic science
was its experimental character. Islamic scientists were interested in the applied sciences, in the
construction of apparatus, in testing theories by undertaking observations and analysis of results
through mathematics. The Islamic and Arab contributions to science were not only foundational
in their own right but also served as a bridge for the transmission of knowledge to Europe during
the Renaissance. The preservation, translation and enhancement of ancient Greek and Roman
texts by Islamic scholars played a key role in the development of modern science and
technology. Their intellectual legacy continues to impact various scientific developments.
REFERENCES:
Abdul, Rahman, H. (1977). History of Science studies at the Arabs, the Ministry of Higher
Education and Scientific Research, Baghdad; Iraq.
Bammate, N. (1959). The status of Science and technique in Islamic civilization. Philosophy
East and West: Preliminary Report on the Third East-West Philosophers’ Conference, 9 (1/2),
23-25.
Khettani, M.A. (1976). Moslem contributions to the natural sciences. Impact of Science on
Society, 26 (3), 135-147.
Sarton, G. (1927). Introduction to the History of Science, Volume 1. Washington: Carnegie
Institution of Washington.