Question 1: What is the difference between a Hard Link and a Soft Link in Linux?

1.​ Question:​
What is the difference between a Hard Link and a Soft Link in Linux?​

2.​ Answer:​

○​ Hard Link: A hard link is a mirror copy of the original file. It shares the same inode
number as the original file. Deleting the original file doesn’t affect the hard link.
○​ Soft Link (Symbolic Link): A soft link is more like a shortcut that points to the original
file. It has a different inode number and if the original file is deleted, the soft link
becomes broken (dangling link).
3.​ What Skills Required to Prepare This Question:​

○​ Understanding of Linux file systems and inodes

○​ Basic knowledge of file linking mechanisms
○​ Command-line proficiency (e.g., ln command)
4.​ How to Study This Question:​

○​ Study the Linux file system structure and inode concepts

○​ Practice creating hard and soft links using commands (ln, ln -s)
○​ Experiment by deleting original files and observing the behavior of links
5.​ Examples for This Question:​

Unset
# Create a file
touch file1.txt

# Create a hard link

ln file1.txt file1_hardlink.txt

# Create a soft link

ln -s file1.txt file1_softlink.txt

# Check inodes
ls -li

Question 2: How do you check disk usage in Linux?

1.​ Question:​
How do you check disk usage in Linux?​
 2.​ Answer:​
You can use the following commands:​

○​ df -h: Displays disk space usage in a human-readable format.

○​ du -sh /path/to/directory: Shows disk usage of a specific directory.
○​ lsblk: Lists block devices and their mount points.
○​ ncdu: An interactive disk usage analyzer.
3.​ What Skills Required to Prepare This Question:​

○​ Familiarity with Linux command-line tools

○​ Understanding of file systems and storage
○​ Ability to interpret disk usage data
4.​ How to Study This Question:​

○​ Practice using the disk usage commands

○​ Learn how to interpret the output (e.g., understanding mounted partitions)
○​ Study different disk file systems and how Linux handles storage
5.​ Examples for This Question:​

Unset
# Check overall disk usage
df -h

# Check usage of a specific directory

du -sh /var/log

# List block devices

lsblk

# Use ncdu for interactive analysis

ncdu /home

Question 3: Explain the Linux boot process.

1.​ Question:​
Explain the Linux boot process.​

2.​ Answer:​
The Linux boot process consists of several stages:​

○​ BIOS/UEFI: Initializes hardware and finds the boot loader.

○​ Boot Loader (GRUB/LILO): Loads the kernel into memory.
○​ Kernel: Initializes system components and mounts the root file system.
○​ init/systemd: Starts system processes and services.
 ○​ Login: Presents the login prompt or GUI.
3.​ What Skills Required to Prepare This Question:​

○​ In-depth understanding of Linux architecture

○​ Familiarity with boot loaders (GRUB, LILO)
○​ Knowledge of system initialization (init/systemd)
4.​ How to Study This Question:​

○​ Study the Linux boot process flow and components

○​ Practice troubleshooting boot issues (e.g., GRUB errors)
○​ Learn systemd and init commands for service management
5.​ Examples for This Question:​

Unset
# View boot log
dmesg | less

# Check systemd boot process

systemctl list-units --type=service

# Edit GRUB configuration

sudo nano /etc/default/grub
sudo update-grub

Question 4: How do you manage services in Linux?

1.​ Question:​
How do you manage services in Linux?​

2.​ Answer:​
Service management in Linux depends on the init system:​

○​ systemd-based systems (modern Linux distros):

■​ Start a service: systemctl start service_name
■​ Stop a service: systemctl stop service_name
■​ Enable service at boot: systemctl enable service_name
■​ Check status: systemctl status service_name
○​ SysVinit-based systems (older distros):
■​ Start a service: service service_name start
■​ Stop a service: service service_name stop
■​ Check status: service service_name status
 3.​ What Skills Required to Prepare This Question:​

○​ Knowledge of Linux service management systems (systemd, SysVinit)

○​ Experience with command-line tools for service control
○​ Understanding of startup scripts and runlevels
4.​ How to Study This Question:​

○​ Practice starting, stopping, and enabling services using systemctl and service
commands
○​ Learn the differences between systemd and SysVinit
○​ Understand how to debug failed services using logs (journalctl)
5.​ Examples for This Question:​

Unset
# Start and enable Apache service

sudo systemctl start apache2

sudo systemctl enable apache2

# Check the status of SSH service

systemctl status ssh

# View logs for a service

journalctl -u apache2

Question 5: What are file permissions in Linux and how do you modify them?
1.​ Question:​
What are file permissions in Linux and how do you modify them?​

2.​ Answer:​
Linux file permissions are divided into three types:​

○​ Read (r): Allows reading the contents of a file or listing a directory.

○​ Write (w): Allows modifying the contents of a file or directory.
○​ Execute (x): Allows executing a file or accessing a directory.
3.​ Permissions are assigned to:​

○​ User (u): Owner of the file

○​ Group (g): Users who belong to the file’s group
○​ Others (o): All other users
4.​ Modify permissions using:​

○​ chmod to change permissions

○​ chown to change ownership
○​ chgrp to change group ownership
5.​ What Skills Required to Prepare This Question:​

○​ Understanding of Linux file permission model

○​ Proficiency in using permission-related commands (chmod, chown, chgrp)
○​ Knowledge of numeric (e.g., 755) and symbolic (e.g., u+x) permission notation
6.​ How to Study This Question:​

○​ Practice changing file and directory permissions

○​ Study permission representation (rwxr-xr--)
○​ Learn how special permissions (SUID, SGID, Sticky bit) work
7.​ Examples for This Question:​

Unset
# View file permissions

ls -l

# Grant execute permission to the user

chmod u+x script.sh

# Change file ownership to user 'john'

chown john file.txt

# Set read, write, execute for user, read and execute for group and
others

chmod 755 myfile

Question 6: How do you schedule tasks in Linux?
1.​ Question:​
How do you schedule tasks in Linux?​

2.​ Answer:​
Linux offers several tools for scheduling tasks:​

○​ cron: For recurring tasks

■​ List cron jobs: crontab -l
■​ Edit cron jobs: crontab -e
■​ Cron syntax: * * * * * /path/to/command
○​ at: For one-time tasks
■​ Schedule a task: echo "command" | at 10:00 AM
■​ List scheduled tasks: atq
○​ systemd timers: Advanced scheduling using systemd
3.​ What Skills Required to Prepare This Question:​

○​ Familiarity with cron and at syntax

○​ Understanding of systemd timers
○​ Basic shell scripting for scheduled tasks
4.​ How to Study This Question:​

○​ Practice setting up cron jobs for various intervals

○​ Use at to schedule one-time tasks
○​ Explore systemd timers for complex scheduling needs
5.​ Examples for This Question:​

Unset
# Schedule a cron job to run every day at 2 AM

crontab -e

# Add the following line

0 2 * * * /path/to/script.sh

# Schedule a one-time task with at

echo "backup.sh" | at 11:30 PM

 # View existing cron jobs

crontab -l

Question 7: How do you check running processes in Linux?

1.​ Question:​
How do you check running processes in Linux?​

2.​ Answer:​
You can check running processes using the following commands:​

○​ ps: Lists running processes.

■​ Example: ps aux shows all processes.
○​ top: Real-time display of running processes and system resource usage.
○​ htop: An enhanced version of top with a user-friendly interface.
○​ pgrep: Searches for processes by name.
○​ pstree: Displays processes in a tree-like format.
3.​ What Skills Required to Prepare This Question:​

○​ Familiarity with Linux process management

○​ Proficiency in using process-related commands
○​ Understanding of process IDs (PIDs) and parent-child relationships
4.​ How to Study This Question:​

○​ Practice using process monitoring commands

○​ Study how to interpret CPU and memory usage in top and htop
○​ Learn to filter and search for specific processes using pgrep and grep
5.​ Examples for This Question:​

Unset
# List all processes

ps aux
 # Display real-time processes

top

# Use htop (if installed)

htop

# Find the PID of nginx

pgrep nginx

# Display processes as a tree

pstree

Question 8: How do you manage users and groups in Linux?

1.​ Question:​
How do you manage users and groups in Linux?​

2.​ Answer:​
Linux provides commands for user and group management:​

○​ User Management:
■​ Add a user: useradd username
■​ Delete a user: userdel username
■​ Modify a user: usermod
■​ Set password: passwd username
○​ Group Management:
■​ Add a group: groupadd groupname
■​ Delete a group: groupdel groupname
■​ Add user to a group: usermod -aG groupname username
○​ User and group information is stored in /etc/passwd, /etc/group, and
/etc/shadow.
3.​ What Skills Required to Prepare This Question:​
 ○​ Understanding of Linux user and group management
○​ Familiarity with permission models and file ownership
○​ Proficiency with related command-line tools
4.​ How to Study This Question:​

○​ Practice adding, modifying, and deleting users and groups

○​ Study the structure of /etc/passwd and /etc/group
○​ Learn how to set and manage user permissions
5.​ Examples for This Question:​

Unset
# Add a new user

sudo useradd john

# Set a password for the user

sudo passwd john

# Add user to the 'sudo' group

sudo usermod -aG sudo john

# List users

cat /etc/passwd

# List groups

cat /etc/group

Question 9: How do you secure a Linux server?

1.​ Question:​
How do you secure a Linux server?​
2.​ Answer:​
Securing a Linux server involves several best practices:​

○​ User and Access Control:

■​ Use strong passwords and SSH keys
■​ Disable root login over SSH (/etc/ssh/sshd_config)
○​ Firewall and Network Security:
■​ Configure firewall using ufw or iptables
■​ Close unused ports
○​ Updates and Patching:
■​ Regularly update the system (apt update && apt upgrade or yum
update)
○​ Intrusion Prevention:
■​ Use tools like fail2ban to block malicious IPs
○​ File Permissions and SELinux/AppArmor:
■​ Set correct file permissions
■​ Enforce security policies using SELinux or AppArmor
3.​ What Skills Required to Prepare This Question:​

○​ Knowledge of Linux security principles

○​ Familiarity with firewalls and intrusion prevention tools
○​ Experience with user and file permission management
4.​ How to Study This Question:​

○​ Practice setting up firewalls (ufw, iptables)

○​ Learn how to harden SSH and manage access control
○​ Study SELinux/AppArmor basics and how to apply security policies
5.​ Examples for This Question:​

Unset
# Enable UFW firewall

sudo ufw enable

sudo ufw allow ssh

# Disable root login over SSH

sudo nano /etc/ssh/sshd_config

# Set PermitRootLogin no

sudo systemctl restart sshd

 # Install and configure fail2ban

sudo apt install fail2ban

sudo systemctl enable fail2ban

Question 10: How do you monitor system performance in Linux?

1.​ Question:​
How do you monitor system performance in Linux?​

2.​ Answer:​
You can monitor system performance using several built-in and third-party tools:​

○​ CPU and Memory Usage:

■​ top / htop: Real-time system performance
■​ vmstat: Reports memory, CPU, and process statistics
○​ Disk I/O:
■​ iostat: Monitors disk I/O performance
■​ iotop: Displays real-time disk usage by processes
○​ Network Usage:
■​ iftop: Real-time network traffic
■​ nload: Shows network traffic in and out
○​ System-wide Monitoring:
■​ sar: Collects and reports system activity
■​ dstat: Versatile tool for various system resources
3.​ What Skills Required to Prepare This Question:​

○​ Understanding of system resource management

○​ Familiarity with Linux performance monitoring tools
○​ Ability to interpret system metrics for troubleshooting
4.​ How to Study This Question:​

○​ Practice using monitoring tools in different system load scenarios

○​ Learn how to analyze performance bottlenecks
○​ Study how to optimize system resources based on monitoring data
 5.​ Examples for This Question:​

Unset
# Real-time CPU and memory usage

top

# View disk I/O statistics

iostat

# Check network traffic

iftop

# Overall system performance

vmstat 5

# Install and use htop

sudo apt install htop

htop

Question 11: How do you configure a firewall in Linux?

1.​ Question:​
How do you configure a firewall in Linux?​

2.​ Answer:​
There are multiple tools to configure firewalls in Linux:​

○​ UFW (Uncomplicated Firewall):

■​ Enable UFW: sudo ufw enable
 ■​ Allow SSH: sudo ufw allow ssh
■​ Check status: sudo ufw status
○​ iptables:
■​ View rules: sudo iptables -L
■​ Allow traffic on port 80: sudo iptables -A INPUT -p tcp --dport 80
-j ACCEPT
■​ Save rules: sudo iptables-save > /etc/iptables/rules.v4
○​ firewalld:
■​ Start firewalld: sudo systemctl start firewalld
■​ Allow service: sudo firewall-cmd --permanent --add-service=http
■​ Reload rules: sudo firewall-cmd --reload
3.​ What Skills Required to Prepare This Question:​

○​ Knowledge of Linux firewall tools (UFW, iptables, firewalld)

○​ Understanding of networking concepts (ports, protocols)
○​ Familiarity with security best practices
4.​ How to Study This Question:​

○​ Practice setting up firewalls using UFW and iptables

○​ Study how to open/close ports and create rules
○​ Understand common firewall policies and configurations
5.​ Examples for This Question:​

Unset
# UFW example

sudo ufw enable

sudo ufw allow 22/tcp

sudo ufw status

# iptables example

sudo iptables -A INPUT -p tcp --dport 443 -j ACCEPT

sudo iptables -L

# firewalld example

sudo firewall-cmd --zone=public --add-port=8080/tcp --permanent

 sudo firewall-cmd --reload

Question 12: How do you mount and unmount file systems in Linux?
1.​ Question:​
How do you mount and unmount file systems in Linux?​

2.​ Answer:​
Mounting and unmounting file systems can be done using the following commands:​

○​ Mount a file system:

■​ mount /dev/sdX1 /mnt/mydisk
○​ Unmount a file system:
■​ umount /mnt/mydisk
○​ View mounted file systems:
■​ df -h or mount
○​ Mount with specific options:
■​ mount -o ro /dev/sdX1 /mnt/mydisk (mount as read-only)
○​ Persistent Mounting:
■​ Edit /etc/fstab to auto-mount file systems on boot.
3.​ What Skills Required to Prepare This Question:​

○​ Understanding of Linux file system structures

○​ Knowledge of disk partitions and devices
○​ Familiarity with mount options and fstab configurations
4.​ How to Study This Question:​

○​ Practice mounting/unmounting drives and network shares

○​ Study the structure of /etc/fstab and mount options
○​ Learn to troubleshoot mount errors and permissions
5.​ Examples for This Question:​

Unset
# Mount a disk

sudo mount /dev/sdb1 /mnt/data

# Unmount a disk
 sudo umount /mnt/data

# View mounted file systems

df -h

# Edit fstab for persistent mount

sudo nano /etc/fstab

# Example line

/dev/sdb1 /mnt/data ext4 defaults 0 2

Question 13: How do you troubleshoot network issues in Linux?

1.​ Question:​
How do you troubleshoot network issues in Linux?​

2.​ Answer:​
Network issues can be diagnosed using several tools:​

○​ Check Network Configuration:

■​ ifconfig or ip addr to view network interfaces
■​ ip route to check routing tables
○​ Test Connectivity:
■​ ping to test connectivity to another host
■​ traceroute or tracepath to trace the path to a host
○​ Check DNS Resolution:
■​ nslookup or dig to verify DNS resolution
○​ Check Open Ports and Services:
■​ netstat -tuln or ss -tuln to list listening ports
■​ lsof -i to see which processes are using network ports
○​ Analyze Network Traffic:
■​ tcpdump or wireshark for packet capture and analysis
3.​ What Skills Required to Prepare This Question:​
 ○​ Understanding of networking fundamentals (IP, DNS, routing)
○​ Proficiency with Linux networking tools
○​ Ability to diagnose and resolve connectivity and performance issues
4.​ How to Study This Question:​

○​ Practice using networking commands in different scenarios

○​ Study how to interpret traceroute and packet captures
○​ Simulate network issues and practice troubleshooting
5.​ Examples for This Question:​

Unset
# Check network interfaces

ip addr

# Test connectivity to google.com

ping google.com

# Trace the path to a remote host

traceroute google.com

# Check DNS resolution

dig openai.com

# Capture network traffic on eth0

sudo tcpdump -i eth0

Question 14: How do you manage disk space in Linux?

1.​ Question:​
How do you manage disk space in Linux?​
2.​ Answer:​
Disk space management involves monitoring usage, cleaning up files, and managing partitions:​

○​ Check Disk Usage:

■​ df -h to display disk space usage
■​ du -sh /path/to/directory to check directory size
○​ Find Large Files:
■​ find / -type f -size +500M to locate files over 500MB
○​ Clean Up Space:
■​ Remove unused files and logs
■​ Use logrotate to manage log file sizes
○​ Manage Partitions:
■​ fdisk or parted for partition management
■​ resize2fs or xfs_growfs to resize file systems
3.​ What Skills Required to Prepare This Question:​

○​ Knowledge of Linux file systems and partitions

○​ Familiarity with disk monitoring and cleanup tools
○​ Understanding of file system resizing and disk optimization
4.​ How to Study This Question:​

○​ Practice monitoring and managing disk space

○​ Learn how to safely clean up system logs and temporary files
○​ Study partitioning tools and file system resizing techniques
5.​ Examples for This Question:​

Unset
# Check overall disk usage

df -h

# Check disk usage in a specific directory

du -sh /var/log

# Find large files over 1GB

find / -type f -size +1G

 # Manage partitions

sudo fdisk /dev/sdb

# Resize ext4 file system

sudo resize2fs /dev/sdb1

Question 15: How do you create and manage symbolic and hard links in Linux?
1.​ Question:​
How do you create and manage symbolic and hard links in Linux?​

2.​ Answer:​
Linux supports two types of links:​

○​ Hard Links:
■​ Point directly to the inode of a file
■​ Cannot span across file systems
■​ Created using: ln source_file link_name
○​ Symbolic (Soft) Links:
■​ Point to the path of the target file
■​ Can link directories and cross file systems
■​ Created using: ln -s source_file link_name
3.​ Managing Links:​

○​ Use ls -l to view links (l indicates a symbolic link)

○​ Use readlink to display the target of a symlink
○​ Remove links with rm link_name
4.​ What Skills Required to Prepare This Question:​

○​ Understanding of Linux file system structures and inodes

○​ Familiarity with ln and link management commands
○​ Knowledge of differences and use cases for hard and symbolic links
5.​ How to Study This Question:​

○​ Practice creating and managing both types of links

○​ Study how links behave when the source file is moved or deleted
○​ Understand the implications of using links in scripts and applications
6.​ Examples for This Question:​
 Unset
# Create a hard link

ln original.txt hardlink.txt

# Create a symbolic link

ln -s /var/www/html website_link

# View links

ls -l

# Check the target of a symlink

readlink website_link

# Remove a link

rm hardlink.txt

Question 16: How do you set up a cron job in Linux?

1.​ Question:​
How do you set up a cron job in Linux?​

2.​ Answer:​
Cron is a time-based job scheduler in Linux used to run scripts and commands at specified
intervals.​

○​ Edit crontab:
■​ crontab -e to edit the user's cron jobs
■​ crontab -l to list existing cron jobs
■​ crontab -r to remove all cron jobs
○​ Cron Syntax:
■​ * * * * * /path/to/command
 ■​ Format: minute hour day month day_of_week command
○​ System-Wide Cron Jobs:
■​ Placed in /etc/crontab or /etc/cron.d/
○​ Logs:
■​ Cron logs can be found in /var/log/syslog or /var/log/cron
3.​ What Skills Required to Prepare This Question:​

○​ Understanding of cron syntax and scheduling

○​ Familiarity with Linux command-line tools
○​ Ability to debug and monitor scheduled tasks
4.​ How to Study This Question:​

○​ Practice creating and managing cron jobs

○​ Study different cron timing examples
○​ Learn to troubleshoot common cron issues
5.​ Examples for This Question:​

Unset
# Edit user's crontab

crontab -e

# Run a script every day at midnight

0 0 * * * /home/user/backup.sh

# List cron jobs

crontab -l

# View cron logs

tail -f /var/log/syslog | grep CRON

Question 17: How do you configure SSH for secure remote access?
1.​ Question:​
How do you configure SSH for secure remote access?​

2.​ Answer:​
SSH (Secure Shell) allows secure remote login and command execution.​

○​ Basic Setup:
■​ Install SSH: sudo apt install openssh-server
■​ Start service: sudo systemctl start ssh
○​ Security Enhancements:
■​ Disable root login:
■​ Edit /etc/ssh/sshd_config: PermitRootLogin no
■​ Use SSH Keys:
■​ Generate key: ssh-keygen
■​ Copy key to server: ssh-copy-id user@server
■​ Change default port:
■​ Edit /etc/ssh/sshd_config: Port 2222
○​ Restart SSH Service:
■​ sudo systemctl restart ssh
3.​ What Skills Required to Prepare This Question:​

○​ Understanding of SSH protocol and configuration

○​ Knowledge of Linux security best practices
○​ Familiarity with key-based authentication
4.​ How to Study This Question:​

○​ Practice setting up and securing SSH connections

○​ Study SSH configuration options and logs
○​ Learn to troubleshoot common SSH issues
5.​ Examples for This Question:​

Unset
# Install SSH server

sudo apt install openssh-server

# Generate SSH key pair

ssh-keygen

# Copy key to remote server

 ssh-copy-id user@remote_server

# Edit SSH config to disable root login

sudo nano /etc/ssh/sshd_config

# Set PermitRootLogin no

# Restart SSH service

sudo systemctl restart ssh

Question 18: How do you manage services in Linux using systemd?

1.​ Question:​
How do you manage services in Linux using systemd?​

2.​ Answer:​
Systemd is a system and service manager for Linux.​

○​ Service Management Commands:

■​ Start a service: sudo systemctl start service_name
■​ Stop a service: sudo systemctl stop service_name
■​ Restart a service: sudo systemctl restart service_name
■​ Enable service at boot: sudo systemctl enable service_name
■​ Disable service: sudo systemctl disable service_name
○​ Check Service Status:
■​ sudo systemctl status service_name
○​ View Logs:
■​ Use journalctl: journalctl -u service_name
3.​ What Skills Required to Prepare This Question:​

○​ Understanding of systemd and service management

○​ Familiarity with Linux boot processes
○​ Ability to read and interpret system logs
4.​ How to Study This Question:​

○​ Practice managing services with systemd

○​ Study unit files and how to create custom services
 ○​ Learn how to debug service startup issues
5.​ Examples for This Question:​

Unset
# Start and enable nginx service

sudo systemctl start nginx

sudo systemctl enable nginx

# Check service status

sudo systemctl status nginx

# View service logs

journalctl -u nginx

# Disable a service

sudo systemctl disable apache2

Question 19: How do you set file permissions in Linux?

1.​ Question:​
How do you set file permissions in Linux?​

2.​ Answer:​
Linux uses a permission model with three sets of permissions: user (owner), group, and
others.​

○​ View Permissions:
■​ ls -l filename shows permissions (e.g., -rwxr-xr--)
○​ Change Permissions with chmod:
■​ Symbolic Mode: chmod u+x script.sh (add execute for user)
 ■​ Numeric Mode: chmod 755 script.sh
■​ 7 = read + write + execute (rwx)
■​ 5 = read + execute (r-x)
■​ 5 = read + execute (r-x)
○​ Change Ownership with chown:
■​ sudo chown user:group file
○​ Change Group with chgrp:
■​ sudo chgrp groupname file
3.​ What Skills Required to Prepare This Question:​

○​ Understanding of Linux file permission structure

○​ Familiarity with chmod, chown, and chgrp commands
○​ Knowledge of symbolic and numeric permission modes
4.​ How to Study This Question:​

○​ Practice modifying permissions on files and directories

○​ Study the implications of different permission sets
○​ Learn about special permissions like SUID, SGID, and sticky bits
5.​ Examples for This Question:​

Unset
# View permissions

ls -l file.txt

# Give execute permission to the owner

chmod u+x script.sh

# Set permissions to rwxr-xr--

chmod 754 file.txt

# Change file ownership

sudo chown user1:usergroup file.txt

 # Change group ownership

sudo chgrp devteam project/

Question 20: How do you configure NFS (Network File System) in Linux?
1.​ Question:​
How do you configure NFS (Network File System) in Linux?​

2.​ Answer:​
NFS allows file sharing between Linux systems over a network.​

○​ On the NFS Server:

■​ Install NFS: sudo apt install nfs-kernel-server
■​ Configure exports in /etc/exports:
■​ Example: /shared_folder
192.168.1.0/24(rw,sync,no_subtree_check)
■​ Apply exports: sudo exportfs -a
■​ Start NFS service: sudo systemctl start nfs-kernel-server
○​ On the NFS Client:
■​ Install NFS: sudo apt install nfs-common
■​ Create mount point: sudo mkdir /mnt/nfs_share
■​ Mount share: sudo mount server_ip:/shared_folder /mnt/nfs_share
■​ Add to /etc/fstab for persistent mount
3.​ What Skills Required to Prepare This Question:​

○​ Understanding of network file sharing protocols

○​ Familiarity with NFS server/client setup
○​ Knowledge of permissions and network security
4.​ How to Study This Question:​

○​ Practice setting up NFS on a local network

○​ Study export options and security considerations
○​ Learn to troubleshoot common NFS issues
5.​ Examples for This Question:​

Unset
# On NFS server - configure exports
 echo "/srv/nfs 192.168.1.0/24(rw,sync,no_subtree_check)" | sudo tee -a
/etc/exports

sudo exportfs -a

sudo systemctl restart nfs-kernel-server

# On NFS client - mount the share

sudo mkdir /mnt/nfs_share

sudo mount 192.168.1.10:/srv/nfs /mnt/nfs_share

# Verify mount

df -h | grep nfs

Question 21: How do you manage users and groups in Linux?

1.​ Question:​
How do you manage users and groups in Linux?​

2.​ Answer:​
Linux provides several commands to manage users and groups:​

○​ Create User:
■​ sudo useradd -m username (creates user with home directory)
■​ Set password: sudo passwd username
○​ Modify User:
■​ sudo usermod -aG groupname username (add user to a group)
■​ sudo usermod -s /bin/bash username (change default shell)
○​ Delete User:
■​ sudo userdel -r username (removes user and home directory)
○​ Manage Groups:
■​ Create group: sudo groupadd groupname
■​ Delete group: sudo groupdel groupname
■​ Change group ownership: sudo chgrp groupname file
3.​ What Skills Required to Prepare This Question:​
 ○​ Understanding of Linux user/group management
○​ Familiarity with system permissions and file ownership
○​ Knowledge of user security policies
4.​ How to Study This Question:​

○​ Practice creating, modifying, and deleting users/groups

○​ Study /etc/passwd and /etc/group files
○​ Learn to manage user permissions and roles
5.​ Examples for This Question:​

Unset
# Create a new user with a home directory

sudo useradd -m john

# Set user password

sudo passwd john

# Add user to sudo group

sudo usermod -aG sudo john

# Create a new group

sudo groupadd developers

# Add user to the developers group

sudo usermod -aG developers john

# Delete user and their home directory

sudo userdel -r john

Question 22: How do you monitor system performance in Linux?
1.​ Question:​
How do you monitor system performance in Linux?​

2.​ Answer:​
Linux provides several tools to monitor system performance:​

○​ CPU and Memory Usage:

■​ top or htop for real-time system monitoring
■​ vmstat for system performance statistics
○​ Disk Usage and I/O:
■​ df -h for disk space usage
■​ iostat for disk I/O statistics
■​ du -sh /path/to/directory for directory size
○​ Network Monitoring:
■​ iftop or nload for real-time network traffic
■​ netstat or ss for active connections
○​ System Logs:
■​ View logs in /var/log/ (e.g., syslog, dmesg)
○​ Advanced Monitoring:
■​ Use tools like sar, glances, or nmon for comprehensive monitoring
3.​ What Skills Required to Prepare This Question:​

○​ Familiarity with Linux performance monitoring tools

○​ Understanding of system resources (CPU, memory, disk, network)
○​ Ability to interpret performance metrics
4.​ How to Study This Question:​

○​ Practice using system monitoring commands

○​ Study performance bottlenecks and their resolutions
○​ Learn to set up alerts and log monitoring
5.​ Examples for This Question:​

Unset
# Monitor CPU and memory

top

# Display disk usage

 df -h

# Check disk I/O

iostat

# Monitor network traffic

iftop

# View system logs

tail -f /var/log/syslog

Question 23: How do you configure a firewall in Linux using iptables or firewalld?
1.​ Question:​
How do you configure a firewall in Linux using iptables or firewalld?​

2.​ Answer:​
Linux firewalls can be configured using iptables or firewalld.​

○​ Using firewalld:
■​ Start/enable firewalld: sudo systemctl enable --now firewalld
■​ Check status: sudo firewall-cmd --state
■​ Allow a port: sudo firewall-cmd --permanent --add-port=80/tcp
■​ Reload firewall: sudo firewall-cmd --reload
○​ Using iptables:
■​ Allow traffic on port 22 (SSH): sudo iptables -A INPUT -p tcp --dport
22 -j ACCEPT
■​ Drop all other incoming traffic: sudo iptables -P INPUT DROP
■​ List rules: sudo iptables -L -v
■​ Save rules: sudo iptables-save > /etc/iptables/rules.v4
3.​ What Skills Required to Prepare This Question:​

○​ Understanding of network security and firewall principles

 ○​ Familiarity with iptables and firewalld commands
○​ Knowledge of ports, protocols, and traffic filtering
4.​ How to Study This Question:​

○​ Practice configuring firewalls in a safe environment

○​ Study different rule sets and their implications
○​ Learn to troubleshoot connectivity issues caused by firewall rules
5.​ Examples for This Question:​

Unset
# Using firewalld - allow HTTP traffic

sudo firewall-cmd --permanent --add-service=http

sudo firewall-cmd --reload

# Using iptables - allow SSH traffic

sudo iptables -A INPUT -p tcp --dport 22 -j ACCEPT

# Block all incoming traffic except SSH

sudo iptables -P INPUT DROP

sudo iptables -A INPUT -p tcp --dport 22 -j ACCEPT

# View iptables rules

sudo iptables -L -v

Question 24: How do you configure RAID in Linux?

1.​ Question:​
How do you configure RAID in Linux?​

2.​ Answer:​
RAID (Redundant Array of Independent Disks) improves performance and redundancy.​
 ○​ Install mdadm:
■​ sudo apt install mdadm
○​ Create RAID Array:
■​ Example for RAID 1 (mirroring):​
sudo mdadm --create --verbose /dev/md0 --level=1
--raid-devices=2 /dev/sd[b-c]
○​ Check RAID Status:
■​ cat /proc/mdstat
■​ sudo mdadm --detail /dev/md0
○​ Create File System and Mount:
■​ sudo mkfs.ext4 /dev/md0
■​ sudo mount /dev/md0 /mnt/raid
○​ Save Configuration:
■​ sudo mdadm --detail --scan | sudo tee -a
/etc/mdadm/mdadm.conf
■​ Update initramfs: sudo update-initramfs -u
3.​ What Skills Required to Prepare This Question:​

○​ Understanding of RAID levels and their use cases

○​ Familiarity with mdadm and disk management tools
○​ Knowledge of redundancy and performance optimization
4.​ How to Study This Question:​

○​ Practice setting up different RAID levels

○​ Study the pros and cons of various RAID configurations
○​ Learn how to handle disk failures and RAID recovery
5.​ Examples for This Question:​

Unset
# Install mdadm

sudo apt install mdadm

# Create RAID 1 array

sudo mdadm --create --verbose /dev/md0 --level=1 --raid-devices=2

/dev/sdb /dev/sdc

# Check RAID status

cat /proc/mdstat
 sudo mdadm --detail /dev/md0

# Format and mount RAID

sudo mkfs.ext4 /dev/md0

sudo mount /dev/md0 /mnt/raid

Question 25: How do you troubleshoot network issues in Linux?

1.​ Question:​
How do you troubleshoot network issues in Linux?​

2.​ Answer:​
Linux offers several tools to diagnose and troubleshoot network problems:​

○​ Check Network Interfaces:

■​ ip addr or ifconfig to view IP addresses
■​ ip link to view network interface status
○​ Test Connectivity:
■​ ping google.com to check external connectivity
■​ ping 8.8.8.8 to check DNS issues
○​ Check Routing and DNS:
■​ ip route or route -n to view routing tables
■​ cat /etc/resolv.conf to check DNS configuration
○​ Analyze Network Traffic:
■​ netstat -tuln or ss -tuln to list open ports
■​ tcpdump or wireshark for packet analysis
○​ Check Firewall Rules:
■​ sudo iptables -L -v or sudo firewall-cmd --list-all
3.​ What Skills Required to Prepare This Question:​

○​ Understanding of network protocols (TCP/IP, DNS, etc.)

○​ Familiarity with Linux networking tools
○​ Ability to interpret network diagnostics
4.​ How to Study This Question:​

○​ Practice diagnosing real-world network issues

○​ Study network troubleshooting flowcharts
 ○​ Learn common causes of network failures in Linux
5.​ Examples for This Question:​

Unset
# Check IP address and network interfaces

ip addr

# Test internet connectivity

ping google.com

# View routing table

ip route

# Check DNS settings

cat /etc/resolv.conf

# List open ports

ss -tuln

# Capture packets on eth0

sudo tcpdump -i eth0

Question 26: How do you create and manage logical volumes using LVM?
1.​ Question:​
How do you create and manage logical volumes using LVM in Linux?​
2.​ Answer:​
LVM (Logical Volume Manager) allows flexible disk management.​

○​ Install LVM Tools:

■​ sudo apt install lvm2
○​ Create Physical Volumes (PV):
■​ sudo pvcreate /dev/sd[b-c]
○​ Create Volume Group (VG):
■​ sudo vgcreate my_vg /dev/sd[b-c]
○​ Create Logical Volume (LV):
■​ sudo lvcreate -L 10G -n my_lv my_vg
○​ Format and Mount:
■​ sudo mkfs.ext4 /dev/my_vg/my_lv
■​ sudo mkdir /mnt/my_lv
■​ sudo mount /dev/my_vg/my_lv /mnt/my_lv
○​ Extend Logical Volume:
■​ sudo lvextend -L +5G /dev/my_vg/my_lv
■​ sudo resize2fs /dev/my_vg/my_lv
3.​ What Skills Required to Prepare This Question:​

○​ Understanding of LVM concepts (PV, VG, LV)

○​ Familiarity with disk partitioning and file systems
○​ Ability to manage storage dynamically
4.​ How to Study This Question:​

○​ Practice creating and modifying LVM setups

○​ Study LVM best practices and recovery methods
○​ Learn to handle disk failures in LVM
5.​ Examples for This Question:​

Unset
# Create physical volumes

sudo pvcreate /dev/sdb /dev/sdc

# Create volume group

sudo vgcreate data_vg /dev/sdb /dev/sdc

# Create logical volume

 sudo lvcreate -L 20G -n data_lv data_vg

# Format and mount

sudo mkfs.ext4 /dev/data_vg/data_lv

sudo mount /dev/data_vg/data_lv /mnt/data

# Extend logical volume

sudo lvextend -L +10G /dev/data_vg/data_lv

sudo resize2fs /dev/data_vg/data_lv

Question 27: How do you secure a Linux server?

1.​ Question:​
How do you secure a Linux server?​

2.​ Answer:​
Securing a Linux server involves multiple layers of protection:​

○​ User and Authentication Security:

■​ Disable root SSH login: Edit /etc/ssh/sshd_config → PermitRootLogin
no
■​ Enforce strong passwords and use SSH keys
○​ Firewall and Network Security:
■​ Use iptables or firewalld to restrict traffic
■​ Close unnecessary ports and services
○​ File and Directory Permissions:
■​ Set appropriate permissions using chmod and chown
■​ Use umask to define default permissions
○​ Updates and Patching:
■​ Regularly apply updates: sudo apt update && sudo apt upgrade
■​ Automate updates using tools like unattended-upgrades
○​ Intrusion Detection and Monitoring:
■​ Install tools like fail2ban and tripwire
■​ Monitor logs with logwatch or logrotate
 3.​ What Skills Required to Prepare This Question:​

○​ Knowledge of Linux security best practices

○​ Familiarity with authentication and firewall configurations
○​ Understanding of intrusion detection and system monitoring
4.​ How to Study This Question:​

○​ Practice securing test servers

○​ Study security hardening guides for Linux
○​ Learn to perform security audits
5.​ Examples for This Question:​

Unset
# Disable root SSH login

sudo sed -i 's/PermitRootLogin yes/PermitRootLogin no/'

/etc/ssh/sshd_config

sudo systemctl restart ssh

# Set up UFW firewall

sudo ufw enable

sudo ufw allow 22/tcp

sudo ufw allow 80/tcp

sudo ufw deny 23/tcp # Block Telnet

# Install and configure fail2ban

sudo apt install fail2ban

sudo systemctl enable fail2ban

Question 28: How do you set up passwordless SSH in Linux?

1.​ Question:​
How do you set up passwordless SSH in Linux?​

2.​ Answer:​
Passwordless SSH allows users to authenticate using SSH keys instead of passwords.​

○​ Generate SSH Key Pair:

■​ On the client machine: ssh-keygen -t rsa -b 4096
■​ This generates a public (~/.ssh/id_rsa.pub) and private (~/.ssh/id_rsa)
key.
○​ Copy Public Key to Remote Server:
■​ Use ssh-copy-id: ssh-copy-id user@remote_server
■​ Alternatively, manually copy:

Unset
cat ~/.ssh/id_rsa.pub | ssh user@remote_server 'cat >>
~/.ssh/authorized_keys'

○​ Set Correct Permissions:

■​ On the remote server:

Unset
chmod 700 ~/.ssh

chmod 600 ~/.ssh/authorized_keys

○​ Test Passwordless SSH:

■​ ssh user@remote_server
3.​ What Skills Required to Prepare This Question:​

○​ Understanding of SSH protocols and key-based authentication

○​ Familiarity with Linux permissions and user configurations
○​ Basic networking knowledge
4.​ How to Study This Question:​

○​ Practice setting up passwordless SSH between systems

○​ Study SSH configurations (/etc/ssh/sshd_config)
○​ Learn to troubleshoot SSH connection issues
5.​ Examples for This Question:​
 Unset
# Generate SSH key

ssh-keygen -t rsa -b 4096

# Copy public key to server

ssh-copy-id user@192.168.1.100

# Test passwordless login

ssh user@192.168.1.100

Question 29: How do you manage and schedule tasks using cron in Linux?
1.​ Question:​
How do you manage and schedule tasks using cron in Linux?​

2.​ Answer:​
Cron is a time-based job scheduler in Unix-like systems.​

○​ Edit Crontab:
■​ crontab -e to edit the user's crontab file.
○​ Crontab Syntax:

Unset
* * * * * command_to_execute

| | | | |

| | | | +----- Day of the week (0 - 7) [Sunday=0 or 7]

| | | +------- Month (1 - 12)

| | +--------- Day of the month (1 - 31)

| +----------- Hour (0 - 23)

+------------- Minute (0 - 59)

○​ List and Remove Crontab Jobs:

■​ crontab -l to list jobs
■​ crontab -r to remove crontab
○​ Common Cron Directories:
■​ /etc/crontab, /etc/cron.d/, /etc/cron.daily/, /etc/cron.hourly/
3.​ What Skills Required to Prepare This Question:​

○​ Understanding of cron job scheduling

○​ Familiarity with Linux file permissions
○​ Basic shell scripting knowledge
4.​ How to Study This Question:​

○​ Practice creating and managing cron jobs

○​ Study cron logs (/var/log/syslog or /var/log/cron)
○​ Learn to debug and handle common cron errors
5.​ Examples for This Question:​

Unset
# Open crontab

crontab -e

# Example jobs:

# Run backup script daily at 2 AM

0 2 * * * /home/user/backup.sh

# Clear temp files every Sunday at midnight

0 0 * * 0 rm -rf /tmp/*

# List current cron jobs

 crontab -l

Question 30: How do you recover a Linux system with a forgotten root password?
1.​ Question:​
How do you recover a Linux system with a forgotten root password?​

2.​ Answer:​
To reset a forgotten root password:​

○​ Boot into GRUB:

■​ Restart the system and access GRUB menu (usually by pressing Esc or Shift).
○​ Edit GRUB Entry:
■​ Highlight the boot entry and press e to edit.
■​ Find the line starting with linux and append init=/bin/bash.
○​ Boot into Single-User Mode:
■​ Press Ctrl + X or F10 to boot.
○​ Remount Root Filesystem:
■​ mount -o remount,rw /
○​ Reset Password:
■​ passwd root and enter a new password.
○​ Reboot System:
■​ exec /sbin/init or reboot
3.​ What Skills Required to Prepare This Question:​

○​ Understanding of GRUB and Linux boot processes

○​ Familiarity with filesystem permissions
○​ Knowledge of system recovery techniques
4.​ How to Study This Question:​

○​ Practice password recovery on a test system

○​ Study Linux boot process and GRUB configurations
○​ Learn security implications of this method
5.​ Examples for This Question:​

Unset
# After booting into single-user mode

mount -o remount,rw /
 # Reset root password

passwd root

# Reboot the system

reboot

Question 31: How do you configure a static IP address in Linux?

1.​ Question:​
How do you configure a static IP address in Linux?​

2.​ Answer:​
Static IP configuration depends on the Linux distribution.​
​
On Debian/Ubuntu-based systems:​

○​ Edit the network interfaces file:

Unset
sudo nano /etc/network/interfaces

○​ Add the following:

Unset
auto eth0

iface eth0 inet static

address 192.168.1.100

netmask 255.255.255.0
 gateway 192.168.1.1

dns-nameservers 8.8.8.8 8.8.4.4

○​ Restart networking:

Unset
sudo systemctl restart networking

3.​ ​
On RHEL/CentOS-based systems:​

○​ Edit the interface configuration file:

Unset
sudo nano /etc/sysconfig/network-scripts/ifcfg-eth0

○​ Update with:

Unset
BOOTPROTO=static

ONBOOT=yes

IPADDR=192.168.1.100

NETMASK=255.255.255.0

GATEWAY=192.168.1.1

DNS1=8.8.8.8

○​ Restart network service:

Unset
sudo systemctl restart network
 4.​ ​
What Skills Required to Prepare This Question:​

○​ Knowledge of Linux networking

○​ Familiarity with network configuration files
○​ Understanding of IP addressing and subnetting
5.​ How to Study This Question:​

○​ Practice static IP configuration on virtual machines

○​ Study network configuration tools like netplan and nmcli
○​ Learn basic networking concepts
6.​ Examples for This Question:​

Unset
# Check current IP configuration

ip addr

# Apply new IP settings (Ubuntu)

sudo systemctl restart networking

# Verify static IP

ping google.com

Question 32: How do you monitor system performance in Linux?

1.​ Question:​
How do you monitor system performance in Linux?​

2.​ Answer:​
Linux offers several tools to monitor system performance:​

○​ CPU Usage:​

■​ top or htop for real-time process monitoring

■​ mpstat (from sysstat package) for CPU stats
○​ Memory Usage:​
 ■​ free -h to view RAM usage
■​ vmstat for virtual memory statistics
○​ Disk Usage and I/O:​

■​ df -h to check disk space

■​ du -sh /path/to/directory for directory size
■​ iotop to monitor disk I/O
○​ Network Monitoring:​

■​ iftop for real-time bandwidth usage

■​ nload for network traffic
○​ Overall System Health:​

■​ sar (from sysstat) for historical data

■​ glances for an all-in-one system monitor
3.​ What Skills Required to Prepare This Question:​

○​ Understanding of Linux system resources

○​ Familiarity with system monitoring tools
○​ Ability to analyze performance data
4.​ How to Study This Question:​

○​ Use the tools regularly on active systems

○​ Study performance tuning guides
○​ Learn to identify system bottlenecks
5.​ Examples for This Question:​

Unset
# Monitor CPU and memory

top

# Check disk usage

df -h

# View network usage

iftop
 # Monitor overall system health

glances

Question 33: How do you configure a firewall using iptables in Linux?

1.​ Question:​
How do you configure a firewall using iptables in Linux?​

2.​ Answer:​
iptables is a command-line firewall tool in Linux.​

○​ View Existing Rules:​

Unset
sudo iptables -L -v

○​ ​
Basic Commands:​

■​ Allow SSH (port 22):

Unset
sudo iptables -A INPUT -p tcp --dport 22 -j ACCEPT

■​ Allow HTTP (port 80):

Unset
sudo iptables -A INPUT -p tcp --dport 80 -j ACCEPT

■​ Block an IP address:

Unset
sudo iptables -A INPUT -s 192.168.1.50 -j DROP
 ■​ Drop all other incoming traffic:

Unset
sudo iptables -P INPUT DROP

○​ ​
Save and Persist Rules:​

■​ On Debian/Ubuntu:

Unset
sudo iptables-save > /etc/iptables/rules.v4

■​ On CentOS/RHEL:

Unset
sudo service iptables save

3.​ ​
What Skills Required to Prepare This Question:​

○​ Knowledge of network protocols and ports

○​ Familiarity with firewall concepts
○​ Understanding of Linux security practices
4.​ How to Study This Question:​

○​ Practice configuring iptables on test systems

○​ Study iptables rules syntax and chains
○​ Learn about common firewall policies
5.​ Examples for This Question:​

Unset
# Allow SSH and HTTP

sudo iptables -A INPUT -p tcp --dport 22 -j ACCEPT

sudo iptables -A INPUT -p tcp --dport 80 -j ACCEPT

 # Block an IP

sudo iptables -A INPUT -s 203.0.113.1 -j DROP

# View rules

sudo iptables -L -v

# Save rules (Ubuntu)

sudo iptables-save > /etc/iptables/rules.v4

Question 34: How do you manage services using systemd in Linux?

1.​ Question:​
How do you manage services using systemd in Linux?​

2.​ Answer:​
systemd is a system and service manager for Linux, controlling how services run.​

○​ Start/Stop/Restart a Service:​

Unset
sudo systemctl start apache2

sudo systemctl stop apache2

sudo systemctl restart apache2

○​ ​
Enable/Disable Service at Boot:​
Unset
sudo systemctl enable apache2

sudo systemctl disable apache2

○​ ​
Check Service Status:​

Unset
sudo systemctl status apache2

○​ ​
Reload Systemd and Daemons:​

Unset
sudo systemctl daemon-reload

○​ ​
List All Services:​

Unset
systemctl list-units --type=service

3.​ ​
What Skills Required to Prepare This Question:​

○​ Knowledge of systemd and its components

○​ Understanding of Linux service management
○​ Familiarity with system boot processes
4.​ How to Study This Question:​

○​ Practice managing services on Linux systems

○​ Study the structure of systemd unit files (/etc/systemd/system/)
○​ Explore advanced options like creating custom services
5.​ Examples for This Question:​
 Unset
# Start and enable Nginx

sudo systemctl start nginx

sudo systemctl enable nginx

# Check status

sudo systemctl status nginx

# Reload systemd after changes

sudo systemctl daemon-reload

Question 35: How do you configure NFS (Network File System) in Linux?
1.​ Question:​
How do you configure NFS (Network File System) in Linux?​

2.​ Answer:​
NFS allows file sharing between Linux systems over a network.​
​
On NFS Server:​

○​ Install NFS:

Unset
sudo apt install nfs-kernel-server # Debian/Ubuntu

sudo yum install nfs-utils # RHEL/CentOS

○​ Create a Shared Directory:

Unset
sudo mkdir -p /srv/nfs/shared
sudo chown nobody:nogroup /srv/nfs/shared

○​ Edit Exports File:

Unset
sudo nano /etc/exports

/srv/nfs/shared 192.168.1.0/24(rw,sync,no_subtree_check)

○​ Export Shares and Start NFS:

Unset
sudo exportfs -a

sudo systemctl restart nfs-server

3.​ ​
On NFS Client:​

○​ Install NFS Client:

Unset
sudo apt install nfs-common # Debian/Ubuntu

sudo yum install nfs-utils # RHEL/CentOS

○​ Mount the NFS Share:

Unset
sudo mount 192.168.1.100:/srv/nfs/shared /mnt

○​ Persist Mount in fstab:

 Unset
echo "192.168.1.100:/srv/nfs/shared /mnt nfs defaults 0 0" | sudo tee
-a /etc/fstab

4.​ ​
What Skills Required to Prepare This Question:​

○​ Understanding of NFS protocol

○​ Familiarity with network configurations and permissions
○​ Knowledge of mounting and sharing file systems
5.​ How to Study This Question:​

○​ Practice setting up NFS on test machines

○​ Study NFS options and security considerations (e.g., no_root_squash)
○​ Learn troubleshooting NFS connectivity and permission issues
6.​ Examples for This Question:​

Unset
# Server-side

sudo exportfs -v

# Client-side

sudo mount 192.168.1.100:/srv/nfs/shared /mnt

# Verify mount

df -h | grep nfs

Question 36: How do you set up RAID in Linux?

1.​ Question:​
How do you set up RAID in Linux?​

2.​ Answer:​
RAID (Redundant Array of Independent Disks) enhances storage performance and redundancy.​
 ○​ Install mdadm (RAID utility):​

Unset
sudo apt install mdadm # Debian/Ubuntu

sudo yum install mdadm # RHEL/CentOS

○​ ​
Create RAID Array (e.g., RAID 1):​

Unset
sudo mdadm --create --verbose /dev/md0 --level=1 --raid-devices=2
/dev/sd[b-c]

○​ ​
Verify RAID Status:​

Unset
cat /proc/mdstat

sudo mdadm --detail /dev/md0

○​ ​
Create Filesystem and Mount:​

Unset
sudo mkfs.ext4 /dev/md0

sudo mkdir /mnt/raid

sudo mount /dev/md0 /mnt/raid

○​ ​
Persist RAID Configuration:​
 Unset
sudo mdadm --detail --scan | sudo tee -a /etc/mdadm/mdadm.conf

sudo update-initramfs -u

3.​ ​
What Skills Required to Prepare This Question:​

○​ Understanding of RAID levels and their use cases

○​ Familiarity with disk partitioning and management
○​ Knowledge of Linux storage and file systems
4.​ How to Study This Question:​

○​ Practice RAID setup using virtual disks

○​ Study different RAID levels (0, 1, 5, 6, 10)
○​ Learn to troubleshoot RAID failures and rebuild arrays
5.​ Examples for This Question:​

Unset
# Create RAID 5 with 3 disks

sudo mdadm --create --verbose /dev/md0 --level=5 --raid-devices=3

/dev/sd[b-d]

# Check RAID status

cat /proc/mdstat

# Format and mount RAID

sudo mkfs.ext4 /dev/md0

sudo mount /dev/md0 /mnt/raid

Question 37: How do you set file permissions using chmod in Linux?
1.​ Question:​
How do you set file permissions using chmod in Linux?​

2.​ Answer:​
The chmod command changes file and directory permissions in Linux.​

○​ Symbolic Method:​

■​ Grant read, write, and execute to the owner:

Unset
chmod u+rwx file.txt

■​ Remove write permission from the group:

Unset
chmod g-w file.txt

■​ Add execute for others:

Unset
chmod o+x script.sh

○​ ​
Numeric Method:​
Permissions use a three-digit octal representation:​

■​ r = 4, w = 2, x = 1
■​ Example: chmod 755 script.sh sets:
■​ Owner: read, write, execute (7)
■​ Group: read, execute (5)
■​ Others: read, execute (5)
○​ Recursive Permission Change:​

Unset
chmod -R 755 /var/www/html
 3.​ ​
What Skills Required to Prepare This Question:​

○​ Understanding of Linux file permission models

○​ Familiarity with symbolic and numeric permission methods
○​ Knowledge of security best practices
4.​ How to Study This Question:​

○​ Practice modifying permissions on files and directories

○​ Study the differences between user, group, and others
○​ Learn about potential security risks of incorrect permissions
5.​ Examples for This Question:​

Unset
# Grant read, write to owner, read-only to others

chmod 644 file.txt

# Make a script executable by everyone

chmod 755 script.sh

# Remove all permissions for others

chmod o-rwx confidential.txt

Question 38: How do you manage users and groups in Linux?

1.​ Question:​
How do you manage users and groups in Linux?​

2.​ Answer:​
Linux provides several commands for managing users and groups.​

○​ Add a New User:​

Unset
sudo adduser john

○​ ​
Delete a User:​

Unset
sudo deluser john

○​ ​
Modify a User (e.g., change shell):​

Unset
sudo usermod -s /bin/bash john

○​ ​
Add User to a Group:​

Unset
sudo usermod -aG sudo john

○​ ​
Create a Group:​

Unset
sudo groupadd developers

○​ ​
Change File Ownership:​
Unset
sudo chown john:developers project.txt

○​ ​
List User and Group Info:​

Unset
id john

groups john

3.​ ​
What Skills Required to Prepare This Question:​

○​ Understanding of Linux user and group management

○​ Familiarity with file permissions and ownership
○​ Knowledge of security policies and user roles
4.​ How to Study This Question:​

○​ Practice adding, modifying, and deleting users and groups

○​ Study the /etc/passwd, /etc/group, and /etc/shadow files
○​ Learn about user access controls and privilege escalation
5.​ Examples for This Question:​

Unset
# Add user and grant sudo privileges

sudo adduser alice

sudo usermod -aG sudo alice

# Change ownership of a directory

sudo chown -R alice:developers /home/alice/projects

# List all users

 cut -d: -f1 /etc/passwd

Question 39: How do you troubleshoot network issues in Linux?

1.​ Question:​
How do you troubleshoot network issues in Linux?​

2.​ Answer:​
Several tools help diagnose and fix network problems in Linux.​

○​ Check IP Configuration:​

Unset
ip addr

ifconfig (older systems)

○​ ​
Test Connectivity:​

Unset
ping google.com

○​ ​
Check Routing Table:​

Unset
ip route

○​ ​
DNS Resolution Issues:​
Unset
dig google.com

nslookup google.com

○​ ​
Trace Network Path:​

Unset
traceroute google.com

○​ ​
Check Open Ports and Connections:​

Unset
netstat -tuln

ss -tuln (newer systems)

○​ ​
Monitor Network Traffic:​

Unset
tcpdump -i eth0

3.​ ​
What Skills Required to Prepare This Question:​

○​ Understanding of networking concepts (IP, DNS, routing)

○​ Familiarity with Linux networking tools
○​ Analytical and troubleshooting skills
4.​ How to Study This Question:​

○​ Simulate network issues in a lab environment

○​ Study network layers and protocols (TCP/IP, UDP)
○​ Practice using networking tools on live systems
5.​ Examples for This Question:​
 Unset
# Check default gateway

ip route | grep default

# Test if a specific port is open

telnet google.com 80

# Capture network packets

sudo tcpdump -i eth0 port 80

Question 40: How do you configure a firewall using UFW in Linux?

1.​ Question:​
How do you configure a firewall using UFW in Linux?​

2.​ Answer:​
UFW (Uncomplicated Firewall) simplifies firewall management on Linux.​

○​ Install UFW (if not installed):​

Unset
sudo apt install ufw

○​ ​
Enable/Disable UFW:​

Unset
sudo ufw enable
sudo ufw disable

○​ ​
Allow/Deny Ports:​

Unset
sudo ufw allow 22/tcp # Allow SSH

sudo ufw allow 80/tcp # Allow HTTP

sudo ufw deny 23 # Deny Telnet

○​ ​
Allow Specific IP:​

Unset
sudo ufw allow from 192.168.1.100

○​ ​
Delete a Rule:​

Unset
sudo ufw delete allow 80/tcp

○​ ​
View Firewall Status and Rules:​

Unset
sudo ufw status verbose

3.​ ​
What Skills Required to Prepare This Question:​

○​ Understanding of Linux firewalls

 ○​ Familiarity with network protocols and ports
○​ Knowledge of UFW and iptables
4.​ How to Study This Question:​

○​ Practice configuring UFW on test systems

○​ Study networking basics, including TCP/UDP protocols
○​ Learn about firewall policies and best practices
5.​ Examples for This Question:​

Unset
# Allow HTTPS traffic

sudo ufw allow 443/tcp

# Allow access to SSH from a specific IP

sudo ufw allow from 203.0.113.10 to any port 22

# Enable UFW with default deny policy

sudo ufw default deny incoming

sudo ufw default allow outgoing

sudo ufw enable

Question 41: How do you configure cron jobs in Linux?

1.​ Question:​
How do you configure cron jobs in Linux?​

2.​ Answer:​
Cron is a time-based job scheduler in Unix-like systems.​

○​ Edit User’s Cron Table:​

Unset
crontab -e

○​ ​
Cron Syntax:​

Unset
* * * * * /path/to/command

| | | | |

| | | | +----- Day of the week (0 - 7) (Sunday=0 or 7)

| | | +------- Month (1 - 12)

| | +--------- Day of the month (1 - 31)

| +----------- Hour (0 - 23)

+------------- Minute (0 - 59)

○​ ​
View Scheduled Cron Jobs:​

Unset
crontab -l

○​ ​
Remove All Cron Jobs for User:​

Unset
crontab -r

○​ ​
Common Examples:​

■​ Run backup every day at 2 AM:

 Unset
0 2 * * * /home/user/backup.sh

■​ Clear logs every Sunday at midnight:

Unset
0 0 * * 0 /usr/bin/logrotate

3.​ ​
What Skills Required to Prepare This Question:​

○​ Understanding of cron syntax and scheduling

○​ Familiarity with Linux commands and scripts
○​ Basic knowledge of system maintenance tasks
4.​ How to Study This Question:​

○​ Practice creating and managing cron jobs

○​ Study cron special strings (@daily, @hourly)
○​ Learn about logging and troubleshooting cron jobs
5.​ Examples for This Question:​

Unset
# Run a script every 15 minutes

*/15 * * * * /path/to/script.sh

# Update system packages daily at 3 AM

0 3 * * * sudo apt update && sudo apt upgrade -y

# Reboot system every Sunday at 1 AM

0 1 * * 0 /sbin/reboot

Question 42: How do you check system performance in Linux?

1.​ Question:​
How do you check system performance in Linux?​

2.​ Answer:​
Linux offers several tools to monitor system performance.​

○​ CPU and Memory Usage:​

Unset
top

htop # Enhanced version of top

○​ ​
Disk Usage:​

Unset
df -h # Show disk space

du -sh /var # Show size of specific directories

○​ ​
I/O Performance:​

Unset
iostat

vmstat

○​ ​
Network Performance:​

Unset
iftop # Real-time network usage

nload # Network bandwidth usage

 ○​ ​
System Load:​

Unset
uptime # Shows load average

cat /proc/loadavg

3.​ ​
What Skills Required to Prepare This Question:​

○​ Understanding of Linux performance monitoring

○​ Familiarity with system resource management
○​ Knowledge of key performance metrics
4.​ How to Study This Question:​

○​ Practice using system monitoring tools

○​ Study Linux resource management (CPU, RAM, Disk, Network)
○​ Learn how to troubleshoot performance bottlenecks
5.​ Examples for This Question:​

Unset
# Check memory usage

free -m

# View top processes sorted by memory

ps aux --sort=-%mem | head

# Monitor disk I/O

iostat -xz 1

# Real-time network monitoring

iftop -i eth0
Question 43: How do you secure SSH access on a Linux server?
1.​ Question:​
How do you secure SSH access on a Linux server?​

2.​ Answer:​
Securing SSH is crucial to prevent unauthorized access.​

○​ Change Default SSH Port:​

Edit /etc/ssh/sshd_config:​

Unset
Port 2222

○​ ​
Then restart SSH:​

Unset
sudo systemctl restart sshd

○​ ​
Disable Root Login:​
In /etc/ssh/sshd_config:​

Unset
PermitRootLogin no

○​ ​
Use SSH Key Authentication:​
Generate SSH key pair on client:​

Unset
ssh-keygen
 ○​ ​
Copy public key to server:​

Unset
ssh-copy-id user@server_ip

○​ ​
Use a Firewall to Limit Access:​

Unset
sudo ufw allow 2222/tcp

○​ ​
Disable Password Authentication:​
In /etc/ssh/sshd_config:​

Unset
PasswordAuthentication no

3.​ ​
What Skills Required to Prepare This Question:​

○​ Understanding of SSH configuration

○​ Knowledge of Linux security practices
○​ Familiarity with networking and firewalls
4.​ How to Study This Question:​

○​ Practice configuring SSH settings in a lab environment

○​ Study public/private key encryption
○​ Learn about firewall rules and network security
5.​ Examples for This Question:​

Unset
# Connect to SSH on a custom port

ssh -p 2222 user@server_ip

 # View current SSH connections

sudo ss -tnp | grep ssh

# Restrict SSH access to a specific IP

sudo ufw allow from 192.168.1.100 to any port 2222

Question 44: How do you manage disk partitions in Linux?

1.​ Question:​
How do you manage disk partitions in Linux?​

2.​ Answer:​
Disk partitioning can be done using tools like fdisk, parted, and lsblk.​

○​ List Disks and Partitions:​

Unset
lsblk

fdisk -l

○​ ​
Create a New Partition Using fdisk:​

Unset
sudo fdisk /dev/sdb

■​ Press n to create a new partition

■​ Press w to write changes
○​ Format the New Partition:​
Unset
sudo mkfs.ext4 /dev/sdb1

○​ ​
Mount the Partition:​

Unset
sudo mkdir /mnt/newdisk

sudo mount /dev/sdb1 /mnt/newdisk

○​ ​
Make the Mount Permanent:​
Add to /etc/fstab:​

Unset
/dev/sdb1 /mnt/newdisk ext4 defaults 0 2

3.​ ​
What Skills Required to Prepare This Question:​

○​ Understanding of disk partitioning

○​ Familiarity with Linux filesystems
○​ Knowledge of mount points and fstab
4.​ How to Study This Question:​

○​ Practice partitioning disks on test systems

○​ Study file system types (ext4, xfs)
○​ Learn about disk management best practices
5.​ Examples for This Question:​

Unset
# Check disk space usage

df -h
 # Check partition UUID

blkid

# Resize a partition (example with parted)

sudo parted /dev/sdb resizepart 1 100GB

Question 45: How do you set up NFS (Network File System) on Linux?
1.​ Question:​
How do you set up NFS (Network File System) on Linux?​

2.​ Answer:​
NFS allows sharing directories over a network.​

○​ Install NFS Packages:​

Unset
sudo apt install nfs-kernel-server nfs-common

○​ ​
Configure NFS Exports:​
Edit /etc/exports:​

Unset
/srv/nfs/shared 192.168.1.0/24(rw,sync,no_subtree_check)

○​ ​
Apply Export Changes:​
Unset
sudo exportfs -a

sudo systemctl restart nfs-kernel-server

○​ ​
Allow NFS Through Firewall:​

Unset
sudo ufw allow from 192.168.1.0/24 to any port nfs

○​ ​
Mount NFS Share on Client:​

Unset
sudo mount server_ip:/srv/nfs/shared /mnt

○​ ​
Make Mount Permanent on Client:​
Add to /etc/fstab:​

Unset
server_ip:/srv/nfs/shared /mnt nfs defaults 0 0

3.​ ​
What Skills Required to Prepare This Question:​

○​ Understanding of NFS and file sharing

○​ Knowledge of Linux networking and firewalls
○​ Familiarity with mounting file systems
4.​ How to Study This Question:​

○​ Practice setting up NFS in a lab environment

○​ Study NFS security settings (e.g., no_root_squash)
○​ Learn about NFS performance tuning
5.​ Examples for This Question:​
 Unset
# View active NFS shares

showmount -e server_ip

# Unmount an NFS share

sudo umount /mnt

# Check NFS mounts

mount | grep nfs

Question 46: How do you configure RAID in Linux?

1.​ Question:​
How do you configure RAID in Linux?​

2.​ Answer:​
RAID (Redundant Array of Independent Disks) can be configured using the mdadm tool.​

○​ Install mdadm:​

Unset
sudo apt install mdadm

○​ ​
Create a RAID 1 Array (Mirroring):​

Unset
sudo mdadm --create --verbose /dev/md0 --level=1 --raid-devices=2
/dev/sd[b-c]1
 ○​ ​
Verify RAID Status:​

Unset
cat /proc/mdstat

sudo mdadm --detail /dev/md0

○​ ​
Format the RAID Array:​

Unset
sudo mkfs.ext4 /dev/md0

○​ ​
Mount the RAID Array:​

Unset
sudo mkdir /mnt/raid

sudo mount /dev/md0 /mnt/raid

○​ ​
Save RAID Configuration:​

Unset
sudo mdadm --detail --scan | sudo tee -a /etc/mdadm/mdadm.conf

sudo update-initramfs -u

3.​ ​
What Skills Required to Prepare This Question:​

○​ Understanding of RAID levels (0, 1, 5, 10)

○​ Familiarity with mdadm and disk management
○​ Knowledge of redundancy and performance optimization
 4.​ How to Study This Question:​

○​ Practice setting up different RAID levels

○​ Study the pros and cons of each RAID configuration
○​ Learn RAID failure recovery and monitoring
5.​ Examples for This Question:​

Unset
# Create RAID 0 (striping)

sudo mdadm --create --verbose /dev/md0 --level=0 --raid-devices=2

/dev/sd[b-c]1

# Monitor RAID array

watch cat /proc/mdstat

# Stop and remove a RAID array

sudo umount /mnt/raid

sudo mdadm --stop /dev/md0

sudo mdadm --remove /dev/md0

Question 47: How do you configure SELinux in Linux?

1.​ Question:​
How do you configure SELinux in Linux?​

2.​ Answer:​
SELinux (Security-Enhanced Linux) adds a security layer through mandatory access control.​

○​ Check SELinux Status:​

Unset
sestatus
getenforce

○​ ​
Set SELinux Modes:​

■​ Enforcing: SELinux policies are applied

■​ Permissive: SELinux logs actions but doesn’t enforce
■​ Disabled: SELinux is turned off
○​ Change mode temporarily:​

Unset
sudo setenforce 0 # Permissive

sudo setenforce 1 # Enforcing

○​ ​
Change mode permanently (edit /etc/selinux/config):​

Unset
SELINUX=enforcing

SELINUX=permissive

SELINUX=disabled

○​ ​
Manage SELinux Contexts:​

Unset
ls -Z /var/www/html

sudo chcon -t httpd_sys_content_t /var/www/html/index.html

○​ ​
Manage Policies with semanage:​
 Unset
sudo semanage port -a -t http_port_t -p tcp 8080

3.​ ​
What Skills Required to Prepare This Question:​

○​ Understanding of SELinux policies and modes

○​ Familiarity with Linux security practices
○​ Knowledge of labeling and context management
4.​ How to Study This Question:​

○​ Practice managing SELinux contexts and policies

○​ Study logs (/var/log/audit/audit.log) for troubleshooting
○​ Learn SELinux modules and policy writing basics
5.​ Examples for This Question:​

Unset
# Allow Apache to connect to the network

sudo setsebool -P httpd_can_network_connect on

# Restore default SELinux context for a directory

sudo restorecon -Rv /var/www/html

# List SELinux booleans

getsebool -a

Question 48: How do you manage software packages in Linux?

1.​ Question:​
How do you manage software packages in Linux?​

2.​ Answer:​
Linux has multiple package managers based on the distribution.​
 ○​ Debian/Ubuntu (APT):​

■​ Update package list:

Unset
sudo apt update

■​ Install a package:

Unset
sudo apt install nginx

■​ Remove a package:

Unset
sudo apt remove nginx

■​ Upgrade all packages:

Unset
sudo apt upgrade

○​ ​
RedHat/CentOS (YUM/DNF):​

■​ Install a package:

Unset
sudo dnf install httpd

■​ Remove a package:

Unset
sudo dnf remove httpd

■​ List installed packages:

Unset
sudo dnf list installed

○​ ​
Universal Package Managers:​

■​ Snap:

Unset
sudo snap install vlc

■​ Flatpak:

Unset
flatpak install flathub org.gimp.GIMP

3.​ ​
What Skills Required to Prepare This Question:​

○​ Familiarity with package managers (APT, YUM, DNF)

○​ Understanding of repositories and package sources
○​ Knowledge of software dependencies and conflicts
4.​ How to Study This Question:​

○​ Practice installing, updating, and removing packages

○​ Study repository management and adding PPAs
○​ Learn about troubleshooting broken dependencies
5.​ Examples for This Question:​

Unset
# Clean APT cache

sudo apt clean

# List outdated packages

sudo apt list --upgradable

 # Search for a package in DNF

sudo dnf search nginx

Question 49: How do you configure a firewall using UFW in Linux?

1.​ Question:​
How do you configure a firewall using UFW in Linux?​

2.​ Answer:​
UFW (Uncomplicated Firewall) is a user-friendly interface for managing iptables firewall
rules.​

○​ Enable UFW:​

Unset
sudo ufw enable

○​ ​
Check Firewall Status:​

Unset
sudo ufw status verbose

○​ ​
Allow Specific Ports/Services:​

Unset
sudo ufw allow 22/tcp # SSH

sudo ufw allow 80/tcp # HTTP

sudo ufw allow 443/tcp # HTTPS

○​ ​
Deny Access:​

Unset
sudo ufw deny 23/tcp # Deny Telnet

○​ ​
Allow Specific IPs:​

Unset
sudo ufw allow from 192.168.1.100 to any port 22

○​ ​
Enable Logging:​

Unset
sudo ufw logging on

○​ ​
Disable UFW:​

Unset
sudo ufw disable

3.​ ​
What Skills Required to Prepare This Question:​

○​ Understanding of network ports and protocols

○​ Familiarity with Linux firewall tools (UFW, iptables)
○​ Basic networking and security principles
4.​ How to Study This Question:​
 ○​ Practice configuring UFW rules in a lab environment
○​ Study the effects of different rules and policies
○​ Learn how to troubleshoot blocked connections
5.​ Examples for This Question:​

Unset
# Allow a specific subnet

sudo ufw allow from 192.168.1.0/24

# Delete a firewall rule

sudo ufw delete allow 80/tcp

# Set default policies

sudo ufw default deny incoming

sudo ufw default allow outgoing

Question 50: How do you schedule tasks using cron in Linux?

1.​ Question:​
How do you schedule tasks using cron in Linux?​

2.​ Answer:​
The cron service is used to schedule repetitive tasks.​

○​ Edit the Crontab:​

Unset
crontab -e

○​ ​
Crontab Syntax:​
Unset
* * * * * command_to_run

| | | | |

| | | | +---- Day of the week (0 - 6) (Sunday=0)

| | | +------ Month (1 - 12)

| | +-------- Day of the month (1 - 31)

| +---------- Hour (0 - 23)

+------------ Minute (0 - 59)

○​ ​
Example Cron Jobs:​

■​ Run a script every day at midnight:

Unset
0 0 * * * /path/to/script.sh

■​ Run a command every 5 minutes:

Unset
*/5 * * * * /path/to/command

○​ ​
List Current Cron Jobs:​

Unset
crontab -l

○​ ​
Remove Cron Jobs:​
 Unset
crontab -r

3.​ ​
What Skills Required to Prepare This Question:​

○​ Understanding of time-based scheduling in Linux

○​ Familiarity with cron syntax and scheduling logic
○​ Basic shell scripting
4.​ How to Study This Question:​

○​ Practice creating and editing cron jobs

○​ Study common cron use cases and pitfalls
○​ Learn about cron logs (/var/log/syslog) for troubleshooting
5.​ Examples for This Question:​

Unset
# Run a backup script every Sunday at 2 AM

0 2 * * 0 /path/to/backup.sh

# Clear /tmp directory daily at midnight

0 0 * * * rm -rf /tmp/*

# Redirect cron output to a log file

0 3 * * * /path/to/script.sh >> /var/log/script.log 2>&1

Question 51: How do you check system performance and resource usage in Linux?
1.​ Question:​
How do you check system performance and resource usage in Linux?​

2.​ Answer:​
Various commands can monitor system resources and performance.​
 ○​ CPU and Memory Usage:​

Unset
top

htop # (more user-friendly, if installed)

○​ ​
Disk Usage:​

Unset
df -h # Show disk space usage

du -sh * # Show directory sizes

○​ ​
I/O Performance:​

Unset
iostat # Requires sysstat package

○​ ​
Network Usage:​

Unset
iftop # Real-time bandwidth monitoring

netstat -tulnp

○​ ​
System Load:​
Unset
uptime

○​ ​
Check Running Processes:​

Unset
ps aux

3.​ ​
What Skills Required to Prepare This Question:​

○​ Familiarity with Linux performance monitoring tools

○​ Understanding of system resource management
○​ Knowledge of performance bottlenecks
4.​ How to Study This Question:​

○​ Practice using performance monitoring commands

○​ Study how to identify high resource usage processes
○​ Learn about system tuning for performance
5.​ Examples for This Question:​

Unset
# Find top memory-consuming processes

ps aux --sort=-%mem | head

# Check open network connections

ss -tuln

# Monitor real-time disk I/O

iotop