Module-4

Subtractive Manufacturing
 NC, CNC, and DNC Machines
• Machines used in manufacturing and machining processes have evolved
significantly over time, with NC (Numerical Control), CNC (Computer Numerical
Control), and DNC (Direct Numerical Control) being the key advancements in
automating and controlling machines.
 NC (Numerical Control)
• Numerical Control (NC) refers to a method of automating machine tools through
the use of a coded program (sequence of numbers, letters and symbols) which
provides instructions to the machine tool to perform specific actions like moving,
cutting, drilling, etc.
• As NC machine executes operations based on a program which is the controlling
point for product manufacture, the machine becomes versatile and can be used for
any part.
NC : Principle of operation
 NC : Principle of operation
Part program —> machine control unit —> servomotor —-> runs the machine
tool by driving the machine axes

Most of the NC machine tools are controlled with a feedback control system
wherein the feedback information is provided to the machine control to ensure that
the programmed instructions are accurately carried out.
NC : Structure of operation
 NC : Structure of operation
• The part program consists of instructions written in the numerical codes that
constitute the basic operations to be carried out in machining of the part.
• These instructions are then entered into an input medium such as a standard 1-inch
paper tape. The program is then read by the paper-tape reader.
• The controller translates these numerical codes into the machine actuation details,
which are then used to control the individual machine functions such as the
movement of the axes.
 CNC ( Computer Numerical Control)
• Computer Numerical Control (CNC) is a more advanced version of NC, where a
computer takes over the role of controlling the machine tool using the numerical
control program.
• CNC machines are fully automated and are controlled by computers using
sophisticated software. Programs can be modified, and different parts can be
produced without significant changes in machine setup.
• CNC machines can carry out tasks with high accuracy, can execute more complex
operations and handle intricate designs autonomously, reducing human error and
downtime.
• CNC machines are used in many industries like automotive, aerospace,
metalworking, and electronics to create parts with intricate geometries.
 CNC : Types of control systems

• Can operate all the 3 axes, but

not necessarily simultaneously
• possible to move the tool to any
point (in X and Y-axes) in the
fastest possible speed and carry
out the machining operation in
one axis (Z-axis) at that point.
 CNC : Types of control systems

• The machine tool has the

capability to carry out a
continuous motion in each of
the axis direction.
• Helps in obtaining the milling
in a straight line along any of
the axes
 CNC : Types of control systems

• Capable of simultaneously
moving along any 2 axes.
 CNC : Types of control systems

• Capable of simultaneously
moving 3 or more axes.
• Found in most of the
current-day control systems.
• Useful for machining most of
the complex 3D profiles
encountered in industrial
practice
 CN Control Elements : Machine Control Unit

• A microcomputer that stores the

program and executes the
various controlling functions of
machine tool.
 NC Control Elements : Part Program

• It is a detailed plan of manufacturing instructions required for machining the part as

per the drawing.
• The format is standardised by ISO which is followed by many a controller
manufacturers with minor variations.
• These programs have to be converted into the machine-tool-level program with the
help of processors and post-processors. This is termed as computer-aided part
programming
 NC Control Elements : Program-Coding Systems

• The human readable characters as seen in the manuscript of the part program cannot
be directly entered into the machine control unit. They need to be converted into
some form of code and entered.
• A pure binary system is of course rarely used for NC input. Instead a more
sophisticated BCD ( Binary Coded Decimal) system is usually employed. It is an
encoding for decimal numbers in which each digit is represented by its own binary
sequence.
 NC Control Elements : Part Program Input

• Part program after preparing, needs to be entered into the machine-tool control unit
for the purpose of execution.
• Manual Data Input (MDI) or Direct Numerical Control (DNC) can be used for this
purpose.
• In the case of manual data input, the machine control unit provides a keyboard to
directly enter the program into the main memory of the MCU.
• MCUs have large memory. So, it is possible to store a number of programs in the
memory as well as edit them as required.
 NC Control Elements : Part Program Input

• Also, MCUs are provided with a USB port or Ethernet port as part of the
communication facility. The part programs can be entered in ASCII mode using any
simple text editor in a personal computer and then transferred to MCU through the
USB port or over the LAN connection.
• Direct Numerical Control or DNC refers to a system where a Personal Computer
(PC) is connected to the MCU through a serial port
 NC Control Elements : NC Tooling
• The operator is supplied with the relevant tooling for the part to be machined. Each
cutting tool is set in a different adapter. The configuration suggested by ISO is
generally followed.
• A preset tool has adjustable locating faces. It enables the dimensions between the
tool-cutting edges and location faces to be preset to a close tolerance using a
presetting device.
• These inform the operator about the deviation the tool tip of the actually supplied
tool has with the one taken into account by the part programmer.
• The position of the tool tip when supplied to the operator may be different to
compensate for wear and tear, resharpening or setting of a new cutting tool due to
breakage.
 NC Machine Tools
• The basic objective behind the development of NC machine tools continues to
remain the reduction of cost of production and improvement in product quality.
• The major emphasis is directed towards the avoidance of non-productive time which
is mainly due to the number of set-ups, set-up time, workpiece-handling time, tool
change time and lead time.
• NC machines have been found quite suitable in industries:
• For the parts having complex contours
• For small lot production such as for prototyping, tool manufacturing, etc.
• For jobs requiring very high accuracy and repeatability.
 NC : Advantages
• Parts can be produced in less time and, therefore, are likely to be less expensive.
• Parts can be produced more accurately even for smaller batches.
• The operator involvement in part manufacture is reduced to a minimum and as a
result, less scrap is generated due to operator errors.
• The need for expensive jigs and fixtures is reduced or eliminated, depending upon
the part geometry.
• Inspection time is reduced
 NC : Limitations
• The cost of an NC machine tool is much high compared to an equivalent
conventional machine tool.
• Cost and skill of the people required to operate an NC machine is generally high in
view of the complex and sophisticated technology involved.
• As NC is a complex and sophisticated technology, it also requires higher investments
for maintenance and running.
 DNC ( Direct Numerical Control)
• Direct Numerical Control (DNC) refers to a system where multiple CNC machines
are controlled and managed by a central computer. DNC systems allow machines
to communicate with one another and share programs from a single source.
• One central computer can send programs to multiple machines, reducing the need
to input data manually at each machine. Since the central system controls
everything, the chances of mistakes in programming are minimized.
• Operators can monitor multiple machines simultaneously for efficiency,
performance, and maintenance needs. Operators can adjust the machine operations
in real-time based on data received from the machines.
• DNC is commonly used in environments where multiple machines are in
operation, like in large production facilities.
 Key Differences
1. NC machines are manually programmed and do not have a computer interface.
CNC machines use a computer to control the machine tool. DNC links several
CNC machines to a central computer for data and program management.
2. NC machines are less automated than CNC machines. CNC machines are highly
automated, with much greater flexibility and precision. DNC further automates by
enabling centralized management of multiple CNC machines.
3. NC is simpler, with limited ability to handle complex processes. CNC can handle
very complex shapes and movements due to its computerized nature. DNC
enhances CNC capabilities by managing the operations of several machines at
once.
 Machining Centers
• A Machining Center is a highly versatile and advanced machine tool that integrates
multiple machining functions into one system.
• It combines several operations like drilling, milling, tapping, and boring into one
machine, all controlled by a CNC system.
• Machining centers are designed for high-precision and high-efficiency
manufacturing of complex parts and components.
• Machining centers represent a leap forward in machining technology, offering
flexibility, automation, and precision for manufacturing a wide range of parts.
Whether used for mass production or complex, one-off parts, they are
indispensable tools in modern manufacturing environments.
 Machining Centers : Components
1. Spindle: The spindle is the heart of the machining center, holding and rotating the
cutting tool to perform machining operations.
2. Table: The table is where the workpiece is placed. It can be moved along various axes
(X, Y, Z) to position the part for machining.
3. Tool Changer: The automatic tool changer (ATC) stores multiple tools and can quickly
swap out tools as needed for different operations.
4. Control Panel: The CNC control panel is where operators input the program and
settings to control the machine’s movements and operations.
5. Coolant System: A coolant system is used to keep the workpiece and tool cool during
machining, preventing overheating and improving tool life.
6. Rotary Table/Indexing System: In some machining centers, a rotary table or an
indexing system is used to rotate the workpiece automatically, allowing for multi-sided
machining and enhanced accuracy.
 Machining Centers : Key Features
• Machining centers use CNC to automate the operation of the machine, improving
precision, reducing errors, and allowing for complex, repeatable tasks.
• These machines can perform multiple functions, such as milling, turning, drilling,
boring, and tapping, within a single setup. This eliminates the need for multiple
machines, improving efficiency and reducing handling time.
• Most machining centers are equipped with an automatic tool changer (ATC),
which allows the machine to change tools automatically during a machining
operation. This allows for uninterrupted, continuous machining without the need
for manual intervention.
 Machining Centers : Key Features
• Machining centers are designed to produce high-quality, complex parts with great
accuracy. Their computer-controlled system ensures tight tolerances and consistent
quality.
• These machines can handle a wide range of materials, from metals and plastics to
composite materials, making them suitable for industries like aerospace,
automotive, medical, and general manufacturing.
• Due to their versatility and automation, machining centers can operate with
minimal downtime and perform operations quickly, which boosts productivity in
mass production.
 Machining Centers : Types
Based on the configuration of the machine tool

• Vertical-axis Machining Centers (VMC)

• Horizontal-axis Machining Centers (HMC)

Based on the number of axes they use:

• 2-Axis Machining Centers

• 3-Axis Machining Centers
• 4-Axis Machining Centers
• 5-Axis Machining Centers
• 6-Axis Machining Centers
 Vertical Machining Centers
• In a vertical machining center, the spindle is oriented vertically, meaning the
cutting tool moves up and down along the Z-axis.
• These are easy to set up and load/unload parts.
• Suitable for machining parts with complex vertical surfaces or cavities.
• Ideal for small to medium-sized parts, mold making, and general milling
operations.
 Horizontal Machining Centers
• In a horizontal machining center, the spindle is oriented horizontally, meaning the
cutting tool moves along the X and Y axes, while the Z-axis remains vertical.
• Can support more complex geometries due to easier access to the part.
• Provides better chip removal due to gravity, making it ideal for high-volume and
heavy-duty operations.
• Often equipped with rotary tables for 4-axis or 5-axis operations.
• Primarily used for high-precision, high-volume, and heavy-duty parts, such as in
automotive or aerospace industries.
 Machining Centers : Advantages
• The CNC system ensures that each part is manufactured to high precision and
accuracy, with minimal human error.
• By consolidating multiple operations into one machine, machining centers reduce
production time, labor costs, and the need for multiple setups.
• Machining centers can handle a wide variety of materials and are highly adaptable
to different part designs and production runs thus providing flexibility in design.
• The integration of automated tool changes, loading/unloading systems, and in
some cases, robotic arms, further boosts efficiency and reduces operator
involvement.
• Because of the precise control and continuous operation, machining centers often
deliver superior surface finishes compared to traditional methods.
 Machining Centers : Applications
• Machining complex parts like turbine blades, engine components, and structural
components in Aerospace industry.
• Producing precision parts such as engine blocks, transmission components, and
suspension parts in Automotive industry.
• Manufacturing medical devices, implants, and surgical instruments with high
precision and biocompatibility.
• Creating molds for injection molding, die-casting, and other manufacturing
processes.
• Producing parts for electronics, construction, and heavy industries.
 Coordinate system
• Coordinate systems are essential for defining the position of the tool and
workpiece.
• These systems allow the CNC machine to understand the location of the tool
relative to the workpiece and guide precise movements during operations.
• Understanding these coordinate systems is fundamental for accurate programming
and operation of machining centers. Each system serves a specific purpose,
whether for tool movement, workpiece alignment, or machine referencing.
• Properly configuring these systems is essential for efficient and precise
manufacturing operations.
 Cartesian Coordinate system
• The Cartesian coordinate system is the most common coordinate system used in
CNC machining. It is based on three perpendicular axes: X, Y, and Z.
• X-axis: Typically represents the horizontal movement (left-right or lateral).

Y-axis: Represents movement along the perpendicular axis to the X-axis

(forward-backward or depth).

Z-axis: Represents vertical movement (up-down).

• In a 3-axis machine, the tool moves in these three directions relative to the
workpiece.
 Cartesian Coordinate system
• In the case of a vertical machining center (VMC):

The X-axis moves the tool left and right.

The Y-axis moves the tool forward and backward.

The Z-axis moves the tool up and down.

• In horizontal machining centers (HMC), the axes may behave similarly, but the
workpiece is usually mounted horizontally.
 Polar Coordinate system
• In addition to the traditional Cartesian system, some CNC systems also use the
Polar Coordinate System for specific applications, particularly in rotary motion or
circular paths.
• Instead of moving along the X, Y, and Z axes, the Polar system uses a combination
of radial distance (r) and angle (θ) to define the position.
• Often used for operations that involve circular patterns or arcs, like turning or
circular milling.
 Absolute Coordinate system
• The Absolute Coordinate System (often simply called absolute positioning) is a
method of defining coordinates relative to a fixed origin, typically in the workpiece
coordinate system. This means that all positions are referenced from a single,
predefined origin point, which doesn't change throughout the program.
• The origin (0,0,0) of the absolute coordinate system is usually set at a fixed point
on the workpiece, commonly at the corner or center, depending on the
programming approach. It’s consistent throughout the entire machining process.
 Relative Coordinate System
• Also called Incremental Coordinate System
• All coordinates are defined relative to the previous position or the last point the
tool was at, rather than from a fixed origin.
• This system is useful for programming when movements are relative, and the exact
starting point isn't as important as the movement increments.
• Absolute Coordinate System (G90):

Example: G0 X50 Y50 (move the tool to the point (50, 50) from the origin of the
workpiece).

• Incremental Coordinate System (G91):

Example: G0 X10 Y10 (move the tool 10 units in the X and Y direction from its
current position).
 CNC Machining Practices
• Setting up a CNC machine ensures that the machining process runs smoothly and the
desired part quality is achieved.
• It involves
• Machine Calibration
• Tool Selection, Tool Wear Monitoring, Tool Change Management
• Fixture Setup & Tool Holding
• Setting the Origin
• Selecting the correct cutting parameters, such as spindle speed, feed rate, and depth
of cut
• Understanding CNC Codes and Programming & Load Program
 Set up and operation of a CNC machine
Setting up a CNC (Computer Numerical Control) machines involves preparing the
machine, the workpiece, and the cutting tools to perform specific operations.

• Turn on the CNC machine and ensure that the machine is initialized and ready for
operation.
• Choose the appropriate cutting tool (end mill or drill) for the operation and securely
mount it into the spindle.
• Place the workpiece onto the machine bed or in a fixture and clamp it firmly.
• Set the workpiece origin (zero point) by touching the tool to the workpiece surface at a
defined reference point (The machine zero should be aligned with the workpiece zero
to ensure accurate positioning)
 Set up and operation of a CNC machine
• Load the G-code program that contains the machining instructions into the machine
controller.
• Ensure the machine is set to the correct feed rates (inches or millimeters per minute),
spindle speeds (RPM), and cutting depth for the operation.
• Conduct a test run without a tool or material to simulate the path of the tool to ensure
that the machine is operating correctly and follows the toolpath properly.
• Start the Machining Process and Ensure that coolant (if needed) is flowing properly
 Key Operations
• on 2-Axis CNC Machines
• Drilling
• Milling
• Engraving
• on 3-Axis CNC Machines:
• 3D Milling
• Drilling and Tapping
• Engraving
• Pocketing and Slotting
 Part Programming: Steps
• Process planning
• Axes selection
• Tool selection
• Cutting-process parameters planning
• Job and tool set-up planning
• Machining-path planning
• Part-program writing
• Part-program proving
 Part Programming : Process planning
• Process plan is a detailed plan of the steps involved in manufacturing
(machining) a given part.
• A programmer is supposed to carry out a careful study of the part drawing to
prepare the process plan.
Process planning
 Part Programming: Axes Selection
• All the CNC machine tools rely on the axes system for describing the axes
motion.
• To correctly describe the motion, it is therefore necessary to establish the axes
system to be followed with the particular part.
• Fixed datum and floating datum are to be defined.
• Select datum such that all the parts are in the first quadrant of the coordinate
system.
• The Z-axis datum is kept generally to match with the top surface of the
workpiece.
 Part Programming: Steps
• Tool selection: we will only select the regular cutting tools for using in CNC
machine tools. No special tooling is generally suggested, since the geometry can
very well be generated by the CNC control.
• Cutting-process parameters planning: Process parameters are selected from the
handbooks supplied by the cutting-tool manufacturers or based on the shop
experience.
• Job and tool set-up planning: This step involves setting the job on the machine
tool and adjusting the cutting tool to the correct position.
 Part Programming: Steps
• Machining-path planning: A careful planning of the tool path ensures that the
requisite manufacturing specifications are achieved at the lowest cost.
• Part-program writing : This aspect deals with the actual writing of the part
programs undertaking the format and syntax restrictions into account.
• Part-program proving : Once the program is made, it should be verified before it
can be loaded on the machine-tool controller for the manufacture of the
component.
 Manual Part Programming : Codes to remember

• G90: Absolute positioning mode

• G91: Incremental Coordinate System
• G00: Rapid Positioning
• G01: Linear cutting operations with a constant feed rate.
• G17: To specify that the machine will operate in the XY plane when performing
circular interpolation operations.
• G21: To set the machine to use metric units
 Manual Part Programming : Codes to remember

• M03: To start the spindle rotating clockwise

• M05: To stop spindle
• M06: To change tool
• M30: End of program
• T01: To specify the tool to be used for the operation.
• F120: To set feed rate of 120 mm/min.
• S3000: To set the spindle speed to 3000 revolutions per minute (RPM).
 Part Program for a CNC machine to drill a hole at a specific location
O0001 (Program Number, Optional)
G21 (Set to Metric Units)
G17 (To set working plane as XY Plane)
G90 (Absolute Positioning)

M06 T1 (Tool Change & select Tool 1(Drill bit))

M03 S500 (Start Spindle at 500 RPM)

G00 Z10 (Move Tool to Safe Height)

G00 X20 Y50 (Rapid Positioning to (20,50)
G01 Z-5 F100 ( Drill a hole to a depth of 5mm at a feed rate of 100 mm/min)
G00 Z10 (Move Tool back to Safe Height)

M05 (Stop Spindle)

M30 (End Program)