PHL 1B: ETHICS

A. Ethics: Its Definition and Importance

Have you experience a situation where it requires that you have to choose on what to do
and part of it is to decide which of the choices is right or wrong? Can you recall an experience
where you really felt bad and sad because you hurt somebody because of your wrong action? Did
you ever wonder why people need to be good and avoid what is evil? Did it ever come to your
mind why we need to be pleasing in our action?
There are many people who ask why study ethics? Why be moral? Webster’s dictionary
has a number of definitions for moral including: - of or relating to principles of right and wrong
in behavior - conforming to a standard of right behavior. This is an important question for a
course on ethics - is being moral important to you, why (or why not)? Most people think doing
well in life is associated with being “good”. (philonotes.com)
For example: do you think a person who gains money dishonestly is a success? Is a
politician who beats his wife and children a success? Is Mother Theresa a success - she had very
few of the thing’s society commonly associates with doing well. Most people like fairness,
justice, truthfulness, compassion in society. Ethics help give direction to societies and people
who think they cannot flourish without some form of morality. Morality is said to be breaking
down in society today - juvenile crime, drug abuse, alcoholism, teenage pregnancies, crime rates
- all seem to indicate that the moral fabric of society is breaking down. Moral questions are at the
heart of life’s vital issues -including those affected by the actions above. “Morality is primarily
concerned with the questions of right and wrong, the ability to distinguish between the two, and
the justification of the distinction. (phlionotes.com)
Montemayor (1994) mentions in his introduction on his book Ethics: The Philosophy of
Life that Ethics is the philosophy of life and that it delves into the deepest whys and wherefore of
human existence, men’s actions, problems and destiny.
He further mentions that to live well and happy, we must know what we are living for. He
says this is taught by ethics that investigates the meaning and purpose of human life. He
mentions that according to Socrates the unexamined life is not worth living for man.
Montemayor (1994) also states that Plato one of the greatest philosophers of all times
proclaimed Ethics as the supreme science, the highest in the hierarchy of human values, as it is
Ethics that is concerned with the attainment of life’s greatest Good and Goal – Happiness.
Definitions of Ethics
The book of Montemayor (1994) provides the following definitions of Ethics:
1. Ethics is the practical science of the morality of human actions.
2. Ethics is the science of human acts with reference to right and wrong
3. Ethics is the scientific inquiry into the principles of morality.
4. Ethics is the study of the rectitude of human conduct
5. Ethics is the human conduct from the standpoint of morality.
 6. Ethics is the science which lays down the principles of right living
7. Ethics is the practical science that guides us in our actions that we may live rightly and
well.
8. Ethics is normative and practical science, based on reason, which studies human conduct
and provides norm for its natural integrity and honesty.
9. According to Socrates, ethics is the investigation of life.
Looking into these definitions we can say that they are similar to each other. The definitions
speak of the field of study of ethics as human conduct; and of the investigation of such human
conduct in terms of its morality. The important terms that can be seen in them are:
1. Science-systematic study or a system of scientific conclusions clearly demonstrated,
derived from clearly established principles and duly coordinated
2. Morality – the quality of human acts as right, wrong or indifferent, moral immoral or
amoral.
3. Human acts –acts done with knowledge, freedom and free will or consent.
Importance Of Ethics
Montemayor (1994) proclaims that the importance of the study of ethics follows immediately
from the importance of ethics itself. His idea is manifested in the following:
1. Ethics means right living and good moral character and it is in good moral character that
man finds his true worth and perfection. All the great teachers of the ages maintain that
the supreme purpose of human living lies not in the acquisition of material good or bodily
pleasures, nor in the attainment of bodily perfections such as health and strength; nor
even in the development of intellectual skills but in the development of the moral
qualities which lift man far above brute creation.
2. Education is the harmonious development of the whole man-of all ma’s faculties: the
moral, intellectual, and physical powers in man. Now then highest of man’s power are his
reason and will. Hence, the primary objective of education is the moral development of
the will.
B. Rules and Its Importance to Social Beings (lifted from the book of De Guzman, (2017) -
Ethics: Principles of Ethical Behaviour in Modern Society)
You find rules everywhere. But did you ever ask yourself why you need to follow them?
Try to recall an experience where you followed a rule and assess what you did. Did you just
follow it without asking yourself why you need to follow it? Did you have any doubt about
following it?
Rules refer to explicit or understood regulations or principles governing conduct within a
specific activity or sphere. Rules tell us what is or is not allowed in a particular context or
situation. In many ways, rules serve as a foundation for any healthy society. Without rules,
society would like fall into anarchy.
Rules benefit social beings in various manners:
1. Rules protect social beings by regulating behaviour.
 Rules build boundaries that place limits on behaviour. Rules are usually coupled with
means to impose consequences on those who violate them. One of the reasons people
follow accepted rules is to avoid negative consequences.
2. Rules help to guarantee each person certain right and freedom.
 Rules form frameworks for society. Nations are generally nations of laws and the
governing principles are outlined in what is called constitution. Because the majority has
agreed to follow and consent to be governed by such a constitution, the freedoms outlined
exist.
3. Rules produce a sense of justice among social beings.
 Rules are needed in order to keep the strong from dominating the weak that is to prevent
exploitation and domination. Without rules, schemes in which those with the power
control the system, would take over. In effect, rules generate a stable system that provides
justice, in which even the richest and the most powerful have limitations on what they
can do. If they transgress rules such as laws and ordinances and take advantage of people,
there are consequences both socially and criminally.
4. Rules are essential for a healthy economic system.
 Without rules regulating business, power would centralize around monopolies and
threaten the strength and competitiveness of the system. Rules are needed to ensure
product safety, employee’s safety and product quality. Copyright and patents help protect
people’s intellectual property. Rules and regulations also keep the banking system stable
so as to avoid depression and the like.
In short, society could not soundly function without rules and regulations. Rules are
necessary to protect the greater good. Even the freest societies ought to have rules in order to
avoid exploitations and tyranny while upholding the common good.
C. Moral Standards versus Non-moral Standards (lifted from the book of De Guzman,
(2017) -Ethics: Principles of Ethical Behaviour in Modern Society)
Do you know the meaning of standards? Have you been in a situation where you were
chosen because you met the standards, or you were disregarded because you did not meet the
standards? But are you aware that there are different kinds of standards, and the kind is
dependent on their implication or effect on people and situations? Why do you think there is the
need to distinguish moral standards from non-moral ones?
It is important to note that different societies have different moral beliefs and that our
beliefs are deeply influenced by our own culture and context. For this reason, some values do
have moral implications, while others don’t. Let us consider, for example, the wearing of hijab.
For sure, in traditional Muslim communities, the wearing of hijab is the most appropriate act that
women have to do in terms of dressing up. In fact, for some Muslims, showing parts of the
woman’s body, such as the face and legs, is despicable. However, in many parts of the world,
especially in Western societies, most people don’t mind if women barely cover their bodies. As a
matter of fact, the Hollywood canon of beauty glorifies a sexy and slim body and the wearing of
extremely daring dress. The point here is that people in the West may have pitied the Muslim
women who wear hijab, while some Muslims may find women who dress up daringly
despicable.
Again, this clearly shows that different cultures have different moral standards. What is a
matter of moral indifference, that is, a matter of taste (hence, non-moral value) in one culture
may be a matter of moral significance in another.
Now, the danger here is that one culture may impose its own cultural standard on others,
which may result in a clash in cultural values and beliefs. When this happens, as we may already
know, violence and crime may ensue, such as religious violence and ethnic cleansing.
This is where the importance of understanding the difference between moral standards
(that is, of what is a moral issue) and non-moral ones (that is, of what is a non-moral issue―thus,
a matter of taste) comes in. This issue may be too obvious and insignificant for some people, but
understanding the difference between the two may have far-reaching implications. For one, once
we have distinguished moral standards from non-moral ones, of course, through the aid of the
principles and theories in ethics, we will be able to identify fundamental ethical values that may
guide our actions. Indeed, once we know that particular values and beliefs are non-moral, we will
be able to avoid running the risk of falling into the pit of cultural reductionism (that is, taking
complex cultural issues as simple and homogenous ones) and the unnecessary imposition of
one’s own cultural standard on others. The point here is that if such standards are non-moral (that
is, a matter of taste), then we don’t have the right to impose them on others. But if such standards
are moral ones, such as not killing or harming people, then we may have the right to force others
to act accordingly. In this way, we may be able to find a common moral ground, such as agreeing
not to steal, lie, cheat, kill, harm, and deceive our fellow human beings.
Moral Standards and their Characteristics
Moral standards
 Are norms that individuals or groups have about the kinds of actions believed to be
morally right or wrong, as well as the values placed on what we believed to be morally
good or morally bad. Moral standards normally promote “the good”, that is, the welfare
and well-being of humans as well as animals and the environment. Moral standards,
therefore, prescribe what humans ought to do in terms of rights and obligations.
According to some scholars, moral standards are the sum of combined norms and values.
In other words, norms plus values equal moral standards. On the one hand, norms are understood
as general rules about our actions or behaviors. For example, we may say “We are always under
the obligation to fulfil our promises” or “It is always believed that killing innocent people is
absolutely wrong”. On the other hand, values are understood as enduring beliefs or statements
about what is good and desirable or not. For example, we may say “Helping the poor is good” or
“Cheating during exams is bad”.
According to many scholars, moral standards have the following characteristics, namely:
 Moral standards deal with matters we think can seriously injure or benefit humans,
animals, and the environment, such as child abuse, rape, and murder.
 Moral standards are not established or changed by the decisions of authoritative
individuals or bodies. Indeed, moral standards rest on the adequacy of the reasons that are
taken to support and justify them. For sure, we don’t need a law to back up our moral
conviction that killing innocent people is absolutely wrong.
 Moral standards are overriding, that is, they take precedence over other standards and
considerations, especially of self-interest.
 Moral standards are based on impartial considerations. Hence, moral standards are fair
and just.
 Moral standards are associated with special emotions (such as guilt and shame) and
vocabulary (such as right, wrong, good, and bad).
Non-moral Standards
Non-moral standards
 Refer to standards by which we judge what is good or bad and right or wrong in a non-
moral way.

Examples of non-moral standards are standards of etiquette by which we judge manners

as good or bad, standards we call the law by which we judge something as legal or illegal, and
standards of aesthetics by which we judge art as good or rubbish. Hence, we should not confuse
morality with etiquette, law, and aesthetics or even with religion.
As we can see, non-moral standards are matters of taste or preference. Hence, a
scrupulous observance of these types of standards does not make one a moral person. Violation
of said standards also does not pose any threat to human well-being.
Finally, as a way of distinguishing moral standards from non-moral ones, if a moral
standard says “Do not harm innocent people” or “Don’t steal”, a non-moral standard says “Don’t
text while driving” or “Don’t talk while the mouth is full”.
D. Dilemma and Moral Dilemma (lifted from the book of De Guzman, (2017) -Ethics:
Principles of Ethical Behaviour in Modern Society)
Do you have any idea of what a dilemma is? Have you ever encountered a situation
where you need to choose between two alternatives, yet choosing any could lead to a negative
consequence on what you did not choose? What did you do? How did you feel?
Dilemma
 Refers to a situation in which a tough decision has to be made between two or more
options, especially more or less equally undesirable ones. Not all dilemmas are moral
dilemmas.
Also called ‘ethical dilemmas’, moral dilemmas are situation in which a difficult choice
has to be made between two courses of action, either of which entails transgressing a moral
principle. At the very least, a moral dilemma involves conflicts between moral requirements.
What is common to moral dilemmas is conflict. In each ethical dilemma, an agent regards
himself as having moral reasons to do each of two actions, but doing both actions seems to be
ethically not possible.
The key features of a moral dilemma are these: a.) the agent is required to do each of two
(or more) actions; b.) the agent can do each of the actions; but the agent cannot do both (or all )
of the actions. In a moral dilemma, the agent thus seems condemned to moral failure no matter
what he does, he will do something wrong, or fail to do something that he ought to do.
Some ethicists propose that when one of the conflicting moral requirements overrides the
other, the case is not a ‘genuine moral dilemma’. Thus in addition to the features mentioned
above, in order to have a genuine moral dilemma, some add that it must also the case that c)
neither of the conflicting moral requirements is overridden.
Three Levels of Moral Dilemma
Moral Dilemmas can be categorized according to these levels:
1. Personal Dilemmas.
 Personal Dilemmas are those experienced and resolved on the personal level. Since
many ethical decisions are personally made, many if not most of moral dilemmas fall
under, or boil down to this level. If a person makes conflicting promises, he faces a
moral conflict. When an individual has to choose between the life of a child who is about
to be delivered and the child’s mother, he faces an ethical dilemma.
2. Organizational Dilemma.
 Organizational moral dilemmas refer to ethical cases encountered and resolves by social
organization. This category includes moral dilemmas in business, medical fields and
public sector.
A medical institution which believes that human life should not be deliberately shortened
and that unpreventable pain should not be tolerated encountered a conflict in resolving whether
to withdraw life support from a dying patient. This is common moral dilemma faced by
healthcare organizations.
Administrative bodies in business are confronted with situations in which several courses
of action are possible but none of them provide a totally successful outcome to those affected by
the decision or actions taken. Moral dilemmas in business involve issues about corporate
practices, policies, business behaviors, and the conducts and relationships of individuals in the
organizations.
In a public sector, government leaders and employees have a moral duty to act in a
manner that is fair and unbiased, that is loyal to the public by putting public interest,
accountability and transparency. In fulfilling these responsibilities, public officials may
encounter foreseeable moral dilemmas. These dilemmas include whether or not to favour family,
friends, or campaign contributors over other constituents; favoring the agenda of one’s political
party over a policy one believes to be good for the community; dealing with conflicting public
duties inherent in serving both as a council member and as a member of an agency or
commission; resigning from organizations in which membership may give rise to future
conflicts; becoming a whistle blower even if it means potentially derailing a policy objective one
is pursuing; and accepting gifts if it is legally permitted but creates the appearance of
impropriety.
3. Structural Dilemmas.
 Structural moral dilemmas refer to cases involving network of institutions and operative
theoretical paradigms. As they usually encompass multi-sectoral institutions and
organizations, they may be larger in scope and extent than organizational dilemmas.
Case in point is the prices of medicine in the Philippines which are higher compared to
other countries in Asia and in countries of similar economic status. Factors affecting medicine
prices include cost of research, presence of competition in the market, government regulations,
and patent protection. Institutions concerned may want to lower the costs of medicine, thereby
benefiting the Filipino public, but such a move may ruin the interests of the involved researchers,
inventors or discoverers, and pharmaceutical companies which own the patent of the medicines
or healthcare technologies.
E. Only human beings can be Ethical (lifted from the book of De Guzman, (2017) -Ethics:
Principles of Ethical Behaviour in Modern Society)
Oftentimes we experience something that test our being and often also we wonder
whether we deserve to be the highest form of animal. If we commit something, we often hear
“animal ka”. But we are as Aristotle say “rational animals”. We are animals minus the rationality.
Another basic tenet in ethics is the belief that only human beings can truly be ethical.
Most philosophies hold that unlike animals, human beings possess some traits that make it
possible for them to be moral.
Only human beings are rational, autonomous, and self-conscious. The qualities of
rationality, autonomy, and self-consciousness are believed to confer a full and equal moral status
to those that possess them as these beings are the only ones capable of achieving certain moral
values.