Contents

India's Geographical Location ....................................................................................................................... 6

Land and Borders ...................................................................................................................................... 6
India as a Unique Geographical Location in South Asia ............................................................................ 7
Demographic Profile ................................................................................................................................. 7
Socioeconomic Profile............................................................................................................................... 8
Conclusion ................................................................................................................................................. 9
PHYSIOGRAPHY ........................................................................................................................................... 10
Physiography of the northern part of India: ........................................................................................... 10
Physiography of the Southern part of India:........................................................................................... 17
The Indian Ocean is divided into two major groupings: Andaman and Nicobar Islands ........................ 23
Climatic Condition of India.......................................................................................................................... 25
Soil Classifications of India: ......................................................................................................................... 29
Demography of India .................................................................................................................................. 34
3.1 Demography...................................................................................................................................... 34
3.2 Population Size and structure ........................................................................................................... 35
3.3 Age structure..................................................................................................................................... 39
3.4 Heath & Life Expectancy ................................................................................................................... 41
3.5 Population Dynamics ........................................................................................................................ 43
3.6 Rural – Urban Composition ............................................................................................................... 47
3.7 Religious Composition....................................................................................................................... 48
3.8 Literacy Rate ..................................................................................................................................... 51
3.9 India Population Forecast: ................................................................................................................ 51
Economy of India ........................................................................................................................................ 53
1. Overview of the Indian Economy ........................................................................................................ 53
2. Primary Sector (Agriculture and Related Activities) ........................................................................... 53
3. Secondary Sector (Industry and Manufacturing) ................................................................................ 53
4. Tertiary Sector (Services) .................................................................................................................... 54
5. Trade and Commerce.......................................................................................................................... 55
6. Economic Challenges .......................................................................................................................... 55
7. Future Prospects ................................................................................................................................. 56
Agriculture in India: A Brief Overview......................................................................................................... 56
 1. Importance of Agriculture in India ...................................................................................................... 56
2. Major Agricultural Seasons in India .................................................................................................... 56
3. Types of Agriculture in India ............................................................................................................... 56
4. Major Crops of India ........................................................................................................................... 57
5. Factors Affecting Indian Agriculture ................................................................................................... 57
6. Challenges in Indian Agriculture ......................................................................................................... 57
7. Future Prospects and Reforms............................................................................................................ 58
Indian culture .............................................................................................................................................. 74
Religious culture...................................................................................................................................... 74
Indian philosophy.................................................................................................................................... 76
Family Structures and Wedding .............................................................................................................. 76
Indian Festivals........................................................................................................................................ 76
Indian cuisine .......................................................................................................................................... 77
Indian clothing ........................................................................................................................................ 78
Indian language ....................................................................................................................................... 78
Indian sports ........................................................................................................................................... 78
IMPORTANCE OF INDIA............................................................................................................................... 80
1. Geopolitical Influence ......................................................................................................................... 80
2. Economic Powerhouse ........................................................................................................................ 80
3. Security and Stability........................................................................................................................... 81
4. Cultural and Historical Significance..................................................................................................... 81
5. Technological and Scientific Leadership ............................................................................................. 82
6. Infrastructure and Connectivity .......................................................................................................... 82
7. Humanitarian Assistance .................................................................................................................... 82
8. Environmental Cooperation ................................................................................................................ 82
Role of India in Establishing SAARC ............................................................................................................ 82
Early Initiatives and Support for SAARC Formation ................................................................................ 82
Founding Member and Active Participant .............................................................................................. 83
Leadership in Regional Economic Cooperation ...................................................................................... 83
Efforts in Regional Connectivity and Infrastructure ............................................................................... 83
Humanitarian Assistance and Development Programs .......................................................................... 83
India’s Achievements from SAARC.............................................................................................................. 84
Challenges and Limitations: ........................................................................................................................ 86
Introduction: India’s Geographical Location, Borders, and Socioeconomic Profile

India's Geographical Location

India is located in South Asia and lies entirely in the Northern Hemisphere. The country extends
between latitudes 8°4'N and 37°6'N and longitudes 68°7'E and 97°25'E. The Tropic of Cancer
(23°30'N) passes almost through the center of India, influencing its climate and agriculture.

Interesting Facts:

• Time Zone Anomaly:

Despite its vast size,
India follows a single
time zone (Indian
Standard Time -
UTC+5:30), creating
significant differences
in sunrise and sunset
times between eastern
and western regions.
• Extreme Points: The
southernmost point of
India, Indira Point,
located in the
Andaman and Nicobar
Islands, is often
submerged due to
rising sea levels.

Land and Borders

India covers an area of 3.287 million square kilometers, making it the seventh-largest country
in the world. It has a land border of 15,106 km and a coastline of 7,516.6 km, including the
mainland, Lakshadweep, and Andaman & Nicobar Islands.

Bordering Countries:

India shares borders with seven countries:

1. Pakistan (3,323 km) - Largest border segment, marked by the famous Wagah-Attari
border ceremony.
 2. China (3,488 km) - Longest disputed border; includes areas like Aksai Chin and Arunachal
Pradesh.
3. Nepal (1,751 km) - Open border allowing free movement between citizens of both nations.
4. Bhutan (699 km) - A peaceful border with no significant disputes.
5. Bangladesh (4,096 km) - The longest border India shares with any country.
6. Myanmar (1,643 km) - A porous border with ethnic and trade connections.
7. Afghanistan (106 km) - The border is in Pakistan-occupied Kashmir, making it
inaccessible.

Interesting Facts:

• Tiny Border with Afghanistan: Though it has an official 106 km border with Afghanistan
in the Gilgit-Baltistan region, India does not control it due to Pakistan’s occupation.
• Sundarbans Border: The world's largest mangrove forest, the Sundarbans, forms a natural
border between India and Bangladesh.

India as a Unique Geographical Location in South Asia

India occupies a strategic position at the crossroads of important global trade routes, connecting
Asia with the Middle East and Africa.

Geographical Uniqueness:

• Himalayan Barrier: The Himalayas in the north provide a natural defense and influence
the monsoon patterns, crucial for agriculture.
• Peninsular Advantage: Surrounded by the Arabian Sea, Bay of Bengal, and the Indian
Ocean, India has been a center for maritime trade since ancient times.
• Diverse Topography: India has plains, plateaus, mountains, deserts, and coastal
regions, making it one of the most geographically diverse countries.

Interesting Facts:

• Monsoon Control: The Himalayas block cold winds from Central Asia, making India’s
climate warmer compared to other regions at the same latitude.
• Volcanic Islands: India has an active volcano, Barren Island, in the Andaman and
Nicobar Islands.

Demographic Profile

India has a population of over 1.4 billion, making it the most populous country in the world as
of 2024.
Population Distribution:

• Most Populated State: Uttar Pradesh (~240 million people).

• Least Populated State: Sikkim (~700,000 people).
• Highest Density: Bihar (~1,100 people per sq. km).
• Lowest Density: Arunachal Pradesh (~17 people per sq. km).

Languages & Ethnicity:

• India has 22 official languages and 1,600+ dialects.

• The country has 2,000+ ethnic groups, making it one of the most diverse in the world.

Interesting Facts:

• Youth Power: Over 65% of India’s population is below 35 years old, making it one of
the youngest nations globally.
• Twin Capital Cities: The Union Territory of Jammu & Kashmir has two capitals –
Srinagar (summer) and Jammu (winter).

Socioeconomic Profile

India is one of the world's fastest-growing economies, with a GDP of over $3.7 trillion (2024

estimate).

Souce: RBI
Economic Sectors:

• Agriculture (18% of GDP): Largest producer of spices, milk, pulses, and jute.
• Industry (29% of GDP): A major hub for automobile, steel, and textile industries.
• Services (53% of GDP): IT, telecom, and banking drive this sector.

Human Development Indicators:

• Literacy Rate: ~77% (Kerala: highest ~96%, Bihar: lowest ~61%).

• Life Expectancy: ~70.8 years.
• Poverty Rate: ~12% (2024 estimate), reduced significantly from 21% in 2011.

Interesting Facts:

• Largest Film Industry: Bollywood produces the most films annually, surpassing
Hollywood.
• Mobile Revolution: India has over 1.2 billion mobile phone users, making it one of the
largest telecom markets.
• Rich Startup Ecosystem: With over 100 unicorns, India is a global startup hub.

Conclusion

India's geographical diversity, massive population, and dynamic economy make it a unique and
significant player on the global stage. Its strategic location in South Asia, bordered by multiple
countries and three major water bodies, enhances its geopolitical and economic influence. With
rapid advancements in technology and infrastructure, India is poised to play an even bigger role in
the global economy in the coming decades.

Introduction: Mahbuba Islam Molin – Roll 35

 PHYSIOGRAPHY

Physiography is a field of geography that studies the physical patterns and processes of the
Earth, such as geomorphology, hydrology, soil, rocks, biogeography, and the effects of
tectonic forces on landscapes.

Physiography of the northern part of India:

1. The Northern Mountain:

It is divided into three groups. They are:

(i) The Himalayas
(ii) The Trans Himalayas
(iii) The Purvanchal hills

(i) The Himalayan Mountains: Himalayas are the young and relatively newly developed fold
mountains. They run from west-east direction from Indus to Brahmaputra covering a distance
of 2500 KM. Their width varies from 400 in the west and 150 KM in the East. The Himalayas
can be classified into three parallel ranges:
(a) Greater Himalayas or Himadari
(b) Lesser Himalayas or Himachal
(c) Outer Himalayas or Siwaliks.

Fig. The Northern Mountainous Region

(a) The Greater Himalayas or Himadari:
1. they are the northernmost ranges and peaks.
2. They possess an average height of 6000 metres and width lies between 120 to 190 KMs .
3. It has high peaks like Mt. Everest, Kanchenjunga, Makalu, Dhaulagiri, Nanga Parbat etc.
Mt. Everest (8848 m) is the highest peak of the world and Kanchenjunga is the highest peak
of Himalaya in India.
4. passesexist in this range, namely, Bara Lacha-La, Shipki-La, Nathu-La, Zoji-La etc.
5. The Ganga and Yamuna rivers originated from this Himalayas.

(b) The Lesser Himalayas or Himachal:

1. Their height ranges from 1000 to 4500 metres
2. While they possess an average width of 50 KM.
3. Ranges in this area are PirPanjal, DhaulaDharand Mahabharata ranges.
4. There are several hill stations like Shimla, Dalhousie Darjeeling, Chakrata, Mussoorie, Nanital
etc. situated in this area.
5. valleys like Kashmir, Kullu, Kangra etc.

(c) The Outer Himalayas or the Siwaliks: This is the outermost range of the Himalayas.
1. Height of these area varies from 900-1100 meters and the width lies between 10-50 KM.
2. Valleys lying between Siwalik and Lesser Himalayas (Himachal) are called ‘Duns’, e.g. Dehra
Dun, Kotli Dun and Patli Dun.

(ii) The Trans-Himalayan ranges: It extends north of greater Himalaya and parallel to it is called
Zaskar range. North of Zaskar range lies in Ladakh range. The Indus river flows between Zaskar
and Ladakh range. The Karakoram range lies extreme north of the country. K2 is the second
highest peak of the world.

(iii) The Purvanchal hills: It comprises Mishami, Patkoi, Naga, Mizo hills which are located on
the eastern side. The Meghalaya plateau is also a portion of these hills which includes the Garo
hill, Khasi hill and Jaintia hill.
 Fig. Division of Himalayas
Divisions of Himalayas
There are four main divisions of Himalayan Mountain Ranges which are separated from one
another by the gorges of rivers which pass through them.

The Punjab Himalayas: The section between the Indus and the Satlej is known as the Punjab
Himalayas. It is also called Jammu-Kashmir and Himachal Himalaya because most of this section
is located in these two states. This section is 560 kilometers long. The important ranges of this
section are the Ladakh, the PirPanjal, the Dhauladhar and the Zaskar. The Zoji La pass is at an
altitude of 3,444 meters above the sea-level.

The Kumaon Himalayas: This section runs for a distance of 320 kilometers between the Satlej
and the Kali rivers. This is higher than the Punjab Himalayas. Great rivers like Ganga and Yamuna
have sources in the Kumaon Himalayas.

The Nepal Himalayas: This is situated between the Kali and the Tista rivers and is 800 kilometers
long. Most of it is located in Nepal and hence its name. This is the highest part of the Himalayas
where lofty peaks like the Everest, the Kanchenjungha, the Dhaulagiri, the Annapurna, and the
Makalu etc. are located. The flat Kathmandu valley is also situated in the Nepal Himalayas.

4. The Assam Himalaya: It extends for a distance of 720 kilometers between the Tista and the
Dihang (Tsangpo-Brahmaputra).

Cruciality of Himalayas for India:

1. Climatic Influence,
2. Defence
3. Source of Rivers
4. Fertile Soil
5. Hydroelectricity
6. Forest Wealth
7. Agriculture
8. Tourism
9. Pilgrimage
10. Minerals

2.The Northern Plains

Origin
• The Great plain of Northern India was developed by the sediments carried by the Indus-Ganga-
Brahmaputra and their tributaries and it is popularly known as the Indo-Ganga-Brahmaputra plain
• Geologists lead the belief that there existed a shallow trough or geosyncline in between the
Himalayas and the Deccan plateau during the latter geological period of the formation of the
Himalayas.
• After the upliftment of the Himalayas, sediments and debris brought down by the rivers initiated
to accumulate there to form the vast alluvial plain of northern India.

Fig. The Northern Plains of India

Northern plains
1. This region is located between south of the Himalayas and north of the Peninsular plateau.
2. The area is developed by the deposition of the sediments brought by three main river systems
namely : the Indus, the Ganga and the Brahmaputra.
3. Its length is 2400 km long and width varies from about 300 km in the west to about 150 km in
the east.
4. It mainly encompasses the states of Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal and
Assam.
5. This plain is one of the largest and most alluvial plains of the world. Major crops such as wheat,
rice, sugarcane, pulses, oil seeds and jute are grown here.

The Northern plain is broadly categorized into two parts :

(a) The Western plain
(b) The Ganga-Brahmaputra plain

(a) The Western Plain

This plain is created by the river system of the Indus. It stands to the west of Aravallis. This plain
is developed due to deposits brought by the rivers like the Satluj, the Beas and the Ravi. This part
of the plain has doabs, a feature found between two river streams.

(b) The Ganga-Brahmaputra plain

It is also formed by the deposition of the sediments brought by two main river systems, the Ganga
and the Brahmaputra. The early civilizations like Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa also called river
valley civilizations, were scattered over plain areas. This is because of the availability of alluvial
land and water through the river networks.

The northern plain can be categorized into the following regions based on relief features:

i. Bhabar: After flowing down from the mountains, rivers deposit pebbles in a narrow strip. This
belt, approximately 8-16 km wide, runs parallel to the Shiwaliks and is known as Bhabar. All the
streams vanish in this region.

ii. Terai: Situated to the south of the Bhabar belt, the streams reappear here, creating a wet,
swampy, and marshy area.

iii. Bhangar: This is the largest portion of the northern plain, consisting of the oldest alluvial soil.
It is located above the floodplains and resembles terraces. The soil here is known locally as kankar
and contains calcareous deposits.

iv. Khadar: These floodplains, formed by newer alluvium, are called Khadar. The soil in this area
is replenished annually, making it extremely fertile.

Regional division of the northern plains:

i. Punjab plains: Located in the western part of the northern plains, this region is formed by the
Indus and its tributaries, such as the Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas, and Sutlej rivers. A major portion
of this plain lies in Pakistan, and it is characterized by numerous Doabs.

ii. Ganga plain: Extending between the Ghaggar and Tista rivers, this plain includes the northern
states of Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Delhi, Bihar, and parts of Jharkhand and West Bengal.

iii. Brahmaputra plains: Located in the eastern part of the northern plains, this area is found in
Assam.

Significance of the Great Plains:

The northern plains, a riverine region, are blessed with fertile soil, a favorable climate, a flat
surface that facilitates the construction of roads and railways, and slow-moving rivers. These
characteristics have made the region highly significant. The extensive irrigation system developed
from the tributaries of the Satluj, Ganga, Yamuna, and others has transformed the once barren
areas of Punjab, Haryana, northern Rajasthan, and Uttar Pradesh into vibrant, populous regions.

(a) Support High Population Density:

The five affluent states in the plains—Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and West
Bengal—host some of the densest populations in the world.

(b) Cultural and Political Importance:

This region has historically been the heart of political power, economic, and cultural movements
that spread to Aryavarta. Cities like Delhi, Patna, and Kolkata have served as political capitals of
the country.

(c) Social and Religious Significance:

The Ganga is regarded as the most sacred river, and the region from Gaya to Mathura, and from
Sangam to Haridwar, is recognized as the "holy land" of Hinduism. It is also the birthplace of the
religions of Buddhism and Jainism, and has been a center for the Bhakti and Sufi movements.

(d) Economic Importance:

With fertile soil, perennial rivers, and a favorable climate, the northern plains are the country’s
primary agricultural zones, producing abundant crops like rice, wheat, oilseeds, sugarcane,
tobacco, and jute. This region also has a diverse range of commercial and industrial activities.
3. The Indian Desert:

1. This region lies towards the western margin of Aravali Hills.

2. It is also named Thar Desert.
3. It is the ninth largest desert in the world.
4. It spreads over the states of Gujarat and Rajasthan.
5. The Thar Desert showcases distinct geographical features such as mushroom rocks,
oases, and shifting sand dunes.
6. This region has semi-arid and arid weather conditions. It receives less than 150 mm
of rainfall per year.
7. The vegetation cover is low with thorny bushes.
8. Luni is the main river in this area.
Physiography of the Southern part of India:

Diverse landforms, such as plateaus, mountain ranges, coastal plains, and islands, define the
southern region of India. With vast coastal plains along the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal,
this region is mostly made up of the Peninsular Plateau, which is bounded by the Eastern and
Western Ghats. South India's climate, agriculture, biodiversity, and economic activity are all
influenced by its physiographic diversity.

Fig: Physiography of India

The southern part of India is characterized by diverse landforms, including plateaus, mountain
ranges, coastal plains, and islands. This region primarily consists of the Peninsular Plateau,
bordered by the Western and Eastern Ghats, with extensive coastal plains along the Arabian Sea
and the Bay of Bengal. The physiographic diversity of South India influences its climate,
agriculture, biodiversity, and economic activities.
 Southern India: A Field of Study

• Southern India, located south of latitude 15, is the apex of the Peninsula and is close to the Madras
Presidency of British India.
• The country is characterized by its variety of surface and scenery, with a mild tropical climate
and a tropical rainforest.
• It is an epitome of all India, with its lofty hills, extensive plains, flooding rivers, dwindling lakes,
fertile flats, sterile wastes, tropical jungles, and scrubby wilderness.
• Southern India is an interesting field for scientific observation due to its continuous physical
changes due to the sun's rays, strong winds, and tropical rainfall.
• Southern India can be divided into three regions: the mountainous region of the Ghats, the
lowlands of the Malabar coast, and the wide and dry lowland plains of the Carnatic.
• The highland tract, wide in the north, separates the other two, differing more from the effects of
the seasons than from their geographical position.

1. The Peninsular Plateau

The Peninsular Plateau is a vast area in India, characterized by undulating land and diverse
topography. It spans 1600 km from north to south and 1400 km from east to west. The highest
peak is Anamudi (2695m). The Narmada River divides the plateau into northern and southern
parts, but it can be divided into three parts: Central Highlands, Deccan Plateau, and Chhotanagpur
Plateau.
Central Highlands comprises of Bundelkhand Bhander, Baghel and Malwa Plateau. These
highlands are situated to the north of the Narmada rift valley, which formed from hard
metamorphic and igneous rocks (Qasim, 1998)

Deccan Plateau the largest plateau lying to the south of

the Narmada River. It is includes the Western Ghats
north of 16º north latitude (Indian Quick Facts Official
Portal, 2013), the plateau of Maharashtra (except the
east of Nagpur) and the adjoining parts of Madhya
Pradesh, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh (Jain et al,
2007).

Chhotanagpur Plateau’s highest peak is Parasnath

(1,366m) situated in the north eastern part of the Indian
Plateau including the region of Bihar, adjoining Madhya
Pradesh and West Bengal. It consists of Ranchi Plateau in
the south, the Hazaribagh Plateau in the north, and the Rajmahal Hillsin the northeast. It is
described as the “Ruhr of India” (Indian Quick Facts Official Portal, 2013).

The Peninsular Plateau in India is surrounded by low-lying plains and sloping scarps or Ghats,
with steep western sides and small hilly areas east and north. The region is the origin of rivers like
the Godavari and Indrāvati, which irrigate the northern part of the terrain. The Indo-Gangetic Plain
is the most important region in India's economic landscape.

India's Great Plains: Population Density, Economic Role, and Water Sources

• The Great Plains, also known as The Indus-Ganga plains, are large floodplains of the Indus and
Ganga-Brahmaputra river systems.
• They support one of the most populous areas on Earth, home to nearly 1 billion people on 700,000
km².
• Major cities include Karachi, Hyderabad, Multan, Islamabad, Rawalpindi, Faisalabad, Lahore,
Amritsar, Bathinda, Jammu, Jalandhar, Pathankot, Ludhiana, Chandigarh, Delhi, Jaipur, Kampur,
Lucknow, Allahabad, Varanasi, Patna, Kolkata, Guwahati, and Dhaka.
• The plains are homogeneous, with only floodplain bluffs and other river erosion features.
• The main source of rainfall is the southwest monsoon, which is sufficient for general agricultural
purposes.
• The plains are home to the Ganga and Indus rivers, along with their tributaries.
• The flat land makes it easy to construct irrigation canals and have inland navigation.
• The area has excellent roads and railways, aiding in the establishment of many industries.

2. The coastal plains and islands.

The coastal plains of South India are divided into two main regions:

a) Western Coastal Plains – This narrow strip of land lies between the Western Ghats and
the Arabian Sea. It includes the Konkan and Malabar coasts and is characterized by
lagoons, estuaries, and high rainfall. The region is fertile, supporting crops like coconut,
rice, and spices. Important ports like Kochi and Mangalore are located here.

b) Eastern Coastal Plains – This is a broader stretch between the Eastern Ghats and the Bay
of Bengal. It includes the Coromandel Coast and deltas of major rivers like the Krishna,
Godavari, and Kaveri, making it an agriculturally significant region. Key ports such as
Chennai and Visakhapatnam are located here.
The Peninsular India plateau is bordered by the narrow coastal plains. (Bhat, 2009).
The Deccan plateau in India is surrounded by the coastal plains in the west and the east. These
are numerous estuaries in the Indian Coastal Plains. Among these, the major ones are Narmada
River and Tapi River in the state of Gujerat.

India's Coastal Landscape Overview

• Coastal plains in the south combine with salt-water lakes or lagoons.

• Spits and sand bars are found at their mouths.
• The coast plains along the Bay of Bengal are extensive and distinct from the western strip.
• India's coastline is approximately 7500 km, home to diverse ecosystems and wildlife habitats.
• Coastal and deep-sea waters are crucial breeding grounds for aquatic organisms.
• The coastal areas are divided into eastern and western plains, both significant in economic
aspects.

Fig: The Coastal Plains of India & its division

East Coastal Plains Overview

• Covers 1,02,882 sq. km along the coasts of Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, and Tamil Nadu.
• Located between the Eastern Ghats and the Bay of Bengal.
• More extensive and wide than its western counterpart.
• Experiences a temperature of over 30ºC, high humidity level, and abundant rainfall.
• Characterized by numerous rivers, large deltas, fertile and irrigated lands, lagoons, spits, and
offshore bars.
• Bordered with dunes and Mangrove forests.
• Wider in Tamil Nadu, extending to about 100 to 120 km.
• Divided into Utkal Plains (400km from Gango Delta to Mahanadi Delta), Tamil Nadu Plains
(67km from Chennai to Kanyakumari), and Adhra Plains (from Utkal Plains to Pulicat Lake).
• Features the Kaveri delta, a granary in South India, and the delta formation by the River Kaveri
and Rover Godavari.

West Coastal Plain Overview

A narrow strip between the Western Ghats and the Arabian Sea, including the Konkan and Malabar
coasts.

• Covers 64,264 sq. km between Sahyadris and Arabian Sea.

• Elevation ranges from sea level to 150 m, with some reaching over 300 m.
• Characterized by sandy beaches, mud flats, lagoons, alluvial tracts, estuaries, laterite plateaus,
and residual hills.
• Nestled between the Arabian Sea and Western Ghats.
• Length: 1,400 km, width: 10-80 km.
• Characterized by numerous rivers and backwaters, forming most estuaries.

Coastal domain also serves as a sink for altered seawater, posing threats to sensitive ecosystems.
The western coastal plains in India are less affected by storm activity compared to the eastern
coastal plains, with most storms occurring in Karnataka, Maharashtra, and Goa. These areas are
prone to pollution from land-based sources like industrial and domestic wastes, agricultural run-
off, and shipping.
 Fig: Coastal Plains of India

The Lakshadweep Islands

The Lakshadweep Islands, a group of 36 coral atolls in the Arabian Sea, are India's smallest Union
Territory, known for marine biodiversity, pristine beaches, and coral ecosystems, but vulnerable
to climate change, sea-level rise, and coastal erosion.

Fig: Lakshadweep Islands

Rameswaram Islands

• Major Hindu pilgrimage site, home to the Ramathaswamy Temple.

• Part of the Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Reserve, known for its diverse marine ecosystem.
• Historical significance linked to the Ramayana, believed to be the site where Lord Rama built
the Ram Setu to reach Lanka.
• Supports fishing communities and coral reef conservation initiatives.

The Indian Ocean is divided into two major groupings: Andaman and
Nicobar Islands

Andaman and Nicobar Islands

• Located in the Bay of Bengal, between 6 °N to 14 °N latitudes and 90 °E to 94 °E longitudes.
• Comprises about 572 islands, 38 of which are inhabited.
• 1255 km from Kolkata and 1190 km from Chennai.
• Total area is about 8249 sq km.
• The Ten Degree Channel separates the Andaman and Nicobar groups, about 121 km wide.

Lakshadweep Islands
• Located in the Arabian Sea, consists of only 27 islands, 11 of which are inhabited.
• Renamed Lakshadweep in 1973, these coral-based islands are located 200 to 500 km southwest
of Kerala's coast.
• Minicoy Island is the largest and most developed of the islands in the group.
• Play an important role in both tourism and biodiversity in India.

Western Ghats: A UNESCO World

Heritage Site

• Runs parallel to India's western coast,

extending from Gujarat to Kerala.
• Home to tropical rainforests, rare flora, and
endangered species.
• Acts as a barrier to the southwest monsoon,
causing heavy rainfall.
• Includes Nilgiri Hills, Anamalai Hills, and Cardamom Hills.
• Originates rivers: Godavari, Krishna, and Kaveri.
Fig: Western Ghat,South India
 "Eastern Ghats: A Discontinuous Mountain Range in India"

Location:
Discontinuous range running along the eastern coast.
Passes through Odisha, Andhra Pradesh, and Tamil Nadu.

• Runs from Odisha to Tamil Nadu.

• Lower, more fragmented, and interspersed with river valleys.
• Peaks average 600–1,200 meters.
• Dissected by major rivers like Godavari, Krishna, and Mahanadi.
• Notable hills include the Nallamala Hills, Velikonda Hills, and Shevaroy Hills.
• Dry deciduous forests, unlike the dense rainforests of the Western Ghats.

Characteristics:
Lower in elevation compared to Western Ghats (average 600 meters).
Eroded and fragmented due to river systems.
Major hills: Nallamala Hills, Velikonda Hills, Shevaroy Hills.

Fig: Ghats of South India

Significance:
Less dense forests compared to Western Ghats.
Contains mineral resources (bauxite, limestone).
Rivers like Godavari and Krishna cut through these hills before reaching the Bay of Bengal

Physical Features of Southern India

• The best time for visiting Southern India is from September to March.
• The country offers a variety of climate offered by the hill tracts, the upland plateau, and the
lowland plains, and visiting each at its best season can provide a comparatively cool and
enjoyable climate.

Climatic Condition of India

Climate refers to the sum total of weather conditions and variations over large area for a long
period of time (more than 30 years).Weather is state of atmosphere over an area at any point of
time. Similarly weather conditions which last for longer duration are responsible for making a
season.

Climate Factors Affecting India

Location:
• India is located in the Northern hemisphere closer to the equator, resulting in a tropical climate
in the south and a sub-tropical climate in the north.
• The Tropic of Cancer passes through the central part of India, affecting the climate.

Distance from the Sea:

• The southern half of India is surrounded by the Arabian Sea, the Bay of Bengal, and the Indian
Ocean, resulting in a moderate climate.
• North India experiences extreme climates, while south India experiences an equable climate.

Altitude:
• The height above the average sea level affects the climate.
• Cities on hills have cooler climates, while plains have hot climates.

Mountain Ranges:
• The Himalaya Mountain in the northern part of India protects the country from cold Central Asian
winds.
• The Western Ghats force rain-bearing winds to cause heavy rainfall.

Direction of Surface Winds:

• The wind system, including monsoon winds, land and sea breezes, and local winds, affects the
climate.
• Winter winds blow from land to sea, causing cold and dry conditions, while summer winds blow
from sea to land, causing widespread rain.

Upper Air Currents:

• Jet streams, a narrow belt of fast-blowing winds, also influence the climate.

Monsoons and Climate in India

• Monsoons are seasonal reversals in wind direction, originating from warm seas.
• In summer, the interior parts of North Indian Plains, including Rajasthan, Punjab, Haryana, and
Western Uttar Pradesh, experience intense heat.
• The average maximum temperature is above 33°C in May at Delhi and Jodhpur, creating a
monsoonal trough between Jaisalmer and Balasore.
• The temperature over the Indian Ocean is relatively low, creating a high pressure region over the
sea.
• By mid-June, air from the equatorial region of the Indian Ocean moves from South West to
North-East, opposite to the trade winds (North – East to South-West) during winter in India.
• These moisture-laden winds cause widespread rain throughout India, confined to the four months
of June to September.
 Fig: South-west Moonson 2023

India's Seasons Overview

India experiences four distinct seasons: cold weather (December – February), hot weather
(March – May), advancing South-West monsoon season (June – September), and post or
retreating monsoon season (October – November). The cold weather season lasts from December
to February, with temperatures decreasing from the South to the North. Frost is common in the
North and North West India, and light rainfall is observed in the region. Winter rainfall is crucial
for the cultivation of 'Rabi' crops.

The hot weather season begins from March to May, with high temperatures in the plains, western
part of India, and central peninsular India. An elongated low pressure called monsoonal trough
forms in the northern plains, extending from Jaisalmer in western Rajasthan to Jharkhand and parts
of Odisha to the East. Pre-monsoon showers are common towards the close of the summer season,
helping in the early ripening of mangoes.

The advancing South-West monsoon season occurs from June to September, with strong winds
blowing from the South-West to north-east. The Arabian Sea Branch, obstructed by Western
Ghats, provides heavy rainfall on the Western side of Western Ghats, while the Bay of Bengal
branch strikes Andaman and Nicobar islands, North-Eastern states, and coastal areas of West
Bengal, causing heavy rainfall in the region. Monsoon rains have 'breaks', causing wet and dry
spells, and the temperature declines from 5°C to 8°C between mid June and mid July. This period
also sees floods in many parts of India due to heavy rainfall and inadequate water resource
management.
 Overview on Southern India's Climate and Seasons
Season Overview
• Southern India has three distinct seasons: the southwest monsoon (May to September), the
northeast monsoon (October to February), and the hot season (March till May).
• The southwest monsoon brings rains that revive all living things and fill rivers and lakes,
fertilizing the land and tempering the rays of the vertical sun.
• The onset, force, and continuance of the southwest monsoon are most regular.
• The northeast monsoon is the normal trade wind, ushered in by storms and heavy falls of rain,
replenishing rivers and tanks to the east of the Ghats.
• The northeast monsoon usually lasts till February, accompanied by spells of rainy weather that
rapidly bring to perfection the cold-weather crops.

Hot Season
• The succeeding hot-weather months, March, April, and May, may be briefly but fitly described
as hot, hotter, hottest.
• The heat of Southern India is seldom very great or oppressive, being tempered by the land- and
sea-breezes, and occasional dust-storms and thunder-storms, frequently accompanied by heavy
showers.
• These are often termed the "petty monsoon" rains, but are thought seasonable at a time when the
regular monsoon breezes are out of season.
 Soil Classifications of India:

1. Alluvial soil:

I. The name Alluvial is given to soils that have developed on alluvium, irrespective of their place of
occurrence and degree of profile development.
II. They represent by far the most fertile land and form an important group of soils for agricultural
production.
III. The soils are extensively distributed in the Indo-Gangetic plains and Brahmaputra valley and cover
an area of about 75 Mha. They also occur in the coastal and deltaic regions.
IV. They are predominantly occurring in the states of Punjab, Haryana, Delhi, Uttar Pradesh,
Uttarakhand, Bihar, West Bengal, Assam, coastal regions of Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu,
Kerala and Gujarat.

Khadar – light coloured, more siliceous.

Bhangar – the older alluvium composed of lime nodules and has clayey composition. It is dark in colour.

Formation - sediments deposited by streams and rivers when they slowly loose

Chemical properties - rich in potash, phosphoric acid, lime and carbon compounds but poor in nitrogen

Nature –Sandy-loam-silt-clay profile shows no marked differentiation

2. Black soils:

I. The name black is given to soils that are very dark in colour and turn extremely hard on drying and
sticky and plastic on wetting, and hence, the soils are often very difficult to cultivate and manage.
II. These soils are dark in colour, rich in clay content and have characteristics associated with shrink
and swell properties. The high clay content (>30% up to at least 50 cm of the soil surface),
preferably in dry regions, develops typical crack that is 1 cm or wider and reaches a depth of 50
cm, or more. Such soils are often called heavy, cracking clay soils.
III. Such black soils are locally termed as Regur in central Asia, Karail in lower Gangetic Basin in U.
P. and Bhal in Gujarat.
IV. In Bihar, Tal lands have comparable soil properties developed on the Ganga alluvium as influenced
by back water during flood (Tiwary and Mishra 1990, Mishra 2015c). Black soils are dominantly
distributed in the central, western and southern states of India. According to Sehgal (1996),
different members of black cotton soils occupy an estimated area of 72 Mha.

Formation - Derived from basalts of Deccan trap.

Colour - black colour, due to the presence of titanium, iron.

Chemical properties - Consist of calcium and magnesium carbonates, high quantities of iron, aluminium,
lime and magnesia.

Rich in potash lime, Aluminium calcium and magnesium poor in Nitrogen Phosphoric acid and humus

Nature - Sticky when wet High degree of moisture retentivity

3. Red soils:

I. Conceptually, red soils are considered to be those that have hues 7.5YR or redder in the series
control Sect. (25–150 cm soil depth).
II. They include red loams, red gravelly soils, red earths and latosolic soils.
III. Such soils are moderately (to highly) weathered, enriched in secondary forms of iron and/or
aluminium oxides (sesquioxides), poor in humus and generally have a clay enriched B-horizon that
develops on stable and higher landforms, experiencing (sub) humid climatic condition.
IV. In India, most typical red soils developed under hot, semi-arid to (sub) humid climatic condition in
the subtropical regions are Rhodustalfs (termed Luvisols in the FAO Legend).
V. The soils grade from shallow, gravelly and light coloured (in the upland) to fertile, deep and dark
reddish-brown (in the plains and valleys).
VI. They are relatively high in base status than the lateritic soils.

Formation - decomposition of ancient crystalline rocks like granites and gneisses and from rock type

Chemical properties - rich in minerals such as iron and magnesium.

Deficient in nitrogen, humus, phosphoric acid and lime.

Nature - Light texture, porous friable presence of limited soluble salts Clay fraction of the red soils generally
consists of Kaolinitic minerals.

4. Laterite soils:

I. The name Laterite signifies the soils with laterite formation in the subsoil horizons.
II. The term was originally coined and used by Buchanan (1807) for the highly ferruginous vascular
and apparently unstratified deposits observed in the Malabar Hills of Kerala.
III. It is highly weathered material enriched in secondary forms of iron and/or aluminium and devoid
of bases and primary minerals.
IV. It is either hard or subject to hardening upon exposure to alternate wetting and drying. It includes
Plinthite.
V. The Lateritic soils are predominantly observed in the southern, SE and NE states and cover an area
of about 40 Mha.
VI. The well-developed lateritic soils are occasionally observed on hilltops and plateaus in the states
of Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Orissa and sparingly in Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka.
VII. The lateritic soils are widely distributed in all the above states and cover an area of about 25 Mha
(excluding rock-out crops).

Formation - formed in the regions where alternate wet and hot dry conditions prevail. It is formed by the
process of leaching

Chemical properties - Composed mainly of hydrated oxides of iron and aluminium,

Nature - More acidic on higher areas poor in high level, cannot retain moisture while plains they consist of
heavy loam and clay and easily retain moisture

5. Forest and mountain soils

I. Differ from region to region depending on climate.

II. This name is implied for soils developed under any forest cover, irrespective of the forest species
and/or profile development
III. In India, the total area under different forest species (tropical, deciduous, coniferous, tropical
evergreen) is estimated to be 75 Mha and is observed dominantly in the states of Himachal Pradesh,
Jammu and Kashmir, Uttar Pradesh, Uttaranchal, Bihar, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra,
Kerala, Tamil Nadu, North-eastern states and Andaman and Nicobar Islands.

Formation - due to mechanical weathering caused by snow, rain, temperature variation

Chemical properties - are deficient in potash, Phosphorus and lime.

Nature - light, sandy, thin and found with the pieces of rock. Their character changes with the parent rocks.
Very rich in humus. slow decomposition makes it acidic
6. Arid and desert soils

I. The name desert or arid is given to the soils that support almost negligible vegetation, except
xerophytic plants, unless irrigated.
II. These are soils of dry places that represent aridic/torric moisture regime.
III. They may, however, occur in all temperature regimes, including cryic, frigid and/or hyperand
mega-thermic.
IV. Because of the limiting rainfall, the desert soils generally show accumulation of salts at or near the
surface, forming salic, sodic, gypsic, petrogypsic, calcic or petrocalcic horizons.
V. Large tract of hot and arid region lies between the Indus River and the Aravalli Ranges, in North-
Western India (Rajasthan, Gujarat, Haryana and Punjab) poses desertic conditions geologically.

Formation - Due to prevalence of the dry climate, hightemperature and accelerated evaporation, the soil is
dry, it also lacks humus content due to the absence of vegetative cover

Chemical properties - Contain high percentages of soluble salts, alkaline with varying degree of calcium
carbonate and are poor in organic matter; rich enough in phosphate though poor in nitrogen

Nature - light in colour, low humus,friable structure, low in moisture

7. Saline and alkaline soils

I. Salt-affected soils are the soils that contain considerable amounts of soluble salts and/or sodium on
the exchange complex.
II. They occur where potential evapotranspiration greatly exceeds precipitation, which is in arid and
semi-arid regions.
III. They are Intra zonal, as they are interspersed with the other zonal soils dominant of the tract/region
IV. According to the Central Soil Salinity Research Institute (CSSRI), Karnal (Haryana), salt-affected
soils occupy about 10 Mha of land in India.
V. Out of that a major fraction (say two-third) is sodic in nature and occurs in the Indo-Gangetic plains
and the Deccan (Peninsula) Plateau of India dominantly supporting black (cotton) soils; the rest
(about one-third), occurs in the semi-arid and arid coastal regions, are saline.
VI. The worst affected states are: Gujarat, Rajasthan, U.P., Haryana and Bihar (for sodicity),and the
coastal region (for salinity). Such soils in the Indo-Gangetic plains have been or are being
ameliorated using gypsum technology.

Formation - formed due to ill drainage which causes water logging, injurious salts are transferred from
subsurface to the top soil by the capillary action, it causes the salinisation of soils

Chemical properties - liberate sodium, magnesium and calcium salts and sulphurous acid

Nature - Consists of an excess of sodium salts and mineral fragments which are weathering

8. Peaty and marshy soils

 I. The name peaty and marshy is given to the soils that have developed in the low-lying coastal
marshy land or to the soils confined to depressions caused by dried lakes in the alluvial and coastal
plain areas, formerly occupied by mangrove swamps.
II. These soils are dominantly observed in the coastal inter-tropical lowlands.
III. In India, they occur in localized pockets in the states of Kerala, Orissa, Sunderbans in West Bengal,
Goa, South-Eastern Tamil Nadu and NE states where they are mostly associated with mangroves
forest vegetation

Formation - formed in humid regions from the organic matter. It is found in the areas of heavy rainfall and
high humidity Peaty soils are black, heavyand highly acidic.

Chemical properties - deficient in potash and phosphate.

Nature - Contain considerable amount of Soluble salts and 10-40 per cent of organic matter; and high
proportion of vegetable matter.

Physiography: Imran Azad Imon – Roll 38

Mumsuka Farhat - Roll-48
 Demography of India
3.1 Demography
Demography is the statistical study of human populations: their size, composition (e.g., ethnic
group, age), and how they change through the interplay of fertility (births), mortality (deaths), and
migration.

India is the most populous country in the world with one-sixth of the world's population. According
to estimates from the United Nations (UN), India has overtaken China as the country with the
largest population in the world, with a population of 1,425,775,850 at the end of April 2023.

Historical population: India's population has grown from about 100 million in 1500 to over 1.4
billion in 2022.

• In 1500, India's population was about 100 million

• In 1700, the population rose to 160 million under the Mughal Empire
• In 1800, the population was about 169 million
• In 1881, the population was 255 million under the British Raj
• In 1900, the population was over 240 million
• In 1951, the population was 361 million
• In 2011, the population was over 1.2 billion
• In 2020, the population was estimated to be just under 1.4 billion

Figure: Population of India (1800-2020)

3.2 Population Size and structure
• The current population of India is 1,459,294,177 as of Sunday, February 23, 2025
(Worldometer, UN).
• India population is equivalent to 17.78% of the total world population.
• Uttar Pradesh is the most populous state in the country with almost 200 million people.
Sikkim is the least populous state with 6, 07,688 people.

Figure: Population of India from 2016 to 2023

• The current population of India in 2025 is 1,454,606,724, a 0.89% increase from 2024.

• The population of India in 2024 was 1,441,719,852, a 0.92% increase from 2023.

• The population of India in 2023 was 1,428,627,663, a 0.81% increase from 2022.

• The population of India in 2022 was 1,417,173,173, a 0.68% increase from 2021.
3.2.1 Population growth

Table: Annual growth rate of India by census

Year Growth Rate (%)

2025 0.89%
2021 0.80%
2011 1.37%
2001 1.82%
1991 2.12%
1981 2.30%
1971 2.24%
1961 2.33%
1951 2.21%
 Figure: Population growth rate map of India 2021 (Per 1000 individuals)

The above map visually depicts the varying rates of population growth across different Indian
states. The highest growth rates are generally concentrated in the northern and central regions,
particularly states like Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and Rajasthan, while the southern states like Kerala,
Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, and most of the northeastern states tend to have lower growth rates.

3.2.2 Population Density

Figure: Population density map of India (2011 census of India)

According to the 2011 census, the population density of India varies significantly across states

❖ The most densely populated being Bihar (1,106 people per square kilometer) followed
by West Bengal (1,029), Kerala (859), and Uttar Pradesh (829), while the least densely
populated states include Arunachal Pradesh (17), Mizoram (52), and Nagaland (119).
❖ Lowest density states: Arunachal Pradesh, Mizoram, Nagaland
 ❖ Overall Indian population density: The population density in India is 492 per Km2 (1,275
people per mi2).

3.2.3 Population of India by census (1951-2025)

Crude Crude Crude

Yearl Birth Death Migrat Total Urban Urban
Year Population y Rate Rate ion fertility Density Popula Population
Chang (per (per Rate Rate (p/km2 tion
e 1000) 1000) (per (TFR) ) (%)
(%) 1000)
2025 1,463,865,525 0.89 16.55 9.07 -0.32 2.105 492 37.1 % 8,231,613,070

2021 1,414,203,889 0.98 16.49 9.26 −1.0 2.01 479 34.4 % 7,887,001,292
%
2011 1,261,224,952 1.49 21.16 7.05 0 2.54 418 30.6 % 7,021,732,148
%
2001 1,077,898,572 1.96 27.21 8.48 0 3.30 356 27.5% 6,171,702,993
%
1991 883,927,607 2.28 32.02 10.47 0.2 3.96 291 25.7 % 5,327,803,110
%
1981 703,696,255 2.37 36.76 13.42 0.3 4.70 231 23.4 % 4,447,606,236
%
1971 558,096,383 2.18 39.72 16.81 −0.1 5.57 184 20.0% 3,694,683,794
%
1961 446,564,730 2.38 42.67 19.23 0.5 5.94 147 18.5 % 3,015,470,894
%
1951 353,870,058 1.98% 44.26 22.53 0.5 5.77 130 17.29 2,740,213,792
%

Source: Worldometer (www.Worldometers.info)

3.3 Age structure
Age structure refers to the proportions of individuals at different life stages within a
population, and it is an important indicator of population status.

According to 2021 data, India's age structure is characterized by a large young population, with
approximately 25% of the population falling within the 0-14 year age bracket.

• 0–14 years : 25.68% (male 183,695,000/female 166,295,000)

• 15–64 years : 67.49% (male 472,653,000/female 447,337,000)
• 65 and over : 6.83% (male 44,275,000/female 48,751,000)

Figure: Population pyramid of India 2020

3.3.1 Sex ratio

According to the latest 5th report of National Family Health Survey (NFHS-5, 2019-21) of
Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, the sex ratio in India is 1020 females per 1000 males. This
means that for every 1000 males in India, there are 1020 females.

• In rural areas, the sex ratio is slightly higher at 1037 females per 1000 males
• In urban areas the ratio is 985 females per 1000 males.

➢ Total : 1.06 male(s)/female

➢ At birth : 1.1 male(s)/female
➢ Under 15 : 1.11 male(s)/female
➢ 15–64 years: 1.07 male(s)/female
➢ 65 and over: 0.85 male(s)/female

Figure: Male to female sex ratio for India, based on its official census data (1941-2011)

The data suggest the existence of high sex ratios before and after the arrival of ultrasound-based
prenatal care and sex screening technologies in India. While a naturally slightly male-skewed sex
ratio existed in India before the widespread availability of ultrasound technology, the introduction
of ultrasound-based prenatal care and sex screening significantly exacerbated the issue, leading to
a sharp rise in the male-to-female ratio due to widespread female feticide, indicating that the high
sex ratio became significantly more pronounced after the arrival of these technologies.
3.4 Heath & Life Expectancy
Life expectancy is the average number of years a person is expected to live. It's a key measure of
a population's health. The life expectancy in India for 2023 is estimated to be around 72.2 years.

• Male life expectancy: 73.9 years

• Female life expectancy: 70.7 years

Figure: Life expectancy in India from1955 to present

3.4.1 Median Age

Median age refers to the age that divides a population into two equal groups, meaning half of the
people are younger than that age and half are older; it essentially represents the "middle age" within
a population. People under the age of 25 accounts for more than 40% of India’s population.
 Figure: Median population becomes one-fourth of the total population (India census, 2011)

In fact, there are so many Indians in this age group that roughly one-in-five people globally who
are under the age of 25 live in India. Looking at India’s age distribution another way, the country’s
median age is 28. By comparison, the median age is 38 in the United States and 39 in China.

Figure: Median age in India (1955-2024)

3.5 Population Dynamics

3.5.1 Fertility in India

A Total Fertility Rate (TFR) of 2.1 represents the Replacement-Level Fertility: the average number
of children per woman needed for each generation to exactly replace it without needing
international immigration. A value below 2.1 will cause the native population to decline.

Figure: The Declining Fertility Rate of India (2001 vs 2021)

3.5.2 Infant Mortality Rate and Deaths of Children under 5 Years Old in India

Figure: Infant and under age 5 Mortality rate in India (1950-2024)

India has seen a significant decrease in both infant and under-five mortality rates in recent years.
In 2022, the infant mortality rate in India was at about 25.5 deaths per 1,000 live births, while the
under-five mortality rate is approximately 32 deaths per 1,000 live births.

Infant mortality rate trend (deaths per 1000)

Year Male Female Total

1998 69.8 73.5 71.6
2005 56.3 58 57
2009 49 52 -
2014 43.7 37.90 40.7
2018 29.95 29.88 29.94
(Source: NFHS & UNICEF Data.)

India's 2011 census shows a serious decline in the number of girls under the age of seven – activists
posit that eight million female fetuses may have been aborted between 2001 and 2011.
3.5.3 Migration Pattern

Typically, more people migrate out of India each year than into it, resulting in negative net
migration. India lost about 300,000 people due to migration in 2021, according to the UN
Population Division.

But India’s net migration has not always been negative. As recently as 2016, India gained an
estimated 68,000 people due to migration due to asylum-seeking Rohingya fleeing Myanmar.

Figure: Net migration in India

Migration patterns in India are increasingly reflecting the economic divide in the country. The
dominant migration pattern is primarily intra-state, with most people moving within their own state
rather than across state borders, with marriage being the primary reason for female migration and
employment the main driver for male migration.

• Dominant Intra-state Migration: Over 80% of migration happens within the same state,
with only a small percentage migrating to a different state.

• Gender Differences: About 37 percent of India's population are classified as migrants in

2011 census and further females are more mobile than males in the country
• Economic Factors: States with better economic opportunities like Maharashtra, Gujarat,
Tamil Nadu, and Karnataka tend to attract migrants from less developed regions.
• Urban Concentration: Metropolitan cities like Delhi and Mumbai receive a large influx
of migrants from other parts of the country.

Map: Spatial pattern of migration 2011

3.6 Rural – Urban Composition

❖ Rural Dominance: About 68.8% of India’s population resided in villages as of Census 2011.

• Village Mosaic: India comprises 640,867 villages as per the 2011 Census, with 93.2%
being inhabited.
• Regional Disparities: The size of villages varies considerably across the country.
➢ States like Bihar and Sikkim have a very high percentage of rural
population, while Goa and Maharashtra have just over half their population
in villages.

❖ Urban Surge: Urban population accounts for 31.16%, growing rapidly due to economic
development and improved health conditions.

• As of 2023, India's urban population was 519,506,163, which is 36.36% of the country's
total population. This is a 2.19% increase from 2022.
• Varied Urbanization: Urbanization varies across the country with significant rural-
urban migration, especially along major road and rail links.

Map: Urban population agglomeration (India census, 2011)

Trends of urbanization

• India's urban population is projected to grow to 814 million by 2050, which would be the
largest projected increase in the world.
• India is expected to add four new megacities by 2030.
• Over half of India's urban population lives in towns with fewer than 500,000 people.

3.7 Religious Composition

Religion plays a significant role in India’s cultural and political life. As of the 2011 census,

➢ Hindus: They a majority in 28 of India’s 35 states and union territories, including all of
the country’s most populous states: Uttar Pradesh (200 million), Maharashtra (112
million), Bihar (104 million) and West Bengal (91 million).
➢ Muslims: The majority of them are in the small tropical archipelago of Lakshadweep (total
population 60,000) and in Jammu and Kashmir (13 million)
➢ Christians: Their population is found mainly in the Western coast around Goa and Kerala,
and hill states like Meghalaya, Mizoram, and Nagaland.
➢ Sikhs: They reside primarily in Punjab, Haryana, and Delhi.
➢ Jains: They are largely in urban areas of Rajasthan, Gujarat, and Maharashtra.
➢ Buddhists: They are predominant in areas of Maharashtra, Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh,
Ladakh, Tripura, and Lahaul and Spiti.
Table: Religious populations' numbers (2011)
Percentage
Religion Population
(%)
Hindus 966,378,868 79.80%
Muslims 172,245,158 14.23%

Christians 27,819,588 2.30%

Sikhs 20,833,116 1.72%

Buddhists 8,442,972 0.70%

Jains 4,451,753 0.37%

Others 0.66%
7,395,478
Figure: Religious composition of India (India census, 2011)
Figure: Population pyramid in India by religion (India census, 2011)
3.8 Literacy Rate
For the purpose of census 2011, a person aged seven and above, who can both read and write with
understanding in any language, is treated as literate. A person, who can only read but cannot write,
is not literate. In the censuses prior to 1991, children below five years of age were necessarily
treated as illiterates.

Figure: Literacy Rate map in India 2011

• The results of 2011 census reveal that there has been an increase in literacy in the country.
The literacy rate in the country is 74.04 per cent, 82.14 for males and 65.46 for females.
• Kerala retained its position by being on top with a 93.91 per cent literacy rate, closely
followed by Lakshadweep (92.28 per cent) and Mizoram (91.58 per cent).
• Bihar with a literacy rate of 63.82 per cent ranks last in the country preceded by Arunachal
Pradesh (66.95 per cent) and Rajasthan (67.06 per cent).

3.9 India Population Forecast:

 Year Population Yearly change Country’s share of Global rank
(%) world population
2030 1,525,138,844 0.82 % 17.80 % 1
2035 1,578,694,796 0.69 % 17.77 % 1
2040 1,622,580,039 0.55 % 17.68 % 1
2045 1,656,067,583 0.41 % 17.54 % 1
2050 1,679,589,259 0.28 % 17.38 % 1

India’s population has grown by more than 1 billion people since 1950, the year the UN population
data begins.

Figure: Population projection of India at the end of 2100

❖ Under the UN’s “medium variant” projection, a middle-of-the-road estimate, India’s

population will surpass 1.5 billion people by the end of this decade and will continue to
slowly increase until 2064, when it will peak at 1.7 billion people.
❖ In the UN’s “high variant” scenario – in which the total fertility rate in India is projected
to be 0.5 births per woman above that of the medium variant scenario – the country’s
population would surpass 2 billion people by 2068.
The UN’s “low variant” scenario – in which the total fertility rate is projected to be 0.5 births
below that of the medium variant scenario – forecasts that India’s population will decline
beginning in 2047 and fall to 1 billion people by 2100.

Demography: Sanjida Khanum – Roll 43

 Economy of India
1. Overview of the Indian Economy
-GDP: India is the “5th largest economy” in the world by nominal GDP (2023 estimates) and the “3rd
largest by PPP (Purchasing Power Parity)”.

- Growth Rate: India’s GDP growth rate has averaged around “6-7% annually” over the past decade,
though it faced challenges during the COVID-19 pandemic.

- Population: With over “1.4 billion people”, India has a large labor force, but also faces challenges like
unemployment and income inequality.

- Per Capita Income: India’s per capita income is relatively low (around $2,500), reflecting the challenges
of poverty and income disparity.

2. Primary Sector (Agriculture and Related Activities)

- Contribution to GDP: Agriculture contributes around ‘15-20%’ of India’s GDP but employs nearly “45-
50%” of the workforce.

-Key Crops: India is a leading producer of rice, wheat, sugarcane, cotton, and spices. It is also the largest
producer of milk (due to the White Revolution).

- Challenges:

- Low productivity due to fragmented landholdings.

- Dependence on monsoon rains for irrigation.

- Farmer distress and debt.

- Government Initiatives:

- Pradhan Mantri Kisan Samman Nidhi (PM-KISAN): Direct income support for farmers.

- National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture (NMSA): Focus on climate-resilient practices.

- References:

- Ministry of Agriculture & Farmers Welfare, Government of India.

- World Bank reports on Indian agriculture.

3. Secondary Sector (Industry and Manufacturing)

- Contribution to GDP: The industrial sector contributes around “25-30%” of GDP.
- Key Industries:

- Textiles: India is one of the largest producers of textiles and garments.

- Automobiles: India is a major hub for automobile manufacturing.

- Pharmaceuticals: Known as the "pharmacy of the world," India is a leading producer of generic drugs.

- Steel and Cement: Key contributors to infrastructure development.

- Challenges:

- Infrastructure bottlenecks.

- Regulatory hurdles and labor laws.

- Competition from countries like China.

- Government Initiatives:

- Make in India: Aims to boost manufacturing and attract foreign investment.

- Production Linked Incentive (PLI) Scheme: Encourages domestic manufacturing in sectors like
electronics and semiconductors.

- References:

- Reserve Bank of India (RBI) reports.

- Ministry of Commerce and Industry, Government of India.

4. Tertiary Sector (Services)

- Contribution to GDP: The services sector contributes over 50% of India’s GDP.

- Key Sub-Sectors:

- IT and Software Services: India is a global leader in IT services, with cities like Bangalore and
Hyderabad as major hubs.

- Telecommunications: India has one of the largest telecom markets in the world, with over 1.2 billion
mobile subscribers.

- Banking and Finance: Rapid growth in digital banking and fintech.

- Tourism and Hospitality: A major source of foreign exchange earnings.

- Challenges:

- Skill gaps in the workforce.

 - Regional disparities in service sector growth.

- Government Initiatives:

- Digital India: Promotes digital infrastructure and services.

- Startup India: Encourages entrepreneurship and innovation.

- References:

- NASSCOM reports on IT and software services.

- Telecom Regulatory Authority of India (TRAI) reports.

5. Trade and Commerce

- Exports: Key exports include petroleum products, gems and jewelry, pharmaceuticals, textiles, and IT
services.

- Imports: Major imports include crude oil, gold, electronics, and machinery.

- Trade Partners: The US, China, UAE, and the EU are India’s largest trading partners.

- Trade Deficit: India often runs a trade deficit due to high imports of oil and electronics.

- Government Initiatives:

- Foreign Trade Policy (FTP): Aims to boost exports and reduce trade barriers.

- Free Trade Agreements (FTAs): Signed with countries like Japan, South Korea, and ASEAN nations.

- References:

- Ministry of Commerce and Industry, Government of India.

- World Trade Organization (WTO) reports.

6. Economic Challenges
-Unemployment: High unemployment rates, especially among youth.

- Income Inequality: Wide disparities between urban and rural areas.

- Inflation: Rising prices of essential commodities.

- Infrastructure Deficit: Poor infrastructure in rural areas.

- Environmental Issues: Pollution and overexploitation of natural resources.

7. Future Prospects
- Digital Economy: Rapid growth in e-commerce, digital payments, and fintech.

- Renewable Energy: India is investing heavily in solar and wind energy to reduce dependence on fossil
fuels.

- Global Integration: Increasing participation in global value chains and trade agreements.

Economy: Mobasshar Haque – Roll 43

Agriculture in India: A Brief Overview

India is an agricultural powerhouse, with the sector contributing significantly to the country's
economy and employment. It is the largest producer of spices, pulses, and milk and the second-
largest producer of rice, wheat, and fruits & vegetables globally.
1. Importance of Agriculture in India
• Contribution to GDP: Around 16-18% of India's GDP comes from agriculture.
• Employment: Nearly 50% of India's workforce depends on agriculture for their
livelihood.
• Food Security: India is self-sufficient in food production, feeding a population of over 1.4
billion.
• Exports: Major export items include rice, spices, tea, coffee, cotton, and fruits.

2. Major Agricultural Seasons in India

1. Kharif (June - October): Monsoon-based crops (Rice, Maize, Millets, Pulses, Cotton,
Sugarcane)
2. Rabi (October - March): Winter crops (Wheat, Barley, Mustard, Gram, Lentils)
3. Zaid (March - June): Short-duration summer crops (Watermelon, Cucumber, Vegetables)

3. Types of Agriculture in India

• Subsistence Farming: Small-scale farming for local consumption (Common in rural
India).
 • Commercial Farming: Large-scale production for the market (e.g., wheat, rice,
sugarcane).
• Plantation Farming: Cultivation of cash crops (e.g., tea, coffee, rubber, spices).
• Horticulture: Cultivation of fruits, vegetables, and flowers (India is a global leader in
mango, banana, and guava production).
• Organic Farming: Growing without chemical fertilizers or pesticides (popular in Sikkim,
Kerala, and Uttarakhand).

4. Major Crops of India

• Food Crops: Rice, Wheat, Maize, Millets, Pulses
• Cash Crops: Cotton, Sugarcane, Jute, Tea, Coffee, Tobacco
• Oilseeds: Mustard, Groundnut, Sunflower, Soybean
• Horticultural Crops: Mango, Banana, Potato, Tomato, Onion
• Plantation Crops: Tea, Coffee, Rubber, Spices

5. Factors Affecting Indian Agriculture

• Monsoon Dependency: Most of India's agriculture depends on rainfall.
• Soil Types: Alluvial (fertile), Black (cotton-growing), Red (less fertile), Laterite, Desert,
and Mountain soils.
• Irrigation: Only about 50% of farmland is irrigated, leading to dependence on monsoon
rains.
• Government Support: Schemes like PM-Kisan, Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana
(Crop Insurance), and PM Krishi Sinchayee Yojana (Irrigation) help farmers.

6. Challenges in Indian Agriculture

• Fragmented Land Holdings: Small farm sizes make mechanization difficult.
• Climate Change: Erratic rainfall, droughts, and floods affect productivity.
• Soil Degradation: Overuse of fertilizers and pesticides reduces soil fertility.
• Market & Price Fluctuations: Farmers often do not get fair prices for their produce.
• Lack of Modern Technology: Many farmers still use traditional farming methods.
7. Future Prospects and Reforms
• Agri-Tech Development: Use of drones, AI, remote sensing, and precision farming is
increasing.
• Organic and Sustainable Farming: Growing focus on chemical-free farming.
• Irrigation Expansion: More focus on canal and drip irrigation.
• Export Growth: Enhancing India's role in the global agricultural trade.

Jammu and Kashmir

Agriculture is a cornerstone of the economy in Jammu and Kashmir, with approximately 70% of
the population engaged in agricultural and related activities.

Major Crops:

• Staple Crops: Rice is the principal crop, sown in May and harvested by late September.
Other significant summer crops include corn, millet, pulses (such as peas, beans, and
lentils), cotton, and tobacco. During spring, wheat and barley are predominantly cultivated.
• Horticulture: The region is renowned for its fruit production, especially apples, pears,
peaches, walnuts, almonds, and cherries. These orchards, particularly in the Vale of
Kashmir, are vital to the union territory's exports.
• Saffron Cultivation: Kashmir holds a prominent position globally in saffron production,
contributing significantly to its economy.

Himachal Pradesh's

Agriculture is a fundamental component of Himachal Pradesh's economy, providing

employment to approximately 71% of its population and contributing nearly 30% to the
state's Gross State Domestic Product (GSDP).

Major Crops:

• Cereals: The primary cereals cultivated include wheat, maize, rice, and barley. The
predominant cropping systems are maize-wheat, rice-wheat, and maize-potato-wheat.
• Fruits: Himachal Pradesh is renowned for its fruit production, particularly apples, which
are the principal cash crop. Other significant fruits include apricots, cherries, peaches,
pears, plums, and strawberries.
 • Vegetables: The state also produces a variety of vegetables, contributing to both local
consumption and export.

To address these challenges, traditional irrigation systems like the 'Kuhl' are employed,
particularly in regions such as the Kangra valley.

Punjab

Punjab, often referred to as the "Granary of India," plays a pivotal role in the country's
agriculture, contributing significantly to the national food grain stock.

Major Crops:

• Kharif Crops: These include rice, maize, cotton, sugarcane, pulses (excluding grams),
bajra, peas, jowar, and vegetables such as gourds, onions, and chilies.
• Rabi Crops: These encompass gram, barley, wheat, fodder crops, potatoes, oil seeds, and
winter vegetables.

In summary, Punjab's agriculture remains a cornerstone of India's food security, with

ongoing efforts to address environmental challenges and promote sustainable practices.

Uttarakhand

Agriculture is a fundamental component of Uttarakhand's economy, providing livelihoods for

approximately 70% of its population. cite turn0search1 The state's diverse topography,
ranging from plains to hilly terrains, influences its agricultural practices and crop selection.
Major Crops:
• Cereals: In the plains, crops such as rice, wheat, and maize are predominantly cultivated.
cite turn0search9
• Millets and Pulses: The hilly regions are known for cultivating millets like finger millet
(mandua/ragi) and pulses such as black gram (urad) and horsegram (gahat/kulath).
• Fruits: Uttarakhand's climate supports the growth of various fruits, including apples, pears,
peaches, oranges, litchis, and plums.
 Haryana

Agriculture is the backbone of Haryana's economy, with approximately 70% of its residents
engaged in agricultural activities.
The state is self-sufficient in food production and stands as the second-largest contributor to India's
central pool of food grains.
Major Crops:
• Cereals: Wheat and rice are the predominant crops, earning Haryana the titles "Wheat
Basket" and "Rice Bowl" of India.
• Other Crops: The state also cultivates sugarcane, cotton, oilseeds, gram, barley, maize,
and millet.

Rajasthan

Agriculture is a vital component of Rajasthan's economy, providing livelihoods for a significant

portion of its population. The state's diverse agro-climatic zones influence its agricultural practices
and crop selection.
Major Crops:
• Cereals: Wheat, barley, and pearl millet (bajra) are widely cultivated across the state.
Pulses: Chickpeas (gram) and lentils are significant pulse crops.
• Oilseeds: Rajasthan is a leading producer of rapeseed and mustard.
• Cash Crops: Cotton and tobacco are notable cash crops in the region.

Delhi

Agriculture in Delhi has experienced a significant decline due to rapid urbanization and industrial
growth. The share of agriculture and allied activities in Delhi's Gross State Domestic Product
(GSDP) decreased from 3.79% in 1993-94 to 0.32% in 2023-24.
Current Agricultural Landscape:
• Employment: As per the Economic Survey of Delhi (2018-19), only 0.71% of workers are
employed in agricultural activities.
• Land Holdings: The total number of operational holdings in Delhi increased by 1.68% as
per the Agriculture Census 2015-16 compared to 2010-11. However, the total operated area
showed a decrease of 2.21% during the same period, indicating fragmentation of
agricultural land.
Urban Agriculture Initiatives:
Despite the decline in traditional agriculture, urban farming has gained attention in Delhi:
• Yamuna Floodplain Cultivation: The Master Plan for Delhi-2041 acknowledges
agriculture on the Yamuna floodplain, proposing its use for urban farming alongside leisure
activities.
• Policy Development: Organizations like the People's Resource Centre (PRC) are
collaborating with the Municipal Corporation of Delhi (MCD) to promote urban
agriculture, aiming to enhance environmental sustainability and food security.
Challenges:
Urban farmers in Delhi face several challenges:
• Land Conflicts: Rapid urbanization has led to a decrease in agricultural land, with the
number of rural villages reducing from 214 in 1981 to 112 in 2011.
• Resource Access: Farmers often struggle with access to quality seeds, fertilizers, and
pesticides, impacting crop yields and sustainability

Gujarat

Gujarat, located on India's western coast, boasts a diverse and robust agricultural sector,
significantly contributing to both the state's and the nation's economy.
Major Crops:
• Food Grains: The primary food crops in Gujarat include bajra (pearl millet), jowar
(sorghum), rice, and wheat.
• Cash Crops: Gujarat is renowned for its production of cash crops such as cotton,
groundnut (peanut), tobacco, cumin, and sesame. Notably, the state leads the country in the
production of cotton and groundnut.
• Spices and Oilseeds: The state is a major producer of spices like cumin and fennel, and
oilseeds including castor and mustard.
Maharashtra
Maharashtra, located in western India, is a leading agricultural state with diverse agro-climatic
zones that facilitate the cultivation of various crops.
Major Crops:
 • Cereals and Pulses: The state produces significant quantities of rice, jowar (sorghum),
bajra (pearl millet), wheat, tur (pigeon pea), and gram (chickpea).
• Cash Crops: Maharashtra is renowned for its cotton and sugarcane production,
contributing substantially to the state's economy.
• Horticulture: The state excels in cultivating fruits like mangoes, bananas, grapes, oranges,
and pomegranates, as well as vegetables such as onions, tomatoes, and okra.

Uttar Pradesh

Uttar Pradesh (UP), located in northern India, is a pivotal agricultural state, often referred to as the
"granary of the nation." Agriculture is the backbone of UP's economy, providing employment to
approximately 59% of its population.
Major Crops:
• Food Grains: UP is a leading producer of wheat and rice, contributing significantly to
India's total food grain production.
• Cash Crops: The state is renowned for its sugarcane production, making it one of the top
sugarcane producers in the country.
• Horticulture: UP has a rich diversity in horticultural crops, including mangoes, guavas,
and potatoes, enhancing the state's agricultural portfolio.

Madhya Pradesh

Madhya Pradesh, often referred to as the "Heart of India," is a predominantly agrarian state with
agriculture serving as the backbone of its economy. Approximately 70% of the state's population
is engaged in agriculture and allied activities, contributing about 23.36% to the state's Gross
Domestic Product (GDP) as of the 2019-20 fiscal year.
Major Crops:
• Food Grains: The state is a significant producer of wheat, with recent favorable climatic
conditions propelling durum wheat production to an estimated 9 million tonnes.
• Oilseeds: Madhya Pradesh is known as 'Soya Pradesh,' contributing approximately 60%
of India's soybean production.
 • Pulses: The state also cultivates a variety of pulses, Goa, India's smallest state located on
the western coast, boasts a diverse agricultural sector that plays a vital role in its economy
and cultural heritage.

Goa

Goa spans approximately 3,610 square kilometers, flanked by the Sahyadri Mountains to the east
and the Arabian Sea to the west. This unique topography, combined with a tropical monsoon
climate, provides fertile alluvial and laterite soils conducive to agriculture.
Major Crops:
• Food Grains: Paddy (rice) is the principal crop, cultivated extensively due to the state's
favorable climatic conditions. Other cereals include ragi, maize, jowar, and bajra.
• Pulses: Various pulses are grown, contributing to the state's agricultural diversity.
• Cash Crops: Coconut, cashew nut, arecanut, mango, jackfruit, banana, and pineapple are
significant cash crops, supporting both local consumption and export.
Kerala, located in the southwestern part of India, boasts a rich agricultural heritage that
significantly contributes to its economy and cultural identity.
Geography and Climate:
The state's tropical climate, characterized by high humidity and substantial rainfall, along with its
fertile soil, creates ideal conditions for diverse agricultural practices.
Major Crops:
• Rice: As the staple food, rice is predominantly cultivated in regions like Kuttanad, often
referred to as the "Rice Bowl of Kerala."
• Coconut: Kerala leads in coconut production, contributing about 45% of India's total yield.
• Rubber: The state is a major rubber producer, accounting for approximately 91% of the
country's output.
• Spices: Known as the "Land of Spices," Kerala produces black pepper, cardamom, cloves,
and other spices, contributing over 96% to India's spice production.
• Other Crops: Tea, coffee, arecanut, and various fruits are also cultivated extensively.
 Karnataka

Karnataka, located in southern India, has a diverse agricultural sector that plays a significant role
in its economy and sustenance.
Geography and Climate:
The state's varied topography and climate facilitate the cultivation of a wide range of crops. The
coastal plains are intensively farmed, with rice as the principal food crop. Inland regions produce
sorghum (jowar) and millet (ragi). The main cash crops include sugarcane, cashews, cardamom,
betel (areca) nut, and grapes. Coffee and tea plantations thrive on the cooler slopes of the Western
Ghats.

Agricultural Practices:
Despite being the second-largest rain-fed agricultural area in India, Karnataka's agriculture is
heavily dependent on the southwest monsoon, with only 26.5% of the sown area under irrigation.
This reliance makes the sector vulnerable to climatic variations.

Tamil Nadu

Tamil Nadu, situated in southern India, boasts a rich agricultural heritage that significantly
contributes to its economy and sustenance.
Geography and Climate:
The state's diverse topography and climate facilitate the cultivation of a wide range of crops.
Historically, Tamil farmers have adeptly conserved rainwater through an extensive network of
irrigation reservoirs, known locally as "tanks." This traditional system is complemented by
government canals, tube wells, and ordinary wells, forming a comprehensive irrigation
infrastructure.
Major Crops:
• Rice: As the staple food grain, rice is predominantly cultivated in the Kaveri delta region,
often referred to as the "Rice Bowl of Tamil Nadu."
• Sugarcane: A significant non-food crop, sugarcane contributes substantially to the state's
agricultural output.
• Oilseeds: Tamil Nadu is a leading producer of oilseeds, including groundnut, sunflower,
and sesame.
 • Spices and Plantation Crops: The state produces a variety of spices and is notable for
plantation crops such as tea, coffee, and rubber, particularly in the Nilgiri and Western
Ghats regions.

Andhra Pradesh

Andhra Pradesh, located in southeastern India, has a robust agricultural economy, with
approximately 70% of its population residing in rural areas and relying on agriculture and related
activities for their livelihoods.
Geography and Climate:
The state's diverse climatic conditions and soil types, including red, black, alluvial, laterite, and
marshy soils, facilitate the cultivation of a wide variety of crops.
Major Crops:
• Paddy (Rice): As the staple food, paddy is extensively cultivated, particularly in districts
like East Godavari, which contributes about 10% to the state's total food production.
• Maize: Grown in various regions, maize serves as both a food and fodder crop.
• Oilseeds: Groundnut, sunflower, and sesame are among the prominent oilseeds cultivated.
• Sugarcane: A significant commercial crop, sugarcane is cultivated in several districts.
• Pulses: Black gram and green gram are widely grown across the state.
• Fruits and Vegetables: Mangoes, bananas, tomatoes, and chilies are notable horticultural
produce.

Telangana

Telangana, located in southern India, has a predominantly agrarian economy, with over 60% of its
rural population engaged in agriculture and related activities.
Geography and Climate:
The state features a variety of soil types, including red sandy soils, deep red loamy soils, and deep
black cotton soils. Red soils are predominant, accounting for about 48% of the total area. Other
soil types include black cotton soils, alluvial soils, rocks, and boulders, comprising approximately
25%, 20%, and 7% of the area, respectively.
Major Crops:
 • Cereals: Paddy (rice), maize, and jowar (sorghum) are extensively cultivated across the
state.
• Pulses: Red gram (pigeon pea) and green gram (mung bean) are significant pulse crops.
• Oilseeds: Groundnut, sunflower, and castor are notable oilseed crops.
• Commercial Crops: Cotton and sugarcane are important commercial crops contributing
to the state's economy.

Chhattisgarh

Chhattisgarh, located in central India, is predominantly an agrarian state, with approximately 70%
to 80% of its population reliant on agriculture and related activities for their livelihoods.
Geography and Climate:
The state encompasses a total cultivated area of about 4.78 million hectares, representing roughly
35% of its total geographical expanse. Notably, only around 23% to 28% of this cultivated land
benefits from irrigation, leaving a significant portion dependent on monsoonal rainfall.

Major Crops:
• Rice: Chhattisgarh is often referred to as the "Rice Bowl of India," with rice cultivation
dominating over 70% of the state's cultivated area.
• Wheat and Millets: These cereals are also cultivated, contributing to the state's
agricultural diversity.
• Pulses and Oilseeds: Crops such as pulses and oilseeds are grown, providing essential
nutrients and supporting the state's economy.
Odisha
Odisha, located on India's eastern coast, is predominantly an agrarian state, with agriculture
serving as the backbone of its economy. Approximately 76% of the state's population depends on
agriculture for their livelihood, and about 82% resides in rural areas, reflecting the sector's
significance.
Geography and Climate:
The state features diverse geographical landscapes, including coastal plains, central plateaus, and
mountainous regions, influencing its agricultural patterns. Odisha's climate is tropical,
characterized by high temperatures and significant rainfall during the monsoon season, which is
crucial for crop cultivation.
Major Crops:
• Rice: Occupying about three-fourths of the cultivated land, rice is the principal crop,
earning Odisha the title "Rice Bowl of India."
• Pulses: Various pulses are cultivated, contributing to both dietary needs and soil fertility
through nitrogen fixation.
• Oilseeds: Crops like groundnut, mustard, and sesame are significant oilseeds grown in the
state.
• Cash Crops: Sugarcane, jute, cotton, and coconut are notable cash crops that support the
state's economy.

Bihar
Bihar, situated in eastern India, is predominantly an agrarian state, with approximately 77% of its
workforce engaged in agriculture, contributing nearly 24.84% to the State Domestic Product.
Geography and Climate:
The state features fertile alluvial plains, primarily drained by the Ganges River and its tributaries,
creating conducive conditions for agriculture. Bihar experiences a humid subtropical climate, with
hot summers, a monsoon season bringing substantial rainfall, and mild winters, all of which
influence agricultural cycles.
Major Crops:
• Cereals: Rice, wheat, and maize are the principal cereal crops cultivated extensively across
the state.
• Pulses: Lentils, gram (chickpeas), and pigeon peas are significant pulse crops contributing
to both nutrition and soil health.
• Oilseeds: Mustard and linseed are notable oilseed crops grown in Bihar.
• Cash Crops: Sugarcane, jute, and tobacco serve as important cash crops, bolstering the
state's economy.
 West Bengal

West Bengal, located in eastern India, is predominantly an agrarian state, with a significant portion
of its population engaged in agriculture. The state's fertile alluvial plains and favorable climate
contribute to its rich agricultural diversity.
Major Crops:
• Rice: As the staple food, rice dominates West Bengal's agriculture, making it one of the
leading rice-producing states in India.
• Jute: West Bengal meets about 66% of India's jute needs, with cultivation thriving due to
suitable soil and heavy rainfall.
• Other Crops: The state also produces maize, pulses, oilseeds, wheat, barley, potatoes,
sugarcane, tobacco, and various vegetables.

Jharkhand

Jharkhand encompasses a total geographical area of 79.71 lakh hectares, with 47.67% under
cultivation and 29.20% covered by forests. The state experiences an average annual rainfall of 130
cm, which is nearly double the national average, providing a favorable environment for agriculture.

Major Crops:
• Paddy (Rice): As the dominant crop, paddy is extensively cultivated across the state.
• Other Crops: Farmers also grow maize, pulses, oilseeds, wheat, barley, potatoes,
sugarcane, tobacco, and various vegetables.

Sikkim

Sikkim, nestled in the northeastern part of India, is renowned for its pioneering achievement as the
country's first fully organic state. This transition to organic farming was officially initiated in 2003,
aiming to ensure long-term soil fertility, environmental protection, and healthy living, benefiting
over 66,000 farming families.
Geography and Climate:
Sikkim's diverse topography, ranging from subtropical to alpine zones, coupled with its varied
climatic conditions, supports a rich agricultural biodiversity. The state's fertile land and favorable
climate make it heavily reliant on agriculture.
Major Crops:
• Cereals: Maize, rice, wheat, barley, finger millet, and buckwheat are among the primary
cereals cultivated.
• Cash Crops: Sikkim is renowned for its large cardamom fields, making it one of the
world's leading producers. Tea cultivation is also significant, with Sikkimese tea
recognized globally for its quality and taste.
• Horticultural Produce: The state produces a variety of vegetables, including leafy greens
like spinach and kale, as well as traditional Sikkimese greens. These nutrient-rich
vegetables contribute to the local diet and showcase the adaptability of crops in Sikkim's
different microclimates.

Assam

Assam, located in northeastern India, is predominantly an agrarian state, with agriculture serving
as the backbone of its economy. The sector directly or indirectly supports over 75% of the state's
population and provides employment to more than 53% of the total workforce.
Geography and Climate:
Assam occupies a geographical area of 7.8 million hectares, with a total cropped area of 4.0 million
hectares.
The state's fertile plains and favorable climatic conditions make it ideal for diverse agricultural
activities.
Major Crops:
• Rice (Paddy): Rice is the principal food crop, with Assam producing approximately 2.6
million metric tonnes from around 1.9 million hectares of paddy fields in the 2022–23 crop
year.
• Tea: Assam is India's largest tea producer, contributing about 580,000 metric tonnes in the
2022–23 fiscal year.
However, in 2024, India's tea production declined by 7.8% compared to the previous year, reaching
1,284.78 million kg. This reduction was largely due to decreased output in Assam, where
production fell from 688.33 million kg in 2023 to 649.84 million kg in 2024, attributed to
heatwaves and floods during the peak harvesting season.
 • Jute: The state also contributes significantly to jute production, supporting its textile
industry.
• Other Crops: Assam produces maize, pulses, oilseeds, sugarcane, cotton, and tobacco.
The state is also known for cultivating the bhut jolokia, or ghost pepper, once recognized as the
world's hottest chili. However, mass production practices and extensive fertilizer use have led to a
decline in its pungency, affecting its quality and reputation.
77886

Meghalaya

Meghalaya, a state in northeastern India, is predominantly agrarian, with approximately 81% of

its population relying on agriculture for their livelihood.
The state's diverse agro-climatic zones offer significant potential for horticultural development.
Geography and Land Use:
• Total Area: 22,429 square kilometers.
• Net Cropped Area: Approximately 342,885 hectares, accounting for about 15.28% of the
state's geographical area.
• Unutilized Potential Area: Around 555,104 hectares (24.75% of the total area), indicating
substantial scope for agricultural expansion.
Agricultural Practices:
Meghalaya's agriculture is characterized by traditional methods, with limited use of modern
techniques, leading to relatively low productivity.

The state's hilly terrain and land conditions limit the expansion of wet cultivation areas; however,
there is vast potential for horticultural development.

Major Crops:
• Food Grains: Occupy approximately 62% of the agricultural land.
• Cash Crops: Cover about 25% of the agricultural land.
• Horticultural Crops: Constitute around 9% of the agricultural land.
 • Others: The remaining 4% is utilized for various other crops.

Horticulture:
The state's agro-climatic variations provide opportunities for cultivating both temperate and
tropical fruits and vegetables, enhancing its horticultural prospects.

Organic Farming Initiatives:

Meghalaya is actively promoting organic farming to transform agricultural practices and support
sustainable livelihoods. The state implements various schemes from both Central and State
Governments to encourage organic methods.

Tripura

Tripura, a state in northeastern India, has an economy significantly anchored in agriculture, with
approximately 51% of its workforce engaged in farming and related activities.
The state's diverse agro-climatic conditions and fertile soil support a variety of crops, contributing
to its agrarian prominence.
Geography and Land Use:
• Total Geographical Area: Approximately 10.49 lakh hectares.
• Forest Area: Around 6.29 lakh hectares, accounting for about 60% of the state's total area.
• Cultivable Land: Approximately 2.55 lakh hectares, with about 27% of the state's land
suitable for cultivation.
Major Crops:
• Paddy: The principal crop, occupying a significant portion of the cultivated area.
• Cash Crops: Natural rubber stands as the most significant cash crop, making Tripura the
second-largest producer in India after Kerala.
• Other Crops: Jute, sugarcane, wheat, oilseeds, coconut, and turmeric are also cultivated
extensively.
Nagaland, a hilly state in northeastern India, has an economy predominantly based on agriculture,
with over 60% of its population engaged in farming and related activities.
Geography and Land Use:
• Total Geographical Area: 1,650,000 hectares.
• Net Sown Area: Approximately 3,52,820 hectares, accounting for about 21.38% of the
total area.
Agricultural Practices:
Nagaland's agriculture is characterized by traditional methods, with limited use of modern
techniques, leading to relatively low productivity.

Major Crops:
• Food Grains: Occupy approximately 62% of the agricultural land.
• Cash Crops: Cover about 25% of the agricultural land.
• Horticultural Crops: Constitute around 9% of the agricultural land.
• Others: The remaining 4% is utilized for various other crops.
Horticulture:
The state's agro-climatic variations provide opportunities for cultivating both temperate and
tropical fruits and vegetables, enhancing its horticultural prospects.
Organic Farming Initiatives:
Nagaland is actively promoting organic farming to transform agricultural practices and support
sustainable livelihoods. The state implements various schemes from both Central and State
Governments to encourage organic methods.

Manipur

Manipur, a state in northeastern India, is characterized by its hilly terrain and rich biodiversity.
Agriculture and allied sectors are integral to its economy, providing livelihoods for a significant
portion of the
Geography and Land Use:
• Total Geographical Area: Approximately 22,327 square kilometers.
• Cultivated Area: About 10% of the state's area is under cultivation.
Agricultural Practices:
 • Shifting Cultivation: Traditionally practiced by tribal communities, shifting cultivation
(jhum) is prevalent in the hilly regions.
• Valley Cultivation: In the valley regions, settled agriculture is more common, with rice
being the dominant crop.
Major Crops:
• Rice: The primary crop, occupying a significant portion of the cultivated land.
• Other Crops: Maize, pulses, oilseeds, and various horticultural crops are also cultivated.
Challenges:
• Soil Erosion: Due to the state's sloping lands, soil erosion is a significant concern,
particularly in areas practicing shifting cultivation.
• Limited Arable Land: With only about 7.41% of the total geographical area used for
cultivation, there is limited scope for expanding agricultural land.

Agriculture: Md Rony Islam– Roll 45

 Indian culture
Indian culture is the heritage of social norms and technologies that originated in or are associated
with the ethno-linguistically diverse nation of India, pertaining to the Indian subcontinent until
1947 and the Republic of India post-1947. The term also applies beyond India to countries and
cultures whose histories are strongly connected to India by immigration, colonisation, or influence,
particularly in south Asia and Southeast Asia. India’s languages, dance, music, religions,
architecture, food and customs differ from place to place within the country.

Many elements of Indian cultures such as

religions, mathematics, philosophy, cuisine, languages, dance, music, and movies have had a
profound impact across the Indosphere, Greater India, and the world. The British
Raj further influenced Indian culture, such as through the widespread introduction of the English
language, which resulted in a local English dialect and influences on the Indian languages.

Religious culture
India’s origin religions are Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism, are all based on the
concepts of dharma and karma. Ahimsa, the philosophy of nonviolence, is an important aspect of
native Indian faiths whose most well-known proponent was Shri Mahatma Gandhi, who used civil
disobedience to unite India during the Indian independence movement .According to 2011 census,
79.8% population of India practice Hinduism. Islam(14.2%), Christianity(2.3),
Sikhism(1.7%),Buddhism (0.7),Jainism (0.4%) are the major religions followed by the people of
India.
Indian philosophy
Indian philosophy consists of philosophical traditions of the Indian subcontinent. The
philosophies are often called darśana meaning, "to see" or "looking at." Ānvīkṣikī means “critical
inquiry” or “investigation." Unlike darśana, ānvīkṣikī was used to refer to Indian philosophies by
classical Indian philosophers, such as Chanakya in the Arthasastra.

Family Structures and Wedding

For generations, India has had a prevailing tradition of the joint family system. It is when extended
members of a family – parents, children, the children's spouses, and their offspring, etc. – live
together. Usually, the oldest male member is the head of the joint Indian family system. He mostly
makes all important decisions and rules, and other family members are likely to abide by them.
Arranged marriages have long been norm in the Indian society. Even today, the majority of Indians
have their marriages planned by their parents and other respected family members. In the past, the
age of marriage was young. The average age of marriage for women in India has increased to 21
years, according to the 2011 Census of India. In 2009, about 7% of women got married before the
age of 18.
In most marriages, the bride's family provides a dowry to the bridegroom. Traditionally, the dowry
was considered a woman's share of the family wealth, since a daughter had no legal claim on her
natal family’s real estate.

Indian Festivals

India, being a multi-cultural, multi-ethnic and multi religious society, celebrates holidays and
festivals of various religions. The three national holidays in India, the Independence Day,
the Republic Day and the Gandhi Jayanti, are celebrated with zeal and enthusiasm across India. In
addition, many Indian states and regions have local festivals depending on prevalent religious and
linguistic demographics. Popular religious festivals include the Hindu festivals
of Chhath, Navratri, Janmashtami, Diwali, Maha Shivratri, Ganesh Chaturthi, Durga
Puja, Holi, Rath Yatra, Ugadi, Vasant Panchami, Rakshabandhan, and Dussehra. Several harvest
festivals such as Makar Sankranti, Sohrai, Pusnâ, Hornbill, Chapchar
Kut, Pongal, Onam and Raja sankaranti swinging festival are also fairly popular.
Indian cuisine
Indian food is as diverse as India. India cuisines use numerous ingredients, deploy a wide range of
food preparation styles, cooking techniques, and culinary presentations. From salads to sauces,
from vegetarian to meat, from spices to sensuous, from bread to desserts, Indian cuisine is
invariably complex. Harold McGee, a favourite of many Michelin-starred chefs, writes "for sheer
inventiveness with the milk itself as the primary ingredient, no country on earth can match India.
Indian clothing
Traditional clothing in India greatly varies across different parts of the country and is influenced
by local culture, geography, climate, and rural/urban settings. Popular styles of dress include
draped garments such as sari and mekhela sador for women and the kurta, dhoti or lungi or panche
(in Kannada) for men. Stitched clothes are also popular such as churidar or salwar-kameez for
women, with dupatta (long scarf) thrown over shoulder completing the outfit. The salwar is often
loose fitting, while churidar is a tighter cut. The daster, a headgear worn by Sikhs is common in
Punjab.

Indian language
The Rigvedic Sanskrit is one of the oldest attestations of any Indo-Aryan languages, and one of
the earliest attested members of the Indo-European languages. The discovery of Sanskrit by early
European explorers of India led to the development of comparative Philology. The scholars of the
18th century were struck by the far-reaching similarity of Sanskrit, both in grammar and
vocabulary, to the classical languages of Europe. Intensive scientific studies that followed have
established that Sanskrit and many Indian derivative languages belong to the family which includes
English, German, French, Italian, Spanish, Celtic, Greek, Baltic, Armenian, Persian, Tocharian,
and other Indo-European languages.
Tamil, one of Indian major classical languages, descends from Proto-Dravidian languages spoken
around the third millennium BCE in peninsular India. The earliest inscriptions of Tamil have been
found on pottery dating back to 500 BC. Tamil literature has existed for over two thousand
years and the earliest epigraphic records found date from around the 3rd century BCE.[

The language with the largest number of India is Hindi and its various dialects. Early forms of
present-day Hindustani developed from the Middle Indo-Aryan apabhraṃśa vernaculars of
present-day North India in the 7th–13th centuries. During the time of Islamic rule in parts of India,
it became influenced by Persian. The Persian influence led to the development of Urdu, which is
more Persianized.

Indian sports
Field hockey was considered to be the national game of India, but this has been recently denied
by the Government of India, clarifying on a Right to Information Act (RTI) filed that India has not
declared any sport as the national game. At a time when it was especially popular, the India men's
national field hockey team won the 1975 Men's Hockey World Cup, and 8 gold, 1 silver, and
2 bronze medals at the Olympic Games.
Football is popular in the Indian states of Kerala, Goa, West Bengal and the Northeastern
states.The city of Kolkata is the home to the largest stadium in India, and the second largest
stadium in the world by capacity, Salt Lake Stadium, as well as clubs such as Mohun Bagan
A.C., Kingfisher East Bengal F.C., Prayag United S.C., and the Mohammedan Sporting Club.
Cricket is by far the most popular sport in India. The India national cricket team won the 1983
Cricket World Cup, the 2011 Cricket World Cup, the 2007 ICC World Twenty20, the 2013 ICC
Champions Trophy and shared the 2002 ICC Champions Trophy with Sri Lanka. Domestic
competitions include the Ranji Trophy, the Duleep Trophy, the Deodhar Trophy, the Irani
Trophy and the Challenger Series. In addition, BCCI conducts the Indian Premier League,
a Twenty20 competition

Culture: Nigar Sultana Niva – Roll 42

Trishna Bhakta – Roll
 IMPORTANCE OF INDIA
India plays a crucial role in South Asia due to its geographical, economic, political, and cultural
influence. Here’s why India is important as a member country in South Asia:

1. Geopolitical Influence
• India is the largest country in South
Asia, both in terms of area and
population, making it a key player in
regional politics.
• It shares borders with almost all
South Asian countries, influencing
bilateral and multilateral relations.

Fig: South Asian Regions (Dominance of

India)

2. Economic Powerhouse

• India has the largest economy in South Asia, contributing significantly to regional trade and
investments.
• It is a major trading partner for neighboring countries and plays a key role in regional economic
initiatives like SAARC (South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation) and
BIMSTEC (Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral Technical and Economic
Cooperation).

Fig: Political Economy of South Asia.

3. Security and Stability

• India is central to maintaining regional stability, countering terrorism, and promoting peace in
South Asia.
• It participates in UN peacekeeping missions and collaborates with South Asian nations on
defense and security matters.

4. Cultural and Historical Significance

• India's deep historical and cultural ties
with neighboring countries (through
shared traditions, religions, and
languages) strengthen regional unity.
• Bollywood, yoga, and Indian cuisine
have a significant influence across
South Asia.
5. Technological and Scientific Leadership

• India leads in technology, space exploration (ISRO), and IT sectors, benefiting South Asian
neighbors through knowledge-sharing and partnerships.
• It provides educational and medical support to students and professionals from the region.

6. Infrastructure and Connectivity

• India is actively involved in improving regional connectivity through projects like BBIN
(Bangladesh-Bhutan-India-Nepal) Motor Vehicle Agreement and development of road,
rail, and energy networks.
• It provides assistance in building infrastructure in neighboring countries.

7. Humanitarian Assistance

• India plays a key role in disaster relief and humanitarian aid, offering support to South
Asian nations during crises such as earthquakes, floods, and pandemics (e.g., COVID-19
vaccine distribution under Vaccine Maitri initiative).

8. Environmental Cooperation

• India collaborates with South Asian countries on climate change issues, sustainable
development, and renewable energy projects.

India’s strategic position, economic strength, cultural influence, and commitment to regional
development make it an indispensable part of South Asia. Its leadership in trade, security, and
diplomacy is essential for the growth and stability of the region.

Role of India in Establishing SAARC

India played a key role in the establishment and development of the South Asian Association for
Regional Cooperation (SAARC), which was officially founded on December 8, 1985. Here’s
how India contributed to its formation and continues to influence its functioning:

Early Initiatives and Support for SAARC Formation

o The idea of regional cooperation in South Asia was first proposed in the 1980s. Although
smaller nations like Bangladesh initially pushed for a formal grouping, India's support was
crucial for the establishment of SAARC.
 o India recognized the need for economic and political cooperation among South Asian
nations and agreed to participate despite initial concerns about sovereignty and bilateral
disputes.

Founding Member and Active Participant

o India, along with Bangladesh, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Bhutan, and the Maldives,
was one of the founding members of SAARC in 1985 (Afghanistan joined in 2007).
o As the largest economy and most populous country in the region, India's participation
provided credibility and stability to SAARC.

Leadership in Regional Economic Cooperation

India has been a strong advocate for regional trade and economic cooperation within SAARC.

o It played a key role in signing the South Asian Free Trade Area (SAFTA) agreement in
2004, promoting trade liberalization among SAARC nations.
o India granted duty-free access to exports from Least Developed Countries (LDCs) within
SAARC to promote regional trade.

Efforts in Regional Connectivity and Infrastructure

o India has promoted projects like road and rail connectivity, energy cooperation, and
telecommunications to strengthen regional integration.
o Initiatives such as the BBIN (Bangladesh-Bhutan-India-Nepal) Motor Vehicle
Agreement aim to improve transport and trade routes within South Asia.

Humanitarian Assistance and Development Programs

o India has provided humanitarian aid and disaster relief to SAARC member countries, such
as assistance after the 2015 Nepal earthquake and during the COVID-19 pandemic.
o It established the SAARC Disaster Management Centre in New Delhi to support regional
disaster preparedness.
 o India also launched the SAARC COVID-19 Emergency Fund in 2020, contributing $10
million to help member nations fight the pandemic.

o India continues to engage in bilateral and multilateral cooperation within South Asia
beyond SAARC.

India’s Achievements from SAARC

India, as the largest economy and most influential member of the South Asian Association for
Regional Cooperation (SAARC), has benefited in several ways from its participation. While
SAARC has faced political and operational challenges, India has achieved progress in trade,
regional cooperation, and diplomacy.

Here’s a simple diagram representation of India’s Achievements from SAARC:

INDIA'S ACHIEVEMENTS FROM SAARC

│
┌──────────────────────────────────────────────────────┐
Trade & Economy Regional Connectivity
- SAFTA Agreement (2004) - BBIN Motor Vehicle Agreement
- Duty-free access for LDCs - Cross-border energy trade
- Increased exports to SAARC nations - Road & rail infrastructure projects

┌───────────────────────────┴───────────────────────────┐
Disaster Management COVID-19 & Public Health
- Aid during Nepal Earthquake (2015) -SAARC COVID-19 Emergency Fund
- Maldives Water Crisis Support (2014) ($10M) - Vaccine Maitri Initiative
- SAARC Disaster Management Centre (India) - Medical aid to SAARC nations

┌───────────────────────────┴───────────────────────────┐
Cultural & Educational Diplomacy Security & Counterterrorism
- SAARC Scholarships & training programs - SAARC Convention on Terrorism (1987)
- Hosting SAARC Literary & Film Festivals - Advocating regional intelligence sharing
- Promoting regional tourism & heritage - Raising security concerns in SAARC summits

┌───────────────────────────┴───────────────────────────┐
Diplomatic & Strategic Gains Challenges & Alternatives
- Strengthened ties with Nepal, Bhutan, etc. - Political tensions (India-Pakistan)
- Promoted "Neighborhood First" policy - SAARC’s slow progress
- Used SAARC to discuss security concerns - Shift towards BIMSTEC for cooperation
1. Strengthened Regional Trade and Economic Ties

India played a major role in the implementation of the South Asian Free Trade Area
(SAFTA) Agreement (2004), which aimed to boost trade among SAARC nations.
It provided duty-free access to exports from Least Developed Countries (LDCs) in
SAARC, benefiting nations like Nepal, Bangladesh, and Bhutan while strengthening economic
ties.
India's exports to SAARC nations have grown over the years, increasing trade opportunities.

2. Leadership in Disaster Management and Humanitarian Aid

India has used SAARC as a platform for humanitarian assistance, providing aid during natural
disasters like:
o 2015 Nepal earthquake – India was the first responder with rescue teams and financial
aid.
o Maldives Water Crisis (2014) – India supplied emergency drinking water.
o Pakistan and Sri Lanka flood relief efforts.
The SAARC Disaster Management Centre, based in India, supports disaster preparedness
efforts in the region.

3. Role in Public Health and COVID-19 Response

India took the lead in SAARC’s response to the COVID-19 pandemic:

o Established the SAARC COVID-19 Emergency Fund and contributed $10 million to
support affected member states.
o Provided vaccines to SAARC nations under the "Vaccine Maitri" initiative.
o Supplied essential medicines and medical equipment to neighboring countries.

4. Cultural and Educational Diplomacy

India has promoted cultural exchange through SAARC programs in education, tourism, and
heritage conservation.
SAARC Scholarships and training programs in Indian institutions have helped students and
professionals from neighboring countries.
India hosts the SAARC Literary Festival and SAARC Film Festival, promoting regional
cultural ties.
5. Counter-terrorism and Security Cooperation

India has pushed for greater counterterrorism cooperation within SAARC, including
initiatives like the SAARC Convention on Suppression of Terrorism (1987).
It has advocated for intelligence-sharing and collective action against cross-border threats.

6. Diplomatic and Strategic Gains

SAARC has helped India strengthen bilateral ties with neighboring countries, especially
Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, and Sri Lanka.
It has used SAARC platforms to promote its "Neighborhood First" policy, reinforcing its
leadership role in South Asia.
India has used SAARC summits to raise concerns about terrorism and security, highlighting
its interests on a regional level.

Challenges and Limitations:

Political Challenges and Diplomatic Engagement

o While India has supported SAARC, political tensions—especially with Pakistan—have

limited its effectiveness.
o India has advocated for counterterrorism cooperation within SAARC but has faced
resistance from certain member states.

Alternative Regional Cooperation Strategies

o Due to SAARC’s limited progress, India has focused on BIMSTEC (Bay of Bengal
Initiative for Multi-Sectoral Technical and Economic Cooperation) as an alternative
platform for regional collaboration, involving some SAARC nations along with Southeast
Asian countries.

India’s engagement with SAARC has led to economic, strategic, and humanitarian benefits. While
SAARC’s progress has been limited due to geopolitical issues, India has used it as a platform for
trade, connectivity, disaster relief, and regional leadership. Moving forward, India continues to
engage with SAARC while also prioritizing alternative regional alliances like BIMSTEC for
deeper collaboration.

Culture: Samiha Jahan – Roll 40

 Major Issues of India
Jammu and Kashmir

Indian authorities continued to restrict free expression, peaceful assembly, and other rights in
Jammu and Kashmir. Reports of extrajudicial killings by security forces continued throughout the
year.
Critics and human rights defenders faced arrests and raids based on spurious terrorism allegations.
On March 22, prominent Kashmiri human rights activist Khurram Parvez, already detained since
November 2021 on accusations of terrorism, was charged on allegations of financing terrorism
under the Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act (UAPA). On March 20, Irfan Mehraj, a journalist
formerly associated with Parvez’s human rights organization, was also arrested in the same case.
UN human rights experts have repeatedly called for Parvez’s release and condemned the use of
the UAPA to target civil society and human rights defenders.
In April 2023, six UN human rights experts wrote to the Indian government over the alleged
arbitrary detention and ill-treatment of human rights defender Muhammad Ahsan Untoo, saying
his detention “appears to be part of a strategy to disrupt, intimidate, detain and punish those
engaging in journalism and human rights advocacy.”
In May, the G20 Tourism Working Group held a meeting in Kashmir, prompting the UN special
rapporteur on minority issues to say that “the G20 is unwittingly providing a veneer of support to
a facade of normalcy at a time when massive human rights violations” continued to escalate.

Impunity for Security Force Abuses

Allegations of torture and extrajudicial killings persisted, with the National Human Rights
Commission registering 126 deaths in police custody, 1,673 deaths in judicial custody, and 55
alleged extrajudicial killings in the first nine months in 2023.
On April 13, 2023, police in Uttar Pradesh state shot and killed an associate and the 19-year-old
son of politician Atiq Ahmed, who was serving a life sentence and faced about 100 criminal cases,
including for murder. The state’s BJP chief minister praised the killings while BJP leaders openly
insinuated that Ahmed could also be killed by the police or in an “accident.” Two days after his
son’s killing, Ahmed and his brother were fatally shot at close range on live television as they were
being escorted by the police for a routine medical checkup. Two BJP state ministers hailed the
murders as “divine justice,” renewing concerns about a breakdown in the rule of law in the state.
In April, the Indian government denied permission to prosecute soldiers accused of killing six coal
miners in Nagaland state’s Mon district in December 2021. In June 2022, the state police had filed
charges against 30 soldiers, including a major, after a special investigation team found the military
had shot the miners “with a clear intention to kill.” But the central government refused to sanction
the prosecution, which is required for civilian legal actions to proceed under the colonial-era
Armed Forces Special Powers Act (AFSPA). The law has long shielded India’s armed forces from
being held accountable for grave human rights abuses in Jammu and Kashmir and several states in
the northeast.

Religious Minorities, Dalits, and Tribal Groups

On July 31, communal violence broke out in Nuh district in Haryana state during a Hindu
procession and swiftly spread to several adjoining districts. Following the violence, as part of a
growing pattern, the authorities retaliated against Muslim residents by illegally demolishing
hundreds of Muslim properties and detaining scores of Muslim boys and men. The demolitions
led the Punjab and Haryana High Court to ask the state whether it was conducting “ethnic
cleansing.”
On May 3, violence erupted in the northeast Manipur state between the majority Meitei and the
minority Kuki Zo communities. By November, more than 200 people were killed, tens of
thousands displaced, and hundreds of homes and churches destroyed. The authorities shut down
internet access in the state. Prime Minister Modi responded to the violence after nearly three
months, only after a video emerged on July 20 showing a Meitei mob stripping and parading two
Kuki women on May 4.
Civil society activists alleged that BJP’s Chief Minister N. Biren Singh fueled divisiveness in
Manipur with political patronage to violent groups in the Hindu-majority Meitei community and
by stigmatizing the Kuki by alleging their involvement in drug trafficking and providing sanctuary
to refugees from Myanmar. In August, the Supreme Court said the state police had “lost control
over the situation,” and ordered special teams to investigate the violence, including sexual
violence, in Manipur. In September, over a dozen United Nations experts raised concerns about
the ongoing violence and abuses in Manipur, saying the government’s response had been slow and
inadequate.
Counterinsurgency operations against Maoist rebels in central India, home to many tribal
communities, led to abuses against villagers. The authorities have often attempted to discredit
human rights activists by describing them as Maoists or Maoist supporters.
Despite an official ban on “manual scavenging”—the degrading and dangerous practice of
manually cleaning human excrement from private and public dry toilets, open defecation sites,
septic tanks, and open and closed gutters and sewers—continued across the country, leading to
deaths and injuries. Mostly Dalits and caste groups customarily relegated to the bottom of the caste
hierarchy are forced to do this work.

Freedom of Expression
Authorities intensified efforts to silence civil society activists, independent journalists, and even
political opponents through threats and by using politically motivated charges.
In March 2023, a court in Gujarat sentenced prominent opposition leader Rahul Gandhi to two
years in prison in a politically motivated defamation case. Gandhi had raised corruption allegations
in parliament against billionaire industrialist Gautam Adani, perceived to have close relations with
the prime minister. The Supreme Court eventually suspended Gandhi’s conviction in August.
In July, Manipur police filed a case of sedition, criminal conspiracy, defamation, promoting
enmity, and breach of peace against three women activists who were part of the National
Federation of Indian Women’s fact-finding team. The team had described the ethnic clashes as a
result of “state-sponsored violence” and called for a Supreme Court-monitored investigation.
In September, Manipur police filed criminal cases against the Editors Guild of India after it
published a report saying the state leadership had played a partisan role in the ethnic violence.
In October 2023, police raided the office of the news website NewsClick, which has been critical
of the Modi government, and the homes of several of its journalists and writers on allegations that
the website got illegal funds from China, a charge it denies. The police also raided the homes of
activists and comedians in Delhi as part of coordinated raids at 30 locations. In Mumbai, the police
raided the home of activist Teesta Setalvad, who has been repeatedly targeted for fighting for
justice for the Muslim victims of the 2002 riots in Gujarat state and has written articles critical of
the government for NewsClick.
Soon after the writer Arundhati Roy spoke out at a protest that followed the raids, authorities said
they would prosecute her and a Kashmiri academic for allegedly “promoting enmity between
different groups,” “causing disharmony,” and “public mischief” for a speech Roy had made in
2010. A case was also registered under the counterterrorism law, the UAPA, against them.
In February, Indian tax officials raided the BBC offices in an apparent reprisal for a two-part
documentary that highlighted Prime Minister Modi’s record in failing to protect Muslims. The
government had blocked the BBC documentary in India in January, using emergency powers under
the Information Technology Rules.
In August 2023, India adopted a personal data protection law granting the government sweeping
powers of unchecked state surveillance. In April, the government further expanded its control over
online content through the Information Technology (Intermediary Guidelines and Digital Media
Ethics Code) Amendment Rules, 2023. The Rules weaken safeguards around encryption and
seriously undermine media freedom, privacy rights, and freedom of expression online. They also
authorize the government to set up a “fact checking” unit with arbitrary, overbroad, and unchecked
censorship powers to identify any online content deemed to be “false” or “misleading” with regard
to the Indian government and requires that tech platforms and other intermediaries remove such
content. If they do not comply, companies may face legal action.
Indian authorities continued to impose the largest number of internet shutdowns globally in 2022,
violating Indian and international human rights standards. The shutdowns disproportionately hurt
socially and economically marginalized communities by denying them access to free or subsidized
food rations and livelihoods, which requires adequate internet access.

Women’s and Girls’ Rights

Indian authorities delayed the investigation into allegations of sexual abuse by a member of
parliament from the ruling BJP and the president of the Wrestling Federation of India, Brij
Bhushan Sharan Singh, despite weeks of protest by athletes. In April, six women and a child filed
complaints of sexual abuse with the police against Singh. However, the police only initiated an
investigation after the complainants filed a petition in the Supreme Court. In May, police forcibly
tackled and temporarily detained protesting athletes, including two Olympic wrestlers. In June, the
police finally charged Singh with sexual harassment, assault, and stalking. The case highlighted
barriers to justice for sexual assault survivors in India, especially when the accused is powerful.
The authorities did not properly enforce the law to address sexual harassment at work. Women,
particularly in the informal sector, remain constrained by stigma, fear of retribution, and
institutional barriers to justice. The Indian government has not ratified the International Labour
Organization Violence and Harassment Convention (C190), which it voted in favor of in 2019.
In September, the government adopted a law to reserve for women one-third of the seats in the
lower house of parliament and state legislative assemblies. The BJP government said that the law,
which has been in the works for 27 years, will not be implemented until India completes the next
census and redraws the boundaries of constituencies, complicated processes expected to take
several years.
 Children’s Rights

In January 2023, a news outlet reported that for over a year, Diksha, an education app owned and
used by the Indian government, had exposed the personal data of nearly 600,000 students, as well
as more than 1 million teachers, on the open web for anyone to find. Human Rights Watch found
that Diksha transmitted children’s data to a third-party company using advertising trackers and
also had the capacity to collect children’s precise location data, which it failed to disclose in its
privacy policy. In February, the government announced a third-party security audit of the app and
committed to better protect the data privacy of children and teachers using its app.
Millions of children from socially and economically marginalized communities remained at risk
of exclusion from education, child marriage, and child labor.

Disability Rights

Disability rights advocates in India continued to raise concerns about the lack of progress on
deinstitutionalization of people with disabilities. In May, Human Rights Watch found arbitrary
detention, overcrowding, lack of adequately trained staff, denial of education, and prison-like
conditions in a government-run institution for children and adults with disabilities on the outskirts
of Delhi. The governing council of the institution has since announced reforms.

Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity

In October, the Supreme Court declined to legalize same-sex marriages, instead accepting the
government’s offer to set up a panel to consider granting certain benefits associated with marriage
to same-sex couples.

Refugee Rights

Indian authorities continued to detain hundreds of Rohingya refugees for immigration-related

offenses. On July 24, police in Uttar Pradesh state arrested 74 Rohingya refugees, including
women and children, under immigration laws, saying they did not have valid documents. On July
18, when hundreds of Rohingya refugees in Jammu protested their indefinite detention, including
through a hunger strike, Indian authorities responded with tear gas and beatings. Two days after
the incident, a Rohingya infant died reportedly because of exposure to tear gas.
On August 9, Union Home Minister Amit Shah told parliament that the influx of Kuki refugees
from bordering Myanmar had contributed to the unrest and violence in Manipur by creating
“insecurities” among the Meitei community. This was one example of BJP leaders making false,
prejudicial, and stigmatizing statements against refugees.

Environment and Human Rights

In August, the Indian

Parliament passed the
Forest Conservation
Amendment Act,
despite vocal
opposition from
environmental activists
and tribal communities.
The law dilutes
existing safeguards and
could lead to a loss of
legal protection for
one-quarter of Indian
forests—enabling
industry, mining, and
infrastructure
development in
formerly protected
areas—and threatens
encroachment on tribal
communities’
traditional territories.

Key International Actors

In July, the European Parliament adopted a resolution on the ethnic violence in Manipur, urging
Indian authorities to take all necessary measures to protect religious minorities, not to criminalize
government critics, to allow independent investigations into the violence, and to end the internet
shutdown. The Indian government condemned the resolution, calling it interference in internal
affairs and reflective of a “colonial mindset.” European Union leaders, and the EU at the UN,
remained reluctant to express concerns about human rights abuses in the country.
June, the United States hosted Modi for a four-day state visit, which included him addressing a
joint session of the US Congress. Many Indian diaspora activists and groups protested the Modi
administration’s poor human rights record, and six Democrats boycotted his speech to Congress.
A White House spokesperson also strongly condemned the online harassment faced by a Wall
Street Journal reporter who questioned Modi on the issue of religious minorities during a joint
press conference with US President Joe Biden in Washington.
French President Emmanuel Macron invited Modi as the guest of honor for the July 14 military
parade and awarded him the highest rank of France’s Legion of Honor. During the visit, India
announced a multibillion-dollar arms deal with France, but the two countries failed to discuss
human rights.
In April, Australia and India signed a trade deal, after a decade of negotiations. A month later,
during Modi’s visit to Sydney, Australian Prime Minister Anthony Albanese avoided discussing
Modi’s human rights record when questioned by the press, instead repeating his refrain that India
was the world’s largest democracy.

Foreign Policy

In September, India negotiated a resolution at the G20 summit in New Delhi. The statement only
mentioned “human suffering and negative added impacts of the war in Ukraine,” but it did not
condemn Russia’s atrocities or its responsibility for disrupting the global grain supply. However,
the group agreed to take steps to address challenges, including food insecurity and gender
inequality, and to manage global debt vulnerabilities.
India abstained on important UN resolutions, including one condemning Russia’s invasion of
Ukraine and extending the mandate of the investigation into alleged war crimes in Ukraine and
another establishing a probe into serious abuses in the context of the conflict in Sudan, among
others.
In September, tensions escalated between India and Canada after Canadian Prime Minister Justin
Trudeau announced an investigation into “credible allegations of a potential link between agents
of the government of India” and the killing of a Canadian Sikh separatist leader in Canada,
allegations that India denied. Earlier in the year, India had raised concerns with Canada about the
safety of its diplomats.
 Environmental and Climate Issues

Severe Air Pollution in Delhi: Delhi faces critical air pollution problems, especially during winter
months. While stubble burning by farmers contributes to the smog, year-round pollution from
transportation, power plants, waste burning, and construction exacerbates the situation. Experts
call for comprehensive, national-level strategies to address these persistent issues.

2023 Asia Heat Wave: In 2023, South Asia experienced a severe heat wave affecting countries
like Bangladesh, India, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka. The heat wave led to record-breaking
temperatures, school closures, power cuts, and significant health concerns, highlighting the
region's vulnerability to climate-induced natural disasters.

Major Issues: Md Foysal Hossen – Roll 47

Al Sakib Rahman – Roll 36