Primary Data Collection:

Survey and quantitative

observation techniques
 Choices when Collecting Primary Data
Degree of Structured
Structure Unstructured

Degree of Disguised
Communication
Disguise Undisguised
Method of Personal Interview
Administration Telephone Interview
Mail Questionnaire
Degree of Structured
Structure Unstructured
Degree of Disguised
Observation Disguise Undisguised

Setting Natural
Contrived
Method of Human
Administration Mechanical

İşletme
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Observation Research

Observation research can be defined as the

systematic process of recording the
behavioral patterns of people, objects, and
occurrences without questioning or
communicating with them.

İşletme
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Conditions for Using Observation
Three conditions must be met before observation can be
successfully used as a data collection tool for marketing
research.

1. The needed information must be observable or inferable

from behavior that can be observed

2. The behavior of interest must be repetitive, frequent or

predictable in some manner

3. The behavior of interest must be of relatively short

duration

İşletme
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 Observational Situations

Situation Example
People watching people Observers stationed in supermarkets watch
consumers select frozen foods.
The purpose is to see how much comparison
shopping people do at the point of purchase.

People watching phenomena Observer stationed at an intersection counts

traffic moving in various directions.

Machines watching people Move or videotape cameras record behavior

as in people-watching-people example.

Machines watching phenomena Traffic-counting machines monitor traffic flow.

İşletme
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A Classification of Observation Methods

Classifying
Observation
Methods

Observation Methods

Personal Mechanical Audit Content Trace

Observation Observation Analysis Analysis

İşletme
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Observation Methods: Personal Observation

• A researcher observes actual behavior as it occurs.

• The observer does not attempt to manipulate the

phenomenon being observed but merely records
what takes place.

• For example, a researcher might record traffic

counts and observe traffic flows in a department
store.

İşletme
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Observation Methods: Mechanical Observation
Do not require respondents' direct participation.
– The AC Nielsen audimeter

– Turnstiles that record the number of people entering

or leaving a building.
– On-site cameras (still, motion picture, or video)

– Optical scanners in supermarkets

Do require respondent involvement.

– Eye-tracking monitors

– Pupilometers

– Psychogalvanometers

– Voice pitch analyzers

– Devices measuring response latency

İşletme
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İşletme
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 Observation Methods: Audit

• The researcher collects data by examining physical records

or performing inventory analysis.
• Data are collected personally by the researcher.
• The data are based upon counts, usually of physical
objects.
• Retail and wholesale audits conducted by marketing
research suppliers were discussed in the context of
syndicated data.

İşletme
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Observation Methods: Content Analysis

• The objective, systematic, and quantitative description of the

manifest content of a communication.

• The unit of analysis may be words, characters (individuals or

objects), themes (propositions), space and time measures
(length or duration of the message), or topics (subject of the
message).

• Analytical categories for classifying the units are developed

and the communication is broken down according to
prescribed rules.

İşletme
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AD ID: PRODUCT & BRAND:

V1. Duration: ……………

V2. Product Group:
1. Automobile, auto accessories 6. Food & beverages 11. Banking, Insurance&Finance
2. Clothing 7. House cleanin products 12. Travel
3. Furniture, Home textiles 8. Cosmetics & Personal Care 13. TV, Radio Channel
4. Durable goods 9. Bebek bakım ürünleri 14. Other
5. Construction & Related Material 10. Media

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE AD

V3. User of product in the Ad

1. Female 3. Both male&female 5. Family 7. Child & Adult
2. Male 4. Child 6. No one

V4. Setting of the Ad

1. Home 3. Office 5. Fictional 7. Studio
2. Shop 4. Outdoor 6. Mixed 8. Other

V5. Gender of voiceover

1. Female 3. Both male&female 5. Mixed
2. Male 4. Child 6. No spokesperson

V6. Gender of the dominant background character

1. Female 2. Male 3. No background character 4. Child

V7. Number of people in the ad except the main character

……………

THE MAIN CARACTER IN THE AD

V8. Gender of the main character

1. Female 3. Child 5. No main character
2. Male 4. Mixed

V9. The age of the main character

1. 18-35 2. 36-50 3. 51+

V10. Marital status

1. Married 2. Single 3. No indication

V11. Employment status

1. Portrayed in a work situation 2. Portrayed in a non-work situation 3. Not employed
but seems to be employed

İşletme
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Observation Methods: Trace Analysis
Data collection is based on physical traces, or evidence,
of past behavior.
 The selective erosion of tiles in a museum indexed by the
replacement rate was used to determine the relative popularity of
exhibits.
 The number of different fingerprints on a page was used to gauge the
readership of various advertisements in a magazine.
 The position of the radio dials in cars brought in for service was used
to estimate share of listening audience of various radio stations.
 The age and condition of cars in a parking lot were used to assess the
affluence of customers.
 The magazines people donated to charity were used to determine
people's favorite magazines.
 Internet visitors leave traces which can be analyzed to examine
browsing and usage behavior by using cookies.

İşletme
Mühendisliği İTÜ
A Comparative Evaluation of Observation Methods
Criteria Personal Mechanical Audit Content Trace
Observation Observation Analysis Analysis Analysis

Degree of structure Low Low to high High High Medium

Degree of disguise Medium Low to high Low High High
Ability to observe High Low to high High Medium Low
in natural setting
Observation bias High Low Low Medium Medium
Analysis bias High Low to Low Low Medium
Medium
General remarks Most Can be Expensive Limited to Method of
flexible intrusive commu- last resort
nications

İşletme
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 They permit measurement of actual behavior rather than
reports of intended or preferred behavior.

 There is no reporting bias, and potential bias caused by the

interviewer and the interviewing process is eliminated or
reduced.

 Certain types of data can be collected only by observation.

 If the observed phenomenon occurs frequently or is of short

duration, observational methods may be cheaper and faster
than survey methods.

İşletme
Mühendisliği
Chapter 7 - 15
İTÜ
 The reasons for the observed behavior may not be determined,
since little is known about the underlying motives, beliefs,
attitudes, and preferences.

 Selective perception (bias in the researcher's perception) can

bias the data.

 Observational data are often time-consuming and expensive,

and it is difficult to observe certain forms of behavior.

 In some cases, the use of observational methods may be

unethical, as in observing people without their knowledge or
consent.

 It is best to view observation as a complement to survey

methods, rather than as being in competition with them.

İşletme
Mühendisliği
Chapter 7 - 16
İTÜ
COMMUNICATION
 Example:
Subject:
Hygenic and cosmetic products usage among Americans, English and Turks
Sample characteristics – Moderate and Intensive users
- Methodology
* Taking pictures of the products at their location and asking respondents
to describe the photos
* Keeping dairy about their daily usage of these products
* Describing their shopping experience about those products in detail
* Keeping health and beauty advertisements content analysis
* Doing in-depth interviews on the following questions:
• How do you define beauty?
• What motivates you for dermatological health care?
• If your most liked dermatological product disappears from the market how
would you feel?
• How much time do you allocate for dermatological health care?
• Which brands do you like most? Why?
İşletme
Mühendisliği İTÜ
Structure and Disguise in Communication Methods

Structured Unstructured
Quantitative

Undisguised Typical Questionnaire Interviews

(very frequently used) Open-Ended Questions

Motivation Research
Disguised Word Association
least used
Sentence Completion
Story Telling

İşletme
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• The survey method of obtaining information is
based on questioning respondents.

• Questions regarding
– behavior,
– intentions,
– attitudes,
– awareness,
– motivations,
– and demographic and lifestyle characteristics

İşletme
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• Ease: Questionnaires are relatively easy to
administer. • Quick
• Inexpensive
• Reliability: Using fixed-response (multiple- • Efficient
choice) questions reduces variability in the • Accurate
results that may be caused by differences in
interviewers and enhances reliability of the
responses.

• Simplicity: It also simplifies coding, analysis,

and interpretation of data.

İşletme
Mühendisliği İTÜ
• Respondents may be unable or unwilling to provide
the desired information.

• Structured data collection involving a questionnaire

with fixed-response choices may result in loss of
validity for certain types of data, such as beliefs and
feelings.

• Properly wording questions is not easy.

İşletme
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 A Classification of Survey Methods

Survey
Methods

Telephone Personal Mail Electronic

In-Home Mall Computer-Assisted

E-mail Internet
Intercept Personal
Interviewing

Traditional Computer-Assisted
Mail Mail
Telephone Telephone
Interview Panel
Interviewing
İşletme
Mühendisliği İTÜ
 Involve phoning a sample of respondents and asking them a
series of questions.

 The interviewer uses a paper questionnaire and records the

responses with a pencil.

 Uses a computerized questionnaire administered to

respondents over the telephone.

 The interviewer sits in front of a computer screen and wears a

mini-headset.

İşletme
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 Respondents are interviewed face-to-face in their homes.

 The interviewer's task is to contact the respondents, ask the questions,

and record the responses.

 In recent years, the use of personal in-home interviews has declined.

 This method has been classified as a personal interview technique

since an interviewer is usually present to serve as a host and to guide
the respondent as needed.

 This approach is used in shopping malls, preceded by the intercept

and screening process described earlier.

 It is also used to conduct business-to-business research at trade

shows or conventions.
İşletme
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 If the addresses are known, the survey can simply be mailed
electronically to respondents included in the sample.

 Respondents key in their answers and send an e-mail reply.

 Typically, a computer program is used to prepare the questionnaire

and email address list, and to prepare the data for analysis.

 An Internet survey is a questionnaire posted on a Web site that is self

administered by the respondent.

 The questions are displayed on the screen and the respondents

provide answers by clicking an icon, keying in an answer, or
highlighting a phrase.

İşletme
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Method Advantages Disadvantages
Telephone - Fast - No use of physical stimuli
- Moderate sample control - Limited to simple questions
- Good control of field force - Quantity of data is low
- Good response rate
- Moderate cost

In-Home - Complex questions can be asked - Low control of field force

- Good for physical stimuli - High social desirability
- Very good sample control - Potential for interviewer bias
- High quantity of data - Most expensive
- Very good response rate - May take longer

İşletme
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Method Advantages Disadvantages
CAPI - Complex questions can be asked - High social desirability
- Very good for physical stimuli - Quantity of data is moderate
- Very good control of environment - High cost
- Very good response rate
- Low potential for interviewer bias

Mail - No field force problems - Limited to simple questions

- No interviewer bias - Low sample control for cold mail
- Moderate/High quantity of data - No control of environment
- Social desirability is low - Low response rate for cold mail
- Low cost - Low speed

İşletme
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Method Advantages Disadvantages
Electronic: - Low cost - Moderate quantity of data
E-mail - No interviewer bias - Low sample control
- High speed - No control of environment
- Social desirability is low - Low response rate
- Contact hard-to-reach - Security concerns
Respondents

Electronic: - Visual appeal and interactivity - Moderate quantity of data

Internet - No interviewer bias - Low sample control
- Low cost - No control of environment
- Social desirability is low - Low response rate
- Very high speed
- Personalized, flexible questioning
- Contact hard-to-reach
- Respondents

İşletme
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 If complex and diverse questions have to be asked, one of the
personal methods (in-home, mall intercept, or CAPI) is preferable.
Internet surveys are an option as well.

 From the perspective of the use of physical stimuli, personal

methods (in-home, mall intercept, or CAPI) are preferable.

 If sample control is an issue, cold mail (but not mail panel), fax, and
electronic methods might not be appropriate.

 Control of the data collection environment favors the use of central

location (mall intercept and CAPI) interviewing.

 High quantity of data favors the use of in-home and mail panels
and makes the use of telephone interviewing inappropriate.
İşletme
Mühendisliği İTÜ
 Low response rates make the use of cold mail and electronic
methods disadvantageous. Low response rates make the use of cold
mail and electronic methods disadvantageous.

 If social desirability is an issue, mail, mail-panel, fax, and Internet

surveys are best.

 If interviewer bias is an issue, the use of mail (cold and panels) and
electronic interviewing (e-mail and Internet) is favored.

 Speed favors Internet, e-mail, telephone, and mobile methods.

 Costs favor cold mail, fax, electronic (e-mail and Internet), mail
panels, telephone, mall intercept, CAPI, and in-home methods, in
that order (most favorable to least favorable).
İşletme
Mühendisliği İTÜ
Criteria used to evaluate survey methods
• Flexibility of data collection
• Diversity of questions
• Quantity of data
• Use of physical stimuli
• Obtaining sensitive information
• Potential to probe
• Sample control
• Control of data collection environment
• Control of field force
• Response rate
• Potential for interviewer bias
• Speed
• Cost

İşletme
Mühendisliği İTÜ
Errors in Survey Research

When assessing the quality of information

obtained from survey research, the manager
must make some determination of the
accuracy of those results.
The various types of errors that might be
encountered in a survey are shown in the
following several slides.

İşletme
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Sampling Error

Two major types of errors may be encountered in

connection with the sampling process.
They are:
•random error
•systematic error.

İşletme
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Non-sampling Error in Marketing Research

Nonsampling (administrative) error includes

• All types of non-response error
• Data gathering errors
• Data handling errors
• Data analysis errors
• Interpretation errors

İşletme
Mühendisliği İTÜ
• Sample design results may be biased for a number
of reasons

• Measurement error occurs when there is a

variation between the information being sought
(true value) and the information obtained

• Field work related errors

İşletme
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 Non-sampling Errors Associated
with Fieldwork

İşletme
Mühendisliği İTÜ
 How to Control Data Collection Errors

Types of Errors Control Mechanisms

Intentional Field Worker Errors

Cheating
} {
Good questionnaire, Reasonable work
expectation, Supervision, Random
checks
Leading respondent Validation

Unintentional Field Worker Errors

Interviewer Characteristics Selection and training of interviewers
Misunderstandings Orientation sessions and role playing
Fatigue Require breaks and alternate surveys

İşletme
Mühendisliği İTÜ
How to Control Data Collection Errors…cont.

Types of Errors Control Mechanisms

Intentional Respondent Errors

{
Assuring anonymity and confidentiality
Falsehoods Incentives
Validation checks
Third person technique

Assuring anonymity and confidentiality

Nonresponse { Incentives
Third person technique

İşletme
Mühendisliği İTÜ
How to Control Data Collection Errors (cont.)

Types of Errors Control Mechanisms

Unintentional Respondent Errors
{ Well-drafted questionnaire
Misunderstandings Direct Questions: Do you understand?

{ Well-drafted questionnaire
Guessing Response options (e.g., “unsure”)

Attention loss
Distractions
Fatigue
} { Reversal of scale endpoints

Prompters

İşletme
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 Data Collection Errors
with Online Surveys

• Multiple submissions by the same respondent (not able

to identify such situations)

• Misrepresentation of the population (over-representing

or under-representing segments with/without online
access and use)

İşletme
Mühendisliği İTÜ
 Non-response Error

• Nonresponse: failure on the part of a prospective

respondent to take part in a survey or to answer
specific questions on the survey
• Refusals to participate in survey
• Break-offs (terminations) during the interview
• Refusals to answer certain questions (item
omissions)

• Completed interview must be defined (acceptable

levels of non-answered questions and types).

İşletme
Mühendisliği İTÜ
 Non-response Error…cont.

• Response rate: the percentage of the total sample

with which the interviews were completed
• Refusals to participate in survey
• Break-offs (terminations) during the interview
• Refusals to answer certain questions (item
omissions)

İşletme
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Establish Questionnaire Flow and Layout

After the questions have been properly formulated, the

next step is to sequence them and develop a layout for
the questionnaire.

İşletme
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How a Questionnaire Should be Organized

After obtaining a
Use the screener
qualified respondent,
questions to Ask general
begin with a question
identify qualified questions first
that obtains a
respondents
respondent’s interest

Position sensitive,
Ask questions that
threatening, and
require “work” in Insert “prompters”
demographic
the middle of the at strategic points
questions as the
questionnaire
end

İşletme
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Questionnaire Design Checklist
Step 1. Specify The Information Needed

Step 2. Type of Interviewing Method

Step 3. Individual Question Content

Step 4. Overcome Inability and Unwillingness to Answer

Step 5. Choose Question Structure

Step 6. Choose Question Wording

Step 7. Determine the Order of Questions

Step 8. Form and Layout

Step 9. Reproduce the Questionnaire

Step 10. Pretest

İşletme
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Questionnaire Design Checklist
Step 1. Specify the Information Needed
1. Ensure that the information obtained fully addresses all
the components of the problem. Review components of
the problem and the approach, particularly the research
questions, hypotheses, and specification of information
needed.
2. Prepare a set of dummy tables.
3. Have a clear idea of the target population.

Step 2. Type of Interviewing Method

1. Review the type of interviewing method determined based
on considerations discussed in Chapter 6.

İşletme
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Questionnaire Design Checklist
Step 3. Individual Question Content
1. Is the question necessary?
2. Are several questions needed instead of one to obtain
the required information in an unambiguous manner?
3. Do not use double-barreled questions.

İşletme
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Questionnaire Design Checklist

Step 4. Overcoming Inability and Unwillingness to Answer

1. Is the respondent informed?
2. If respondents are not likely to be informed, filter questions
that measure familiarity, product use, and past experience
should be asked before questions about the topics
themselves.
3. Can the respondent remember?
4. Avoid errors of omission, telescoping, and creation.
5. Questions which do not provide the respondent with cues can
underestimate the actual occurrence of an event.
6. Can the respondent articulate?

İşletme
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Questionnaire Design Checklist
Step 4. Overcoming Inability and Unwillingness to Answer
7. Minimize the effort required of the respondents.
8. Is the context in which the questions are asked appropriate?
9. Make the request for information seem legitimate.
10. If the information is sensitive:
a. Place sensitive topics at the end of the questionnaire.
b. Preface the question with a statement that the behavior of
interest is common.
c. Ask the question using the third-person technique.
d. Hide the question in a group of other questions which
respondents are willing to answer.
e. Provide response categories rather than asking for specific
figures.
f. Use randomized techniques, if appropriate.

İşletme
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Questionnaire Design Checklist
Step 5. Choosing Question Structure
1. Open-ended questions are useful in exploratory research and
as opening questions.
2. Use structured questions whenever possible.
3. In multiple-choice questions, the response alternatives should
include the set of all possible choices and should be mutually
exclusive.
4. In a dichotomous question, if a substantial proportion of the
respondents can be expected to be neutral, include a neutral
alternative.
5. Consider the use of the split ballot technique to reduce order
bias in dichotomous and multiple-choice questions.
6. If the response alternatives are numerous, consider using
more than one question to reduce the information processing
demands on the respondents.
İşletme
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Questionnaire Design Checklist
Step 6. Choosing Question Wording
1. Define the issue in terms of who, what, when, where, why, and way
(the six Ws).
2. Use ordinary words. Words should match the vocabulary level of the
respondents.
3. Avoid ambiguous words: usually, normally, frequently, often,
regularly, occasionally, sometimes, etc.
4. Avoid leading questions that clue the respondent to what the answer
should be.
5. Avoid implicit alternatives that are not explicitly expressed in the
options.
6. Avoid implicit assumptions.
7. Respondent should not have to make generalizations or compute
estimates.
8. Use positive and negative statements.

İşletme
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Questionnaire Design Checklist
Step 7. Determine the Order of Questions
1. The opening questions should be interesting, simple, and non-
threatening.
2. Qualifying questions should serve as the opening questions.
3. Basic information should be obtained first, followed by classification,
and, finally, identification information.
4. Difficult, sensitive, or complex questions should be placed late in the
sequence.
5. General questions should precede the specific questions.
6. Questions should be asked in a logical order.
7. Branching questions should be designed carefully to cover all
possible contingencies.
8. The question being branched should be placed as close as possible to
the question causing the branching, and (2) the branching questions
should be ordered so that the respondents cannot anticipate what
additional information will be required.
İşletme
Mühendisliği İTÜ
Questionnaire Design Checklist

Step 8. Form and Layout

1. Divide a questionnaire into several
parts.
2. Questions in each part should be
numbered.
3. The questionnaire should be pre-coded.
4. The questionnaires themselves should
be numbered serially.

İşletme
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Questionnaire Design Checklist
Step 9. Reproduction of the Questionnaire
1. The questionnaire should have a professional appearance.
2. Booklet format should be used for long questionnaires.
3. Each question should be reproduced on a single page (or
double-page spread).
4. Vertical response columns should be used.
5. Grids are useful when there are a number of related
questions which use the same set of response categories.
6. The tendency to crowd questions to make the questionnaire
look shorter should be avoided.
7. Directions or instructions for individual questions should
be placed as close to the questions as possible.

İşletme
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Questionnaire Design Checklist
Step 10. Pretesting
1. Pretesting should be done always.
2. All aspects of the questionnaire should be tested, including question content,
wording, sequence, form and layout, question difficulty, and instructions.
3. The respondents in the pretest should be similar to those who will be
included in the actual survey.
4. Begin the pretest by using personal interviews.
5. Pretest should also be conducted by mail or telephone if those methods are
to be used in the actual survey.
6. A variety of interviewers should be used for pretests.
7. The pretest sample size is small, varying from 15 to 30 respondents for the
initial testing.
8. Use protocol analysis and debriefing to identify problems.
9. After each significant revision of the questionnaire, another pretest should be
conducted, using a different sample of respondents.
10. The responses obtained from the pretest should be coded and analyzed.

İşletme
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