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Linking Devices

Linking device is a term that is used to connect (join) different ideas together by using
coordinators in a piece of writing. There are various (different) types (kinds) of linking devices
(coordinators). Some of them are coordinating conjunctions and subordinating conjunctions.

1. Coordination

Coordination is a method of joining two independent sentences by using coordinators. In

coordination, the status of the sentences is not reduced when they are combined. In other words,
when they are combined, they still remain independent clauses.

The linking devices (coordinators) we use in coordination are:

1.1. Coordinating Conjunctions

1.2. Correlative Conjunctions

1.3. Adverb Conjunctions

1.1. Coordinating Conjunctions

When you use the above coordinating conjunctions to join complete sentences, use a comma
before the coordinators. The most commonly used coordinating conjunctions which are used in
writing are the following.

For - this shows a result- cause relationship between two independent clauses. It has the same
meaning as because, the reason why
Example: The driver couldn’t control the speed of the car, for the brake was not working.
Harriet earned an A in the class, for she studied carefully.
"For" can be used instead of the word "because". This is not very common. Most people use the word
"because". Using "for" is a little bit of old-style English.
 We went on a picnic, for it was a nice day.
 She is famous, for she is beautiful and talented.

And - shows the addition of two positive ideas. It has the same meaning as in addition, along
with, moreover, furthermore
Example: Every summer I go to Addis Ababa, and I visit my grandfather.
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We went to the movies, and we ate popcorn.

Nor - shows equality of two negative ideas. It shows an addition of a negative point.
(Note: You must reverse the normal subject- verb positions in the second clause when using nor).
Example: The patient didn’t eat his dinner, nor did he eat his lunch.
He did not study for the exam, nor did he pass.
"We could not go to Canada, nor could we go to Washington"
He does not enjoy eating vegetables, nor does he enjoy eating fruit.
But - shows opposition or contrast between two ideas. I t has the same meaning as
however, except, on the other hand
Example: She studied hard, but she failed the examination.
Collecting glass figurines is a delightful hobby, but it can be expensive.
Or - shows alternatives or choices
Example: You must come early, or you will miss the bus.
Fred wanted to go skiing, or he wanted to go snowboarding.
Yet - shows opposition; also shows emphasis (a stronger but)
Example: He knew the cost, yet he did it anyway.
"Yet" is used to show that something unexpected or surprising happened. "Yet" is used in the same
basic way as "but". However, "but" is used a lot more often by English speakers.
 He studied very hard, yet he failed the test. (=He studied very hard, but he failed the test.)
 He has a lot of money, yet he never buys anything. (=He has a lot of money, but he never
buys anything.)
 Mary loves to exercise, yet she hates going to the gym. (Mary loves to exercise, but she hates
going to the gym.)

So - shows cause and effect relationship. It has the same meaning as therefore, as a result. X
happened, so Y happened.
Example:
Azeb studied hard, so she scored a good grade.
Haile is running very fas t, so he seems to win the race.
He knew it would not cost him, so he did it.
So" is used to show the result of the first action or event. It is similar to "because", but it is used in
the opposite way. "So" is used a lot in spoken and written English.
 She is nice, so I like her. (=I like her because she is nice.)

 It rained, so they didn't go. (=They didn't go because it rained.)

 We have been there many times, so let's go somewhere else. (=Let's go somewhere else
because we have been there many times.)
We can also start a new sentence with "so" when writing.
 We are not prepared for the meeting. So, I think we should postpone it.
(=We are not prepared for the meeting, so I think we should postpone it.)
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Practice speaking English and improve your English grammar by finishing the sentences below
and then practice making your own sentences. It is the best way to learn English and improve
your English fluency fast! Also, do not forget to try using it in real life.

It is hot, so I will _______________.

I will _______________, for it is hot.
I _______________, yet it is very hot.
It is too expensive, so _______________.
She _______________, so I _______________.
It is too far, so _______________.
I don't know what to do, so _______________.
We arrived early, so _______________.
My boss said _______________, so I _______________.
I _______________, yet _______________.
She tried to _______________, yet she failed.
1.2. Correlative Conjunctions
Correlative conjunctions are coordinating words that work in pairs to join words, phrases, and
sentences. The most common correlative pairs are:
Correlative conjunctions meaning
Either……..or one of the two
Neither ……nor none of the two
Both………and both
Whether……. or dilemma/hesitation/confusion
Not only…..but also both
Look at the following examples on how correlative conjunctions are used.
- Either go to bed early this evening or stop complaining about being tired in class.
- Neither the contestant nor his sponsor was willing to attend the lecture.
- The newspaper reported that not only the hurricane but also the ensuing floods caused millions
of dollars worth of damage.
- Does anyone know whether the president or the vice president was responsible for providing
the announcement to the press?
Note: Correlative conjunctions are pairs of words that are used to link two sentences having
similar subjects or similar predicates. The most important thing to remember when using
correlative conjunctions is that the words, phrases, or clauses that are put together must be the
same type. This means that nouns must be put together with other nouns, verbs with other verbs,
adjectives with other adjectives, and so on.
Note: The units being joined by a correlative conjunction must be parallel in grammatical
structure and importance.
Example 1:
Both my sister and my brother work with computers.
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The correlative conjunction in this sentence is "both ... and." This correlative conjunction links
together two words of the same type. In this case, the types of words are the nouns, sister and
brother.
For dessert, you may have either cake or ice cream.
The correlative conjunction in this sentence is "either ... or." This conjunction also links two
nouns, cake and ice cream.
She wanted neither cake nor ice cream.
The correlative conjunction in this sentence is "neither ... nor." This conjunction links two
nouns.
He did not know whether to exit the freeway at Orange Avenue or to exit the freeway at Cherry
Avenue.
The correlative conjunction in this sentence is "whether ... or." This conjunction links two
phrases.
Teachers should be not only intelligent but also friendly.
The correlative conjunction in this sentence is "not only ... but also." This conjunction links two
adjectives.
Example 2:
I wondered whether to make the telephone call or to see her in person.
The secretary is either working at her desk or visiting the dean.
Not only my sisters but also my cousins are invited to the party.
Both my sisters and my cousins are invited to the party.
Neither my sisters nor my cousins are invited to the party.
1.3. Adverb Conjunctions
Adverb conjunction is an adverb used to relate and connect main clauses in a sentence. Common
conjunctive adverbs are: also still consequently however indeed hence then
furthermore moreover likewise thus instead nevertheless therefore
otherwise
Example: I ordered the concert tickets by mail; therefore, I didn’t have to stand in line.
Our muscles were tired and sore; nevertheless, we kept on jogging.
Conjunctive adverbs, unlike coordinating and subordinating conjunctions, are the only ones that
can be moved from the beginning of a clause to another position in the clause without changing
the clause’s meaning. In other words, they occupy different positions within the main clause in
which they stand.
Example: The band struck up a familiar tune; indeed, they were playing our song.
The band struck up a familiar tune; they were, indeed, playing our song.
Note: Most adverb conjunctions are preceded by a semi colon and followed by a comma. There
are some exceptions, however. Adverb conjunctions like still and also are, for example, not
preceded by a semicolon.
Example: Sorry I’m late. My alarm didn’t go off. Also, I had trouble starting the car.
He has treated you badly: still, he is your brother.
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Some other adverb conjunctions like otherwise and then are preceded by a semi colon but not
followed by a comma.
Example: John must be sick; otherwise, he would be here.
She made coffee; then she cooked breakfast.
To maintain the desired relationship between independent clauses, see the following chart to
know the meaning of coordinating and adverb conjunctions.
meaning coordinating conjunction adverb conjunction
addition ,and ; furthermore,
; moreover, ;in addition,
contrast ,but ; however,
,yet ;nevertheless,
alternative ,or ; instead,
, nor [negative] ; otherwise,
result ,so ; therefore,
; consequently,
; thus,
2. Subordination
Subordination is the joining of an independent clause and a dependent clause in the same
sentence by using subordinators. In subordination, the status of one of the sentences to be
combined is reduced to a subordinate (dependent) clause. As you might recall from the above
discussion, in coordination the status of the sentences to be combined is not reduced; they remain
independent.
The linking devices we use in subordination are:
2.1. Subordinating Conjunctions
2.2. Relative Pronouns
2.1. Subordinating Conjunctions
Subordinating conjunction is a kind of conjunction that joins subordinate clauses with
independent clauses. Here the subordinate clauses cannot stand alone; they must be joined to an
independent clause to convey a complete thought. They tell when, where, why, how, and to what
extent an action takes place. When a writer wants to emphasize the idea in one clause over the
other, the most important idea is contained within the independent clause, and lesser ideas are
presented in the dependent clauses. More often we use a subordinating conjunction to show a
difference in importance and strength of ideas.
Example: Because the train was late, I arrived late to work.
Even though polar bears look like land animals, they are extremely adept in the water.
Pups also love the snow because they like to slide down inclines.
They love to roll around in the snow if a good snowstorm hits.
If they can punch through the ice sheet, polar bears love swimming most.
Rachel was reading fiction while her brother was listening music.
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Notice: With the addition of because at the beginning of an independent clause, the independent
clause becomes a dependent clause. Similarly, when other subordinating conjunctions are added
at the beginning of independent clause, the independent clause becomes a dependent clause.
Meaning Subordinating Conjunction
cause because, since, as
time since, as, after, until, as soon as, before, when, while, once,
after, whenever, as long as,
condition if, as if, as long as, provided that, unless, provided, as though
contrast/concession although, even though, though, even if, whereas, while
result that, so that, in order that
place where, wherever
comparison as, than, as…..as
2.2. Relative Pronouns
Like the other subordinating conjunctions relative pronouns are used to join subordinate clauses
with independent sentences. They also introduce relative clauses.
Example: The boat that was owned by Mr. Mitchell sank in the harbor.
The Crescent Moon, which was Mr. Mitchell's boat, was brand new.
Mr. Mitchell, who was a stockbroker, liked the status a boat afforded.
His guests, whom Mr. Mitchell chose with little care, partied on the boat to all hours.
One guest, whose criminal record was unknown to Mr. Mitchell, stole the boat, then
sank
it when the police got too close.
New York, which is America’s populous city, is one of the world's leading commercial,
financial, and cultural centers.
What makes the subordinate clause in relative clauses different from the other type of
subordinate clauses is, the subordinate clause in a relative clause is an adjective clause.
In relative clauses, the adjective clauses which are dependent clauses that modify a noun or a
pronoun in the main clause, usually begin with relative pronoun: who, whom, whose, which, or
that.
Note: In relative clauses:
- The adjective clauses answer the question Which one? or What kind of?
- Adjective clauses are always placed after the noun or the pronoun they modify.
- The relative pronoun that introduces an adjective clause can function as a subject, as an object,
or as a possessive marker.
Relative Pronoun Use
who, which Subjective case
whom, which Objective case
whose Possessive case
Note: The relative pronoun “that” can be used in place of who, which or whom, but not in place
of whose.
Example
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The woman whose car is a B MW is coming tonight.

Correlative Conjunctions
Correlative conjunctions include either … or, neither … nor, not only … but also and both …
and.
1. Neither … nor
Neither … nor is used to join two negatives.
Example1
Azmera is not a student. Fatuma is not a student.
These two negatives are the same as:
Neither Azmera nor Fatuma is a student.
Example2
Advice hasn’t changed him. Punishment hasn’t changed him.
These two negatives are the same as:
Neither advice nor punishment has changed him.
Related Question
1. ______ his father _______ his mother is in Ethiopia. His father has gone to Germany and his
mother is in Israel.
A. Either … or B. Not only … but also
C. Both … and D. Neither … nor
2. Abebech ______ reads books ________ watches films. She hasn’t got the time. She always
helps her mother with the housework. Meaning: Abebech doesn’t read books. Abebech doesn’t
watch films.
A. both … and B. either … or C. neither … nor D. either … nor
3. Because I have high blood pressure, my doctor warned me that I should ____ smoke ____
drink. Both worsen the problem.
A. either … or B. not only … but also C. neither … nor D. both … and
Note: We are told that both smoking and drinking worsen blood pressure. You should not smoke,
and you should not drink alcohol.
4. Choose the correct answer from the given alternative that correctly combines the following
pair of sentences.
A. She is neither polite not popular. B. She is not polite but also popular.
C. She is either polite or popular. D. She is both polite and popular.
She is impolite means she is not polite. And she is unpopular means she is not popular.
2. Both … and
Both … and is used to join two affirmative statements.
Example1
Daneil likes oranges. Daneil likes mangoes. These are the same as:
Daneil likes both oranges and mangoes.
Example2
He is clever. He is polite.
These are the same as:
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He is both clever and polite.

Meaning: He is clever and polite.
Related Question
Your daughter is ______ intelligent ______ polite. All the teachers like her very much.
A. neither … nor B. not only … but also
C. both … and D. either … or
3. Either … or
Either … or is used to express options/alternatives. It is used for a choice between two things or
persons.
Example
He is either an Irish or an American. One of the two
She drank either coffee or tea. (But not both) – One of the two
Related Question
1. You can ______ go to the cinema _____ read in the library. You cannot certainly stay here. –
tells you to choose one from the given two options.
A. either … or B. both … and
C. not only … but also D. neither … nor
2. You cannot buy the book. _____ you have to borrow it ____ read it in the library.
A. Both … and B. Whether … or
C. Either … or D. Neither … nor
3. You can have _____ milk _____ tea, but not both.
A. either … or B. both … and
C. neither … nor D. not only … but also
4. Not only … but also
Not only … but also is used to join two affirmative statements.
Examples
Ahmed is not only a manager but also a mechanic.
Meaning: Ahmed is both a manager and a mechanic.
She is not only intelligent but also polite.
Meaning: She is both intelligent and polite.
Note: Not only … but also and both … and are used in the same way.
Related Question
The tourist was _______ disappointed with the food service _____ unhappy with the high prices.
He made his complaint to the manager about all these.
A. neither/nor B. either/or C. not only/but also
D. not only/and also – unusual E. not only/and – unusual