ARCHDIOCESE OF NYERI

CHRIST THE KING MAJOR SEMINARY

FACULTY OF PHILOSOPHY

SUBMITTED BY: DONALD ODHIAMBO

CLASS NO:58
​
COURSE: ANCIENT PHIOSOPHY

TASK: SOCRATIC QUESTIONING IN THE AGE OF DISINFORMATION

UNIT CODE :111a

PRESENTED TO: FR EVARISTUS MARANGA

APRIL, 2025
NYERI, KENYA
Table of contents

Table of contents.......................................................................................................................... i
Abstract...........................................................................................................................................ii
Introduction....................................................................................................................................1
Chapter One: Socratic Questioning – Origins and Foundations.............................................. 2
1.1 Life and Influence of Socrates............................................................................................. 2
1.2 The Socratic Method: Dialogue and Dialectic.....................................................................2
1.3 Techniques of Socratic Questioning.................................................................................... 3
1.4 Epistemological and Ethical Foundations............................................................................3
1.5 The Value of the Socratic Questioning in the Inquiry of Truth........................................... 3
Chapter Two: Understanding Misinformation in the Digital Era.............................................5
2.1 Defining Misinformation, Disinformation, and Related Concepts......................................5
2.2 Mechanisms and Dissemination of Misinformation............................................................ 5
2.3 Psychological Factors: Beliefs, Preconceptions, and Behavior........................................... 6
2.4 Impact on Society, Education, and Democracy................................................................... 6
Chapter Three: Socratic Questioning as a Counter to Misinformation................................... 8
3.1 Critical Thinking and the Socratic Spirit............................................................................. 8
3.2 Questioning as a Defense Against Deception......................................................................8
3.3 Educational Use: Teaching Socratic Inquiry in Schools......................................................8
3.4 Public Discourse: Applying the Method in Dialogue and Debate.......................................9
3.5 Digital Literacy and Socratic Interrogation......................................................................... 9
Chapter Four: Conclusion and Recommendations.................................................................. 10
4.1 Recap of Key Arguments and Insights.............................................................................. 10
4.2 Contributions to Philosophy and Media Studies................................................................10
4.3 Practical Implications for Education and Communication................................................ 10
4.4 Recommendations for Further Research............................................................................10
4.5 Final Reflections on Truth-Seeking in the Age of Noise................................................... 11
Bibliography...............................................................................................................................12
Primary Sources....................................................................................................................... 12
Secondary Sources................................................................................................................... 12

i
Abstract

This philosophical work aims to explore the use and power of Socratic questioning as a tool for
resisting misinformation in the digital age. The first part of the paper explores the roots of the
Socratic method, illustrating the life and teachings of Socrates, and positing its dialogical
relationship between dialectical and ethical knowledge. The second part explains the nature of
misinformation, disinformation, and malinformation, explaining their psychological and social
causes and their diffusion in digital social networks. The third part shows how Socratic
questioning can be used in schools, in public debate, and in digital learning to cultivate truth and
uncover falsehood. Through this connection between ancient philosophy and modern problems,
this term paper proposes the Socratic method not only as an academic theory, but also as a
practical art for achieving sincere knowledge in a troubled world.

ii
Introduction

We live in a time when information moves faster than ever. With just a few clicks, ideas can
reach millions of people. Yet in this flood of communication, the truth often gets lost. Every day,
people around the world are overwhelmed by a mix of opinions, arguments, facts, and
falsehoods. One of the greatest challenges we face today is misinformation. It threatens not only
what we know but also how we live together as a society.

Philosophy has always cared about the truth. It asks deep questions about what is real, what is
good, and how we can know anything at all. At the heart of this search is the way of asking
questions that Socrates practiced. Socrates, the Greek thinker from ancient Athens, believed in
talking with others, asking honest questions, and trying to understand. He encouraged people to
think for themselves and to dig deeper than surface answers.

This work wants to follow that same path. First, it will look at where the Socratic method came
from and why it still matters. Then it will explore the problem of misinformation today,
especially in the digital world. Finally, it will argue that the Socratic method can help us face
falsehoods with clear thinking and honest dialogue.

Misinformation is more than just getting things wrong. Often it is about people choosing to
mislead. Sometimes false stories are spread on purpose. Other times, pieces of the truth are
twisted or taken out of context to confuse or manipulate. Even rumors that have no evidence can
cause real harm. All of this shows how much we need a careful and thoughtful way to search for
truth.

The Socratic method is not about shouting or proving someone wrong. It is about asking good
questions, listening closely, and thinking things through. This approach can help people avoid
shallow thinking and emotional reactions. If we learn it well and use it wisely, it can shape how
we teach, how we talk to each other, and even how we use technology.

In the end, this study hopes to see Socrates not just as a name from the past but as a guide for
today. His spirit of thoughtful questioning can help us cut through the noise, face the confusion,
and keep reaching for what is true.

1
Chapter One: Socratic Questioning – Origins and Foundations

1.1 Life and Influence of Socrates

Socrates, the famous Athenian philosopher, was born around 469 BC in the town of Alopece. His
father Sophroniscus was a sculptor, and his mother Phaenarete was a midwife. Although his
origins were humble, he chose to seek wisdom and lead a philosophical life. He left no written
works; rather, his students, especially Plato and Xenophon, handed down his teachings to
posterity1.

Throughout his life, Socrates walked the streets of Athens, questioning citizens and challenging
them to self-knowledge. His philosophy was not an abstract theory, but an exercise in everyday
life. Socrates professed ignorance, and affirmed that this was the beginning of true wisdom. He
used his arguments to reveal errors in popular beliefs. Because of this way of questioninog, many
admired him, but not a few were offended. He was accused of impiety and corruption of youth,
and was condemned to death. At his trial he said:

“The unexamined life is not worth living.”2

1.2 The Socratic Method: Dialogue and Dialectic

The Socratic method consists of the art of questioning, by which Socrates did not want to give
precepts, but to awaken the truth in the mind of another. This type of inquiry was carried out
through dialogue, where Socrates proposed a series of questions in order to investigate common
opinions. He did not teach in the traditional way, but made the interlocutor reach understanding
through his own reason3.

Dialectic consisted of two parts: the list, that is, the refutation, and the maieutics, or midwifery of
the mind. This method led to the purification of the mind and the acquisition of wisdom. In the
list, Socrates subtly explored the opinions of his opponent, asking successive questions until
contradictions were revealed. In the maieutics, he claimed for himself the role of midwife, saying
that he did not teach anything, but helped so that truth, like a baby from the womb, would be
born. This dialectic process stimulated introspection and humility in the discussion4. It was not
enough for Socrates to say something about a matter; he wanted to know what we really knew.
Accordingly, his questions were directed to the very center of human knowledge and life.

“I am the wisest man alive, for I know one thing, and that is that I know
nothing.”5

1
Xenophon, Memorabilia, trans. E.C. Marchant (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1923), Book I.
2
Plato, Apology, trans. Benjamin Jowett (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1892), 38a.
3
Brickhouse, Thomas C., and Smith, Nicholas D. Socratic Teaching and Socratic Method (Oxford: Oxford
University Press, 2000), 22.
4
Benson, Hugh H. Socratic Wisdom (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000),19–21.
5
Plato, Apology, trans. Benjamin Jowett (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1892), 21d.

2
1.3 Techniques of Socratic Questioning

Socratic questioning was carried out through various techniques, the most important of which
were: definition, list, analogical examples, and maieutics. Socrates often began with a common
opinion, seeking the definition of concepts such as "justice," "virtue," or "wisdom." He invited
respondents to express what these concepts really meant, and posed a series of questions to
examine those definitions6.

He used list, that is, a subtle way of contradicting, to uncover errors or contradictions in the
answers. In this way, he showed his interlocutors that they did not know what they believed they
knew. Another technique was maieutics, by which Socrates, as a midwife of the mind, did not
deliver the truth but rather stimulated its birth in others. He often used concrete examples, such
as carpenters, physicians, or navigators, to explain the abstraction of concepts7. In these ways,
Socratic discourse was not only a teaching tool, but also a path to introspection and the formation
of the mind. The question was posed with irony and modesty, which revealed Socratic humanity
and provided an incentive for deep reflection8.

1.4 Epistemological and Ethical Foundations

Socratic questioning was not only about knowledge, but also about moral life. Its
epistemological foundation was the confession of ignorance: “I know that I do not know.” This
gnoseological humility was the beginning of wisdom, because true knowledge can only arise
where error is acknowledged9. Socrates believed that the human soul has an innate capacity to
seek truth, provided it is properly questioned.

Accordingly, dialogue was not mere disputation, but a means by which the soul was led into the
light of reason. Through questioning, knowledge moved from opinion (doxa) to knowledge
(episteme). The ethical aspect of this method is particularly prominent. Socrates believed that
virtue is knowledge, and that no evil should be voluntarily chosen if what is good is truly
understood. Hence, through his questions, he not only exercised his intellect, but also formed his
will and conscience10. The examination of human life was not a philosophical luxury, but an
existential necessity.

1.5 The Value of the Socratic Questioning in the Inquiry of Truth

The Socratic questioning is one of the oldest forms of philosophical inquiry, which remains
important even today in the midst of misinformed opinions and prejudices. This method does not
provide easy answers, but it stimulates the spirit of inquiry, approaching the truth slowly and

6
Vlastos, Gregory. Socratic Studies (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), 45–47.
7
Robinson, Richard. Plato's Earlier Dialectic (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1953), 17.
8
Nussbaum, Martha C. The Fragility of Goodness (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986), 16–18.
9
Gregory Vlastos, Socratic Studies (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), 45–46.
10
Terence Irwin, Plato's Moral Theory: The Early and Middle Dialogues (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1977), 62.

3
through questions. Through dialogue, Socrates placed faith in the human capacity to learn
through reason, and in the possibility of changing the mind through evidence and logic. In
today’s world, where truth is often confused with opinions or edited narratives, this question is
renewed like the light of reason in the dark11.

The value of this type of inquiry also shines through in the formation of character. The Socratic
process demands humility, patience, and the willingness to admit error. The person who asks
questions according to this method is not an adversary, but a partner in the search for knowledge.
Socrates himself believed in a common reason (logos) that unites all people. Therefore, Socratic
questioning is also a civil act, promoting constructive dialogue and intellectual democracy. In the
context of disinformation and dogmatism, this method remains the strongest defense against
falsehood.12

11
Martha C. Nussbaum, Cultivating Humanity: A Classical Defense of Reform in Liberal Education (Cambridge,
MA: Harvard University Press, 1997), 28–30.
12
Plato, Phaedo, trans. Benjamin Jowett (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1892), 91e.

4
Chapter Two: Understanding Misinformation in the Digital Era

2.1 Defining Misinformation, Disinformation, and Related Concepts

Misinformation, disinformation, and related concepts are important in modern communication,

especially in the digital age. Although they are often used interchangeably, these terms have
different meanings. Misinformation refers to false or inaccurate information that is disseminated
without malicious intent. Disinformation, on the other hand, is falsified information that is
specifically directed at people in a deceptive manner in order to achieve a purpose of deception13.
The study of misinformation also includes the concepts of malinformation, where true
information is used for malicious intent, and hoaxes, which are fictitious information, often
intended to evoke emotional behavior.

In the digital realm, all of these can spread rapidly, passing verification and validation rules.
Understanding these concepts is key to understanding how misinformation affects modern
society. Misinformation in the digital age is not limited to a few sources, but is widespread and
ever present.. There are many means of communication, including social networks, websites, and
digital messages, that rapidly promote misinformation, often without verification. This spread is
not limited to isolated errors, but is rooted in communication networks that amplify false content.
Therefore, this distinction is necessary to clearly differentiate the terms, so that remedies against
misinformation can be more appropriately drafted and applied.

2.2 Mechanisms and Dissemination of Misinformation

The spread of misinformation in the digital age is often facilitated by various mechanisms of
modern communication technology. Viralization, or the speed at which content is shared, is one
of the most powerful forces of misinformation. Social networks are specifically designed to
promote content based on measures of interaction, such as "likes," "shares," and "comments,"
which often favor sensational or polarized content. This makes it easy for misinformation to go
viral, due to its ability to trigger strong behaviors. The algorithms that govern these networks
organize content based on past interactions, and never care about the truth of the content, but
rather its popularity and appeal.

Another important factor in the spread of misinformation is the echo chamber effect, where
people tend to receive information that is consistent with their presuppositions.14

Social network algorithms tailor content based on past actions, so that people are more likely to
encounter content that confirms their beliefs. This selective exposure reinforces false beliefs and
can create a vicious cycle that amplifies misinformation. Furthermore, prior psychological
assumptions in the human mind significantly affect the persistence of misinformation. People

13
Brendan Nyhan and Jason Reifler, “When Corrections Fail: The Persistence of Political Misperceptions,” Political
Behavior 32, no. 2 (2010): 303–30.
14
Eli Pariser, The Filter Bubble: What the Internet Is Hiding from You (New York: Penguin Press, 2011), 35–36.

5
tend to accept information that is consistent with their beliefs, even if obvious contradictions are
presented, making it difficult to correct errors once they have become widely accepted.15

2.3 Psychological Factors: Beliefs, Preconceptions, and Behavior

Psychological factors are important in the process of misinformation because people’s beliefs
and preconceptions influence how information is received and interpreted. People’s beliefs,
especially in political, social, or even scientific contexts, often become an obstacle to the correct
perception of the truth. When people believe in certain ideological principles or preconceived
beliefs, they are more likely to accept content that is consistent with those beliefs. These
preconceptions influence the quality and quantity of information that people consider credible.
Psychologist Daniel Kahneman, in his book Thinking, Fast and Slow, explains the concept of
cognitive dissonance, where people tend to reject information that contradicts their beliefs, even
if it is very true. This makes misinformation that is consistent with preconceptions more easily
believed and disseminated16. People also often fall into the echo chamber effect, where they
engage in filter bubbles, that is, where they only accept content that confirms their own beliefs
and completely ignore content that contradicts them. This segregation of information requires
greater polarization in society, while the long-term repetition of ideas reinforces a vicious circle
of misinformation. Human behavior also amplifies this phenomenon, as the tendency to follow
the opinions of others, even the most false ones, becomes stronger, especially in a social context.
Furthermore, according to Pariser’s study, today’s social influence on social media goes viral,
where people often believe information because friends or family share it. If false, this influence
amplifies the spread of misinformation and obscures the truth.

People tend to accept information that confirms their beliefs and dismiss
information that contradicts them, even when the latter is more accurate. This
tendency is a central feature of cognitive bias, and it makes the correction of
misinformation particularly difficult.

2.4 Impact on Society, Education, and Democracy

Misinformation, whether disseminated through social networks or other media, has very serious
consequences for society, where common sense and consensus about the truth are diminished.
Societies that are saturated with false information become more vulnerable to social and political
disputes. People, unable to distinguish between truth and falsehood, often become victims of
public opinions that lack truth. This is especially prevalent in democratic states, where informed
voters are alienated from legitimate decisions, and elected officials are elected based on doctrinal
errors. Misinformation not only divides citizens, but also reduces trust in democratic institutions.
As far as the foundation of the state is concerned, such a division between truth and falsehood

15
Daniel Kahneman, Thinking, Fast and Slow (New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux, 2011), 67.
16
Cass R. Sunstein, #Republic: Divided Democracy in the Age of Social Media (Princeton: Princeton University
Press, 2017), 45.

6
can result in a decrease in the quality of political and social life¹⁷. Furthermore, the effect of
misinformation on democracy is evident in the fragility of state institutions. In states where states
cannot properly distinguish between true and false information, laws and public actions become
informed by error. Cass R. Sunstein, in #Republic: Divided Democracy in the Age of Social
Media, argues that misinformation leads to a disconnect between the state and the state, with
states unable to make informed decisions. Similarly, the spread of false narratives through social
media exacerbates social polarization, creating cognitive “bubbles” where people only accept
content that confirms their preconceptions, preventing real debate or discussion among
themselves17.

In the context of education, the spread of misinformation undermines the very foundations of
academic institutions and universities that are designed to discover truth through scientific
methods and reason. When students are informed by false sources, their critical thinking and
ability to discern truth are compromised. Education systems that do not adequately equip
students with knowledge of truth and methods for distinguishing between truth and falsehood are
vulnerable to receiving false information. In this sense, the education system prepares not only
for knowledge, but also for the morals and values of citizenship that underpin democracy. If false
content is pervasive in schools and universities, it undermines the very principles of a good
citizenship: trust, integrity, and social participation.18

In a democracy, citizens should be able to make informed decisions, but

misinformation distorts this process, leading to decisions that are based on false
premises.

17
Sunstein, #Republic, 61.
18
David M. Levy, The Fight Against Fake News: A Case for Critical Media Literacy (London: Routledge, 2020),
32.

7
Chapter Three: Socratic Questioning as a Counter to Misinformation

3.1 Critical Thinking and the Socratic Spirit

Through his method of questioning, Socrates taught people not only to receive information, but
rather to examine and question it. This questioning method is a vital method for instilling critical
thinking in individuals. Socrates challenged others through questioning to explore the truth, not
just to believe information without investigation. In today’s world, where truth is often confused
with opinion, this critical reasoning, which is Socratic, becomes the intellectual foundation so
that people not only know what is true, but also how they can explore and defend it. When
Socrates’ questions are applied, people learn not only what they know, but also how to prepare
themselves to reason and explain the truth. The Socratic method leads people to challenge
themselves with questions, and that discussion of questions leads them to an understanding of the
truth. This method constitutes a very powerful foundation in everyday life, where the truth is not
always clear and where a very sharp thought process is required.

3.2 Questioning as a Defense Against Deception

Socratic questioning is becoming a powerful defense against deception, especially in today’s

context where truth is often distorted. Through Socratic questioning, people are challenged to
ask: “What does this mean?”, “Why is this true?”, and “How is this proven?” These questions
help us to discern what is false and what is true. What we have learned from Socrates is this
foundation of skepticism, which we resist against fallacies and do not accept unknown opinions
without examining them with reason. In everyday life, where information is easily disseminated,
the Socratic questioner calls upon his energy to doubt in order to protect himself from error.
Questions that often seem simple are the keys to uncovering the foundations of deception and
understanding what is true. This method, in today’s world, where people often receive content
from the media and social media, becomes a primary tool against deception, which is often either
misunderstood or outright misleading.

3.3 Educational Use: Teaching Socratic Inquiry in Schools

In schools, Socratic questioning can be a powerful tool for promoting critical thinking and
resisting misinformation. The Socratic method of questioning, when applied to students,
challenges them to explore concepts, define, and analyze their own opinions. Through questions
that challenge understanding, teachers not only convey truths to students, but also lead them
through an intellectual process that forms the foundation of knowledge. Teaching Socratic
questioning in schools not only contributes to increasing students’ academic capacity, but also to
promoting social justice and common understanding. Through this method, students learn what
truth is and how to construct their own reasoning in a discussion setting. This process in
education is powerful for resisting misinformation because students learn to seek out sources, to
compare, and to constantly reflect on the accuracy of their information. In today's context, where
people often believe content that has not been researched, the Socratic method can be a

8
foundation in scholarly teaching to avoid this error. This questioning not only educates the
student but also the moral mind, stimulating minds to make judgments that receive not only faith
but also rational analysis.

The Socratic method, when applied in the classroom, moves beyond rote
memorization to cultivate students who think critically, challenge assumptions,
and construct knowledge themselves.19

3.4 Public Discourse: Applying the Method in Dialogue and Debate

In public discourse, the Socratic method of questioning can be a powerful tool for clarity and
truth-seeking. When applied to dialogue and debate, Socratic questioning becomes a powerful
tool for invoking reason, doubt, and moving people away from preconceived beliefs. Public
debates, which are often polarized, benefit from the Socratic method, which forces people to
explore the foundations of opinions and to discuss the reasons for their assertions. This
questioning is not only persuasive, but also improves understanding between people in
communication. Applying the Socratic method to public debates also shows what true dialogue
means: not a simple translation of words, but an interdisciplinary exploration that leads to
agreement and understanding. Through questions that reach to the foundation of reason,
disputants can learn more about the truth and believe less prejudice or falsehood. In this way, the
Socratic method resists misinformation in a context in which opinions are held between different
groups of people.

3.5 Digital Literacy and Socratic Interrogation

In the digital age, where information is widely and rapidly disseminated, Socratic questioning
becomes the foundation of digital literacy. Socrates, through his method of questioning, instructs
people to seek the sources and credibility of what they read, hear, or see. The digital world,
where misinformation and falsehood are easily disseminated, requires people to not only accept
content but also question it. This questioning, applied in the digital world, helps people to
distinguish between truth and lies, and encourages them to refute what is unproven or
misinterpreted. In digital education, Socratic questioning also teaches people to prioritize rational
analysis and verification rather than simply believing what they read or hear. This is the
foundation that digital education seeks in today’s world. Through Socratic questioning, people
learn valid ways to confirm truth and can become not only passive recipients of information but
also active critics in the process of knowing.

19
Richard Paul and Linda Elder, Critical Thinking: Tools for Taking Charge of Your Learning and Your Life (Upper
Saddle River, NJ: Pearson, 2014), 98.

9
Chapter Four: Conclusion and Recommendations

4.1 Recap of Key Arguments and Insights

In this work, the Socratic method, through questioning and dialectics, is proposed as a powerful
tool against misinformation in the digital age. Socratic questions, which challenge people to
examine their own beliefs, leading to the truth, provide a powerful way to combat deception and
falsehood. We will analyze how people can use this method to recognize fallacies and lies, and
also to search for truth in public dialogue and debate. The pervasive nature of today's
information, especially in social media, highlights the need to use critical thinking to distinguish
truth from lies. The Socratic method, applied to contemporary contexts, proves to be the
foundation of social cognition and digital education.

4.2 Contributions to Philosophy and Media Studies

This work is of great importance in philosophy and media studies, because the Socratic method
seems to be integral to removing doubts about truth in a society that easily falls into misinformed
opinions. Socratic philosophy, with its principle of questioning and dialectic, promotes a hidden
and rational analysis, which can be used especially in media studies, so that truth can always be
argued against popular falsehood. This method teaches not only prudence and wisdom in seeking
truth, but also the art of navigating the media, where content is often confused and misleading.
This contribution, the sharpness of the search for truth, is of great importance in contemporary
media studies.

4.3 Practical Implications for Education and Communication

The Socratic method has far-reaching practical implications for education and communication,
because the process of questioning and critical inquiry extends to students and all people. In
schools and universities, people can be taught to perfect the application of inquiry and analysis of
reason through the questioning method. In communication, Socratic questioning creates a forum
for conversations between people that seek truth and escape superficial opinion. This method is
used in public and private communication, where people, whether in education or in argument,
better learn to distinguish between error and truth.

4.4 Recommendations for Further Research

Future research in this area should focus on exploring the uses of Socratic questioning in the
context of today’s technological and social media. It is necessary to examine new ways in which
the Socratic method can be applied in schools and digital media to better equip people with
critical questioning skills. It is also necessary to explore how the Socratic questioner can educate
people to detect fallacies and lies, not only in philosophy but also in other disciplines. Finally,
future research should consider the limitations and challenges of the Socratic method, especially
in a world where digital information is rapidly spreading and easy to deceive.

10
4.5 Final Reflections on Truth-Seeking in the Age of Noise

In the end, the quest for truth in this age, where a multitude of voices and opinions confuse
wisdom, becomes quite difficult. The Socratic mode of questioning, with its own way of asking
and doubting, provides a solid foundation for responding to this obfuscation of truth. People
today, amidst the crowd of false narratives and opinions, are challenged to reexamine what is
truly true. Socratic questioning can restore faith in dialogue and in the search for truth, against
the tumult of falsehood. This mode of questioning, if properly applied, will lead not only to the
expansion of knowledge, but also to transparency and clarity in human life.

11
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12
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13