Formula sheet of

Functions
1. Functions
a. Introduction of Function, Explicit and Implicit Functions
In a relation from A to B, if with each element of a set A, exactly one element
of a set B is associated, then this association is called a function (f) from set A to set B (represented as f:
A → B)
i) Every x ∈ A is assigned some y ∈ B.
ii) For no x in A, do there exist two choices for f(x).i.e. to every x ∈ A, f should assign one and only one y ∈
B.

Test for Function: If a vertical line can be found that cuts the graph of a relation in two or more points, then it is not a function, else it is a
function.

Explicit Function is a function which is expressed in terms of independent variable only. For example, y = f(x) = x2 + sin x.
Implicit Function is a function expressed in terms of independent as well as dependent variable. For example, x2 + y2 = 1 (for y > 0) is an
explicit function.

b. Definition of domain,Rules for the domain of function

If a function y = f(x), is defined from set A to set B (f: A → B), then the set A is called domain of the function. If domain of the function is
not specified, we take domain as the values of x for which y = f(x) is defined.
Rules for Domain
1. Any expression present in the denominator should be non-zero.
2. Any expression inside a square root sign (or 4th root sign etc.) should be non negative.
3. In case of logab, if a and b are functions of x, the values of x that lie in domain should satisfy, a, b > 0 and a ≠ 1.

c. Definition of co-domain,range,Rules for range

Let f: A→B then the set A is known as the domain of f & the set B is known as co- domain of f.

If a member 'a' of set A is associated to the member 'b' of set B, then 'b' is called the image of 'a' and 'a' is called the pre-image of 'b'.
The set {f(a): a∈A} is called the range of f. Clearly, range is subset of set B.

Methods of determining range

1. Representing x in terms of y: Definition of the function is usually represented as y = f(x). To find range rewrite given definition so as to
represent x in terms of an expression of y (y = f(x) ↔ x = g(y)), then domain of g(y) represents possible values of y, i.e. range of f(x).

2. Graphical Method
Values covered on y-axis by the graph of function is the range of the function.

3. Using Monotonocity/Maxima-Minima
If y = f(x) is continuous in its domain then range of f(x) is y∈ [min f(x), max f(x)]

2. Graphs and Properties of Elementary Functions

a. Constant, Linear, Quadratic
A constant function is a linear function whose range contains only one element irrespective of the number of elements of the domain.
The function y = f (x) = ax + b, a ≠ 0 and x ∈ R, where a and b are constants, is called a linear function. The domain and range of a
linear function is always R
A quadratic function is of the form y = f(x) = ax2 + bx + c, where a, b, and c are constants and a ≠ 0. Its graph is a parabola which may
open upward (a > 0) or downward (a < 0). If a > 0, range of function is [f (−b/2a ), ∞ ) and if a < 0, range of function is (− ∞ , f (−b/2a )]

b. Exponential Functions Basics

i) When 0 < a < 1, ax decreases as x increases and when a > 1, ax increases as x increases.
ii) The values of ax are always positive as the graphs are always above the x – axis for all x.
⎧⎪
⎪ x > y if a >1
iii) a >a ⇒ ⎪⎨⎪⎪
x y
⎪⎩ x < y if 0 <a <1
iv) The domain of exponential function is R and it's range is R+.

c. Logarithmic Functions Basics

The logarithm of a number 'a' to a base 'b' ( a > 0, a # 1) is the exponent indiicating the power to which 'b' must be raised to obtain 'a'.
(logb a = c ⇒b = a ) . From graphs, the range of the logarithmic function is R.
c

For 0 < a < 1 For a > 1

d. Inverse Trigonometric Functions Basics

Function Domain Range
⎡⎢ ⎤
⎢⎢ π π ⎥⎥⎥
sin-1x [-1, 1] ⎢⎢− , ⎥
⎢⎣ 2 2 ⎥⎥⎦
cos-1x [-1, 1] [0, π]
⎛⎜ π π ⎞⎟
tan-1x R ⎜− , ⎟
⎝ 2 2 ⎠
cot-1x R (0,π)
sec-1x R - (-1, 1) [0, π] - {π/2}
⎡⎢ ⎤
⎢⎢ π π ⎥⎥⎥
cosec-1x R - (-1, 1) ⎢⎢− , ⎥ −{0}
⎢⎣ 2 2 ⎥⎥⎦

e. Special Function |x|

⎧⎪
⎪ −x, x <0
Modulus function (denoted as |x|) is given by, f(x) = | x| = ⎪⎨⎪⎪
⎪⎩ x, x ≥ 0
The domain of |x| is R and the range is [0, ∞)

Please note that, the graph is symmetrical about y axis.

f. Special function [x]

The function given by y = f(x) = [x] is greatest integer function. [x] = greatest integer less than or equal to x.
The domain of [x] is R and it's range is all integers.
Properties of [x]
(i) x - 1 < [x] ≤ x
(ii) If f(x) = [n+x], where n ∈ I then f (x) = n + [x]
(iii) [-x] = -[x] if x is an integer and [-x] = - [x] - 1 if x is not an integer.
(iv) If [x] ≥ n, where n ∈ I, then x ≥ n.
If [x] > n, where n ∈ I, then x ≥ n+1.
If [x] ≤ n, where n ∈ I, then x < n+1.
If [x] < n, where n ∈ I, then x < n.
g. Special function sgn(x) , {x}
Signum Function

⎪⎪ −1, x <0 ⎪⎪ |x|

⎧⎪ ⎧⎪
, x≠ 0
OR y= f (x) = ⎪⎨⎪⎪ x
⎪ ⎪
f(x) = ⎪⎨⎪⎪ 1, x >0
⎪⎪ ⎪⎪
⎪⎩ 0, x= 0 ⎪⎩ 0, x= 0

Domain of sgn(x) is R and its range is {-1, 0,1}

Fractional Part Function

The function given by y = f(x) = x - [x] = {x} is fractional part function.

where, [x] = greatest integer less than or equal to x

⎧⎪ 0,
⎪⎪ x∈I
⎪⎪
{x} = ⎨⎪⎪ x, x ∈ [0, 1) and so on.
⎪⎪
⎪⎩ x−1, x ∈ [1, 2)

Domain of {x} is R and its range is [0, 1)

3. Transformation of Graphs
a. f(x±a), f(x)±a
Case 1:
When graph of y = f(x) is known, and we need y = f(x) ± a. (a > 0)
For y = f(x) + a, shift the given graph of f(x) upward through 'a' units
For y = f(x) - a, shift the given graph of f(x) downward through 'a' units

Case 2:

When graph of y = f(x) is known, and we need y = f(x ± a). (a > 0)

For y = f(x + a), shift the given graph of f(x) left through 'a' units
For y = f(x - a), shift the given graph of f(x) right through 'a' units

b. f(kx), kf(x)
Case 1:

For y = f(2x), compress the graph of f(x) horizontally 2 times

For y = f(x/2), stretch the graph of f(x) horizontally 2 times

Note: If k = -1

In order to obtain graph of y = f(-x) from y = f(x), take image of the graph
y = f(x) w.r.t. y axis.

Case 2:

For y = kf(x), stretch the graph of f(x)

vertically k times
For y = f(x)/k, compress the graph of
f(x) vertically k times

Note: If k = -1

In order to obtain graph of y = - f(x) from y = f(x), take image of the graph
y = f(x) w.r.t. x axis.

c. f(|x|), |f(x)|
Case 1: If graph of y = f(x) is known, obtain y = |f(x)| Step
1: Leave the positive part of f(x), (the part of f(x) lying above x-axis) as it is.
Step 2: Take the mirror image of negative part of f(x) (the part of f(x) lying below x-axis) w.r.t. x-axis.
Case 2: If graph of y = f(x) is known, obtain y = f(|x|) Step
1: Leave the graph of f(x) to the right of y-axis as it is and omit the part of graph to the left of y-axis.
Step 2: Take the mirror image of part of f(x) to the right of y-axis w.r.t. y-axis.
Case 3: If graph of y = f(x) is known, obtain |y| = f(x) Step
1: Leave the graph of f(x) above x-axis as it is and omit the part of graph below x-axis.
Step 2: Take the mirror image of part of f(x) above x-axis w.r.t. x-axis.

d. sgn(f(x)), [f(x)], {f(x)}

Case 1: To obtain y = sgn (f(x)) from y = f(x)
1. Plot the graph y = 1 whenever f(x) > 0
2. Plot the graph y = -1 whenever f(x) < 0
3. Plot the graph y = 0 whenever f(x) = 0
Case 2: To obtain y = [f(x)] from y = f(x)
1. Plot the graph y = 0 whenever 0 ≤ f(x) < 1
2. Plot the graph y = 1 whenever 1 ≤ f(x) < 2
3. Plot the graph y = k whenever k ≤ f(x) < k + 1 ∀ k ∈ Z
Case 3: To obtain y = {f(x)} from y = f(x)
1. Plot the graph y = x whenever 0 ≤ f(x) < 1
2. Plot the graph y = x - 1 whenever 1 ≤ f(x) < 2
3. Plot the graph y = x - k whenever k ≤ f(x) < k + 1 ∀ k ∈ Z

4. Kinds of functions
a. One one, Many one Function

One-One Function(Injective Mapping):

A function f: A→B is said to be a one-one function or injective mapping if different elements of A have different f images in B. Thus for
x1,x2 ∈ A & f(x1), f(x2) ∈B,
f(x1) = f(x2) ⇔ x1 = x2 or x1 ≠ x2 ⇔ f(x1) ≠ f(x2).
Many-One Functions:
A function f: A→B is said to be a many-one function if two or more different elements of A have the same f image in B. Thus f: A→B is
many-one if for at least one x1,x2 ∈ A f(x1) = f(x2) but x1 ≠ x2
(i) Number of one-one functions + Number of many-one functions
= Total number of functions.
b. Into, Onto Function

Onto Function (Surjective mapping):

If the function f: A → B is such that each element in B (co-domain) is the f image of at least one element in A, then we say that f is a
function of A onto B. Thus f: A → B is surjective iff ∀ b ∈ B, there exists some a ∈ A such that f(a) = b.
Note:
If the range of function = co-domain, then the function is onto
Into Function:
If f: A → B is such that there exists at least one element in co-domain which is not the image of any element in the domain, then f(x) is
into.

5. PnC based Questions

a. Total number of functions, one one functions

Total Number Of Functions:

Let X and Y are two sets having n and r elements respectively. In a function from X to Y, every element of X must be mapped to an
element of Y. Therefore, each element of X has r elements to be chosen from Y. Therefore,
The total number of functions = r × r × r.......n times = rn.
Number Of One-One Function:
Let X and Y are two sets having n and r elements respectively. Then the number of one-one functions from X to Y them is given by:
⎧⎪ r
⎪⎪ Cn .n! if r≥ n
Number of one-one functions = ⎨⎪⎪
⎪⎩ 0 if r< n

b. Total no. of many one, constant functions

Total Number Of Many-One Functions:

Let X and Y are two sets having n and r elements respectively.
Case-1: If r < n, then Total number of many-one functions = rn
Case-2: If r ≥ n, then the number of many-one functions = rn - rCn.n!.
Total Number Of Constant Functions:
Let X and Y are two sets having n and r elements respectively. then the Total number of constant functions = r.

c. Total no. of onto & into functions

Total Number Of Into Functions:

Let X and Y are two finite sets having n and r elements respectively. Then from X to Y,
Number of into functions = rC1(r-1)n - rC2(r-2)n + rC3(r-3)n -....... if r ≤ n
= rn if r > n
Total Number Of Onto Functions:
Let X and Y are two finite sets having n and r elements respectively. Then from X to Y,
Number Of Onto Functions = Total number of functions - Number of into functions
= rn - rC1(r-1)n + rC2(r-2)n - rC3(r-3)n +....... if r < n,
= r! if r = n
=0 if r > n

6. Even and odd functions

a. Even & odd Function Definition
If f (x) - f (-x) = 0 then f (x) is even and if f (x) + f (-x) = 0 then f (x) is odd.

b. Properties of odd and even functions

1. Every even function is symmetric about the y-axis.
2. Every odd function is symmetric about the origin.
3. Every function (whose domain is symmetrical about origin) can be expressed as the sum of an even & an odd function.
f(x) + f(−x) f(x)−f(−x)
f(x) = +
2 2
even odd
4. If f and g both are even or both are odd then the function f.g will be even but if one is even and another odd, then f.g will be odd.

c. Extension of domain(even,odd)
1. For a function, y = f(x) defined for x ≥ 0, it's even extention for x < 0 is given by:
feven(x) = f(-x) (for x < 0)
2. For a function, y = f(x) defined for x ≥ 0, it's odd extention for x < 0 is given by:
fodd(x) = - f(-x) (for x < 0)

7. Periodic functions
a. Periodic Function Definition
A function f(x) is called periodic, if there exist a real number T > 0 such that for each x in the domain of f, f(x) = f(x + T). Here T is called
period of the function. The least positive period is called the principal or fundamental period of f. Example: sin x & cos x are
both periodic with period 2π

b. Rules for finding period of functions

1
1. If f(x) has a period T, then kf(x), f(x) ± c, f(x ± c), and f (x) are also periodic with period T.
f(x)
T
2. If f(x) has a period T then f (ax+ b) has a period   .
a 
3. If a function f is periodic with period T, then ∀ x in the domain of f and all positive integer n, f (x + nT) = f (x)
f(x)
4. If f (x) has a period T1 & g(x) has a period T2, then period of f(x) ± g(x) or f(x).g(x) or is L.C.M of T1 & T2 provided their L.C.M exist.
g(x)
However that L.C.M (if exists) need not to be fundamental period.

8. Composite functions
a. Composite Function Definition
Let f: A ➜ B and g: B ➜ C be two functions and h: A ➜ C

From figure, when 'f' is applied to x ∈ A, we get y = f(x) ∈ B, and when we apply 'g' to y
(= f(x)) ∈ B, we get z = g(f(x)), which is the composite function defined from set A to set
C.

Note: For domain of gof, f(x) should be defined and g(f(x)) should be defined. In other
words, x should be such that x is in domain of f and f(x) is in domain of g.

b. Properties of composite functions

Properties of composite function
(a) In general gof ≠ fog (i.e. not commutative)
(b) The composite of functions are associative i.e. fo(goh) = (fog)oh
(c) If f and g both are one-one, then gof and fog would also be one-one.
(d) If f and g both are onto, then gof or fog will be onto.
(e) If g is a function such that gof is defined on the domain of f and f is periodic with T, then gof is also periodic with T as one of its
periods.

9. Inverse functions
a. Inverse Functions definition/rules
Let f : A→B be a one-one & onto function, then their exists a unique function
g : B→A such that f(x) = y ⇔ g(y) = x, ∀ x ∈ A & y ∈ B. Then g is said to be inverse of f.
Note: To find the inverse
Step-1: Write y = f (x), f : A→B and interchange x & y
Step-2 : Solve this equation for y in terms of x (if possible)
Step-3 : Express y = f-1 (x), f-1 :B→A

b. Properties of inverse functions

Properties of Inverse Functions
1. Inverse of a bijective function is unique.
2. If f : A → B is a bijection & g : B → A is the inverse of f, then fog = x and gof = x.
3. The inverse of a bijective function is also bijective.
4. If f and g are inverse of each other, then their graphs are image of each other w.r.t. the line y = x. So, we can say that a function and its
inverse can intersect only on line y = x.
5. We know that, if (a, b) lies on y = f(x), then (b, a) lies on y = g(x). Since, both the graphs are image w.r.t. x = y, we have f '(a).g'(b) = 1
6. If f and g are two bijections f: A→B and g: B→C, then the composite function gof is also a bijection.
7. If f and g are two bijections f: A→B and g: B→C, then inverse of gof exists and is given by: (gof)-1 = f-1og-1

10. Binary operation

a. Definition and Types of Binary Operations

Binary Operation:
Let S be a non-empty set. A function f: S × S → S is called a binary operation on set S.
A binary operation on a set S associates each ordered pair (a,b)∈ S × S to a unique element f(a,b) in S.
2
♦ The number of binary operations on a set containing n elements = nn .
Types Of Binary Operations:
1. Commutative:
A binary operation * on a set S is said to be a commutative binary operation, if a * b = b * a for all a, b ∈ S.
2. Associative:
A binary operation * on a set S is said to be an associative binary operation, if (a * b) * c = a * (b * c) for all a, b ∈ S.
3. Distributive:
Let S be a non-empty set and * and ⊙ be two binary operations on S. Then, * is said to be distributive over ⊙ , if
a*(b ⊙ c) = (a*b) ⊙ (a*c) and (b ⊙ c)*a = (b*a) ⊙ (c*a) for all a, b, c ∈ S.

b. Existence of Identity and Inverse

Identity Element:
Let * be a binary operation on a set S. If there exists an element e ∈ S such that a * e = a = e * a for all a ∈ S. Then, e is called an
identity element for the binary operation * on set S.
♦ Let * be a binary operation on a set S. If S has an identity element for *, then it is unique.
Inverse Of An Element:
Let * be a binary operation on a set S, and let e be the identity element in S for the binary operation * on S. Then, an element a ∈ S is
called an invertible element if there exists an element b ∈ S such that a * b = e = b * a
The element b is called an inverse of element a.

11. Equal and identical functions

a. Definition of identical functions
Two functions f & g are said to be equal if
(i) The domain of f = the domain of g.
(ii) The range of f = the range of g and
(iii) f(x) = g(x) , for every x belonging to their common domain.

12. Functional Equations

a. Functional Equations

Functional Equations:
Functional equations are equations where the unknowns are functions, rather than a traditional variable.
General results:
If x, y are independent variables, then:
(i) f(xy) = f(x) + f(y) ⇒ f(x) = k.lnx or f(x) = 0.
(ii) f(xy) = f(x).f(y) ⇒ f(x) = xn , n ∈ R
(iii) f(x+y) = f(x).f(y) ⇒ f(x) = aln x.
(iv) f(x+y) = f(x) + f(y) ⇒ f(x) = k.x, where k is a constant.
⎛1⎞ ⎛1⎞
(v) f(x) .f ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = f(x) + f ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⇒ f(x) = 1 ± xn ( If f(x) is a polynomial)
⎝x⎠ ⎝x⎠