Technologies of Renewable Energy Sources (BEE654B)

Module-1

(a)Introduction
(b)Energy from Sun

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Module-1

Introduction
Energy is fundamental to daily life. Whether it is providing lights for our classrooms,
refrigeration for our food and medicine, pumps to irrigate our crops, or electricity to run our
commercial and industrial.
Energy is one of the major inputs for the economic development of any country. In the
developing countries, the energy sector assumes a critical importance in view of the ever-
increasing energy needs requiring huge investments to meet them, broadly the energy sources
includes: Coal ,Lignite ,Petrol ,Diesel ,Furnace oil ,Kerosene ,LPG ,Natural gas ,LNG

(Discuss the causes of Energy Scarcity)

(Briefly discuss the causes of energy scarcity and possible solution to energy scarcity)
1.1 Causes of Energy Scarcity
Entire world is in the grip of energy scarcity, several countries, including India also, are
facing various associated difficulties for its techno-socio-economic development because
of energy shortage and many more things.
Following points may be considered as the principal causes of energy scarcity.
a) Increasing Population
Worldwide population is increasing at an alarming rate. It is extrapolated that by the
turn of 21st century, population will increase manifold. These populations are unevenly
distributed worldwide. Africa shares the largest population growth rate, followed by
South Asia and then by Europe.
b) Increasing Energy usage or consumption
Energy is constantly used at home, at work, and for leisure period of enjoyment.
Energy provides the society with heat and electricity daily and motive power to
industry, transportation, and modern way of life.
 In homes, energy is used for cooking, lighting, and other household appliances
as well as televisions and computers.
 In industries, energy is used for various production-related machinery.
 In transport system to power cars, trucks, ships and aeroplanes for transporting
peoples and goods.

Figure 1.1 Population and energy consumption

c) Uneven Distribution of Energy resources

It is well understood that very few wealthy countries have access to and actually use
the largest part of the world’s energy and material resources. Uneven distribution of
energy and resource trade among countries is of paramount importance to
environmental and political stability. For example, Middle east countries are full of
crude oil reserves, but they are forced to involve in conflicts and wars and their energy

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reserves are forcefully used by wealthy countries. Geographical distribution is the main
consideration for an unevenly distribution of fossil fuels. Whole stretches of the
continent have insufficient wind. There are very few sites with the best potential for
geothermal, tides or ocean thermal.

d) Lacks of Technology know how

Even if energy is abundant in many nations or areas, they are unable to completely
utilize it because of a lack of understanding regarding conversion, transmission,
distribution, and utilization. Resources are extracted and processed in resource-rich
nations, then refined and used in industrialized nations due to a lack of technical
expertise.In energy-rich nations, the price of exported resources typically falls short of
compensating for the loss of energy reserves and the environmental damage caused by
resource extraction and primary processing.

1.2 Solution to Energy crisis or Scarcity

To address the massive energy crunch issues, efforts should be methodically redirected in
the following ways due to the growing significance of energy awareness.
 Minimizing population growth , Exploitation and harnessing the largeutilization of
known and unknown resources.
 Development of energy conversion techniques to convert basic energy available
from energy reservoirs to usable form(primary energy resources to secondary
energy resources).
 Usable energy form should be such that it is easy to generate,control transport and
utilize. Eg: Electrical energy, heat.
 Energy Management
 Development of cheap and reliable energy resources. New energy system should be
pollution free so that it is acceptable to human beings.
(What are the factors affecting the Energy Resource development)
1.3 Factors Affecting Energy Resources Development
The following five factors that make energy resources development more difficult than
normally realised.

a) Energy or Fuel Substitution or Scale of Shift

No easily available energy source is sufficiently massive to replace fossil fuels on the
necessary scale. Solar energy is unquestionably several orders of magnitude greater
than any potential world energy requirement. Large-scale industrial heat or
photovoltaic conversion to power are hardly practical.

b) Energy Density
The amount of energy contained in a unit of material object is termed as energy
density. High-quality coal has double the energy density of crude oil. Solid biofuel will
need to be replaced with about 2 kg of phytomass for every unit of fossil fuels in order
to achieve an equivalent yield. The necessary infrastructure's operating costs, reserve
capacity, and reserve capacity would all be affected by these factors.

c) Power Density
Power density refers to the rate of energy production per unit of earth’s area and
usually expressed in watts per square meters (w/𝑚2 ).Fossil fuel deposits are an

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extraordinarily concentrated source of high quality energy with power densities of 102
or 103 w/𝑚2 of coal and hence only small land areas are required to supply enormous
energy flows. Biomass energy production has densities below 1 w/m2. Energy density
of electricity produced by water and wind is below 10w/m2.Only PV electricity
generation can deliver larger than 20 w/m2.

d) Intermittency
Demand for fuels, energy and electricity increasing daily with industrialisation and
with increase in population. Easily storable high-energy density fossil fuels and
thermal electricity generating stations that are capable of operating with high load
factors meet these needs.
The renewable energy sources such as solar, wind, tidal etc are intermittent in nature.
They can never deliver such high load factors. Photovoltaic electric generation is still
so negligible to offer any meaningful averages. The annual load factors on the
countries with relatively large capacity are 20 to 25%.

e) Geographical Energy Distribution

Fossil fuels and non-fossil fuels are distributed unevenly. In the equatorial zone,
cloudiness lowers direct sun energy. There is not enough wind on the entire continent.
The greatest locations for ocean, tidal, or geothermal energy conversions are quite rare.
Energy sources can be deemed feasible, portable, and feasible based on the five
fundamental factors listed above, as indicated in table 1.1.

Table 1.1Energy Options

Sources Possible Portable Practicable
Solar Light Yes Yes Yes
Solar heat Yes Yes Yes
Wind Yes Yes Yes
Water Power Yes Yes Yes
Fusion Yes Yes Yes
Fission Yes Yes No
MHD Yes Yes No
Geothermal Yes Yes Yes
Biomass Yes Yes Yes
Sea Waves Yes Yes Yes
Sea tides Yes Yes Yes
OTEC Yes Yes No
Thermionic Yes Yes No

(Explain the classification of energy resources)

1.4 Energy Resources and Classification:
Classification of promising energy resources as shown in the Figure1.2 and Figure 1.3

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Figure 1.2 Basic Classification of energy sources

Figure 1.3 Classification of energy sources

1.4.1 Based on availability of Energy sources

a) Primary resources :These are the resources which are mined or otherwise obtained from
the environment.
Examples:
• Fossil fuels: coal, lignite, crude oil, Natural gas etc.
• Nuclear fuels: Uranium, Thorium, other nuclear used in friction reaction.
• Hydro energy: It is energy of falling water, used to turn a turbine.
• Geo thermal: The heat from the underground stream.

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• Solar energy: Electromagnetic radiation from the Sun.

• Wind energy: The energy from moving air used by wind mills.
• Tidal energy: The energy associated with the rise and fall of the tidal water.

b)Secondary resources: The form of energy which is finally supplied to a consumer for
utilization is known as secondary or usable energy i.e., Electrical energy, thermal energy in the
form of steam and chemical energy in the form of hydrogen or fossil fuels, etc.

1.4.2 Based on Long-term Availability:

a)Non-renewable – Resources which are finite and do not get replenished after their
consumption are called non-renewable.
Eg., fossil fuels, uranium, etc.
(Define renewable energy resources, and differentiate them from conventional sources of
energy)
b)Renewable – Resources which are renewed by nature again and again and their supply is not
affected by the rate of their consumption are called renewable resources.
Eg., solar, wind, biomass, ocean (thermal, tidal and wave), geothermal, hydro, etc.

The difference between Renewable and Non renewable energy sources are given in the table
1.2
Table 1.3: Comparison between Renewable and Non Renewable Energy sources
Renewable sources of Energy Non Renewable Sources of Energy
It can be used again and again throughout its It cannot be used again and again but one day
life. it will be exhausted.
These are the energy resources which cannot They are the energy resources which can be
be exhausted. exhausted one day.
It has low carbon emission and hence It has high carbon emission and hence not
environment friendly. environment friendly.
It is present in limited quantity and vanishes
It is present in unlimited quantity.
one day
Cost is low Cost is high.
The non-renewable energy resources are not
Renewable energy resources are pollution free.
pollution free.
It has low maintenance cost as compared with
It has high maintenance cost.
the renewable energy resources.
Large land area is required for the installation Less land area is required for its power plant
of its power plant. installation.
Solar energy, wind energy, tidal energy etc are Coal, petroleum, natural gases are the
the examples of renewable resources. examples of non-renewable resources

1.4.3 Based on Traditional Use

a) Conventional– Energy resources which were in common use around the oil crisis of 1973
are called conventional energy resources. Eg. Fossil fuel, nuclear and hydro resources

b)Non-conventional - Energy resources which are considered for large-scale use after oil crisis
of 1973 are called non-conventional energy sources. Eg. Solar, wind, biomass, etc.

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Comparison between Conventional and Non- conventional Energy sources are mentioned in
the table 1.3
Table 1.3: Comparison between Non-conventional and Conventional Energy sources
Basis Non-Conventional energy Conventional energy

Wind, Solar, Biomass,Biogas, Tidal, Coal, Oil, Natural gas, Nuclear

Example
WaveHydro-electricity etc. energy etc.

Source Natural localenvironment Concentrated stock.

Normal State A current of energyand income Static store of energycapital.

Life timeSupply Infinite Finite
Cost at source Free Increasingly expensive

Variation in supply Fluctuating Steady

Supply cost Low High

Scale Small Large
Mild Local hazards possible in
Safety Most dangerous when faulty
operation
Massive environmental pollution
Little environmental impact confining
Pollution : air water, soil, common and
the region
wider sped
Context Rural , decentralized system Urban, Concentrated system

1.4.4 Based on commercial Application;

a)Commercial energy resource – Thesecondary usable energy forms such as electricity,
petrol, diesel, gas, etc are essential for commercial activities and are categorized as commercial
energy resources. The economy of a country depends on its ability to convert natural raw
energy in to commercial energy.

b)Non-commercial Energy – The energy derived from nature and used directly without
passing through a commercial outlet is called a non-commercial resource. Eg., wood, animal
dung cake, crop residue, etc

Table 1.4: Comparison between Commercial and Non commercial sources of Energy
Commercial sources of Energy Non Commercial Sources of Energy
The commercial energy has great The non-commercial energy is cheaper.
economic value.
This energy pollutes the environment This is pure and keeps the environment clean.
badly.
This types of energy are limited in nature. Abundant in nature.
High capital investment is required in the It can be used in raw form
purification.

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It is used in urban as well as rural areas. It is dominantly used in rural areas.

Coal, petroleum, natural gas and nuclear Cow dung, charcoal, firewood and agricultural
energy. waste.

(Discuss advantages and disadvantages of conventional energy resources.)

1.4.5 Advantages of conventional energy sources
• Security: As storage is easy and convenient, by storing a certain quantity the energy
availability can be ensured for certain period of time
• Convenience: These sources are very convenient to use as
• Technology for their conversion and their use is universally available.

1.4.5 Disadvantages of conventional energy sources

• Pollution: When used fossil fuels generate pollutants. Main pollutants are CO, CO2,
NOx, Sox.
• Particulate matter, heat etc
– These pollutants degrade the environment, pose health hazards and cause
various other problems. CO2 is responsible for global warming.
• Other uses of resources like coal is used as petrochemical and is used as raw material
for chemical, pharmaceutical and paint industry

(What are the advantages and limitation of renewable energy sources)

1.4.7 Advantages of renewable energy sources
• Available abundantly in nature
• They cause no pollution and hence environment friendly
• They are inexhaustible
• Low gestation period

1.4.8 Disadvantages of renewableenergy sources

• Though freely available cost of harnessing them is generally very high
• Availability is uncertain, since it is dependent on natural phenomenon
• Difficult in transporting such forms of energy

1.5 Renewable Energy:

Renewable energy is the energy that comes from natural resources such as sunlight, wind, rain,
tides, and geothermal heat, which are renewable (naturally replenished). The availability of the
renewable energy resources is discussed in the following sections.

(Discuss the worldwide renewable energy availability briefly)

1.5.1 Worldwide Renewable energy availability
About 16% of global final energy consumption comes from renewable sources as shown in
figure 1.4, with 10% coming from traditional biomass, which is mainly use for heating and
3.4% from hydroelectricity.

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Figure 1.4Worldwide renewable power capacity excluding hydrogen

New renewable energy accounted for another 3% and were growing very rapidly. The share of
renewable electricity generation is around 19%, with 16% of global electricity coming from
hydro electricity and 3% from renewable energy. Potential for renewable energy is given in
Table 1.4
Table 1.4 Potential for Worldwide Renewable Energy

More than half of the energy has been consumed in the last two decades sincethe industrial
revolution,despite advances in efficiency and sustainability. According to IEA world statistics
in four years (2004–2008), the world population increased 5%, annual CO2 emissions
increased 10%, and gross energy production increased 10%.

(Explain in detail about the prospects of non-conventional sources in India)

1.5.2 Renewable energy in India
This is a relatively young industry. About 22.4 GW of power based on renewable
technologies was installed in India as of December 2011, accounting for around 12% of the

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country's total electricity production. To put things in perspective, Switzerland's total installed
electrical capacity in 2009 was approximately 18 GW. The breakdown of capacity by
technology is shown in Table 1.5. 4.4 million home biogas plants, 1,800 micro-hydel units, 4.7
million square meters of solar water heating capacity, and 8,846 isolated communities were
powered by renewable energy as of August 2011. By December 2012, India plans to add an
additional 3.6 GW of installed capacity for renewable energy. According to a renewable energy
initiative run by the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy of the national government, India
intends to increase its installed electricity generation capacity by roughly 30 GW by 2017.
Table 1.5India Installed Capacity of Renewable Energy Till August 2011

1.5.3 Solar Energy

The yearly amount of solar radiation that reaches the earth's surface is around one billion kWh.
With an estimated efficiency of roughly 10%, this may be converted into any desired
combination of heat and power using the right solar thermal panels and photovoltaic cells.
Therefore, 108 kWh of energy might be generated annually, which would require installing
solar thermal panels and photovoltaic cells on every continent. The technology to employ solar
heating and photovoltaics is currently in place, and they have the potential to be very
substantial energy sources. They still require storage to function properly, and their integration
with other technologies needs to be worked out.Therefore, the contribution from this source
must remain substantial, but uncertain at this stage.

With 1.2GW under construction as of April 2009 and a further 13.9GW announced
internationally, the solar thermal industry is expanding quickly. 22 solar thermal projects
totaling 1037 MW were finished in Spain by 2010, and the US has plans for 5600 MW of solar
thermal plants.

Major Solar PV Projects around the world are listed below

1. Golmund Solar Park(China,200MW)
2. Sarnia PV Power plant(Canada,97 MW)
3. Montaldo di Castro (Italy,84.2 MW)
4. Finsterwalde(Germany,80.7 MW)

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1.5.4 Wind Energy

Wind energy is the kinetic energy of air in motion. Wind turbines extract the kinetic energy
present in the wind, and convert it to rotary shaft motion. The shaft motion transmits power to
generators by gearboxes, belts and pulleys, roller chains, or by hydraulic transmissions. The
power in the wind is proportional to the cube of the wind velocity.
The general formula for available wind power is
1
𝑃 = 𝜌𝑆𝑉 3
2
The maximum theoretical value of coefficient of performance is
𝐶𝑝𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 0.593
It is also know as Betz limit. Depending upon wind rotor design and wind speed, coefficient of
performance of 30-50% can be achieved. Power extracted by wind theoretically maximum and
1
is given by 𝑃 = 2 𝐶𝑃 𝜌𝑆𝑉 3
Total wind power capacity for top ten countries are given in Table 1.6

Table 1.6 Total Wind Power Capacity for Top 10 Countries

___________________________________________________________________________

Energy from Sun

The energy from the sun is the main source of power for all earthly life and surface
phenomena. The vast variety of living forms that exist on Earth rely on this energy to survive
when combined with the components of the planet, such as the molecules that are held in place
by the atmosphere, the earth's gravitational pull.

The sun is a powerful source of energy and providesthe earth with as much energy every hour
as it is collectively used in a year worldwide. Solar energy is derived from the sun’s radiation.
It is important to continuously harness and increase the use of solar energy (and other clean,
renewable energies) as fossil fuels are depleting at a rapid rate. As the global demand for
energy grows and conventional energy resources becoming costly to extract, people have
started utilizing the energy obtained from the sun.

Being at the center of the solar system, the sun, our only renewable energy source, produces
electromagnetic radiation at a very high and very constant rate—that is, nonstop, all year long.
The energy produced in a furnace at a temperature of roughly 6,000 K is equal to the emission

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rate of this energy. If we could capture the energy from just 10 hectares (25 acres) of the sun's
surface, we would have enough energy to meet the world's energy needs today.

1.6 Sun-Earth Geometric Relationship

The earth's rotation on its axis is referred to as earth rotation. A mean solar day lasts precisely
twenty-four hours. The world rotates counterclockwise, as may be seen if one were to gaze
down at the North Pole from orbit. If the earth is observed from the South Pole, the opposite is
true. The orbit of the earth around the sun is called earth revolution.This celestial motion
takes365.25 days to complete one cycle. Furthermore, the earth’s orbit around the sun is not
circular, but elliptical as shown in Figure 1.5. The earth's distance from the sun varies every
year due to an elliptical orbit, but the seasons are not caused by these phenomena. The amount
of solar energy that the earth intercepts is influenced by this yearly change in distance from the
sun by about 6%. Every year on January 3rd, the earth reaches its perihelion, or closest point to
the sun, at a distance of 147.5 million kilometers. Every year on July 4th (also known as
aphelion), the earth is at its furthest from the sun. Over the course of a year, the earth's distance
from the sun averages 150 million kilometers.

Figure 1.5 Sun–earth geometry

From Figure 1.5, the following conclusions are derived:

 Earth’s orbit around the sun is Elliptical with mean centre to centre distance from the
sun approximately 9.3 × 106 Miles(150 Million Kilometres)
 While earth makes daily rotation and yearly revolution, sun also rotates on its axis
approximately once every month.
 Earth’s axis of rotation is always inclined at an angle 23.5 degree from ecliptic axis.
 The distance from the sun to earth varies ±1.7% over the average distance. This causes
the solar energy reaching the earth to vary ±3% during a year.
 The sun is 109 times larger in diameter than the earth.
 Viewing the sun from the average miles, it subtended an arc of 0.53 degree(32 min)

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(With a neat sketch explain layers of sun or Draw a neat sketch of structure of the sun and
explain characteristics of different layers.)
1.7 Layers of the Sun
The sun can be divided into following six layers as shown in Figure 1.6
a) Core
b) Radiative zone
c) Convection zone
d) Photosphere
e) Chromosphere
f) Corona

Figure 1.6 Interior of the sun

1.7.1 Core
 The innermost layer is called the core and it is extremely dense: 40% of the mass of the
sun in a 10% volume gaseous state.
 This is the region where Hydrogen turns into Helium through the nuclear fusion
reaction. With temperatures believed to be reaching more than 15 million degrees
Celsius, the core is considered to be the hottest region of the Sun.
 In the outward layers, the density and temperature decrease, and at the Centre of the
core, it is about 150 g/cm3.
 Each high energy gamma ray that leaves the solar envelope will become thousand low
energy photons and neutrinos are non-reactive

1.7.2 Solar envelope

 The radiative envelope is located outside the core and is encircled by the convective
envelope. It's 4 million kelvin (7 million degrees Fahrenheit).
 The solar core has a substantially higher density than the solar envelope. In 10% of the
volume, 40% of the sun's mass is found in the core, whereas 60% of the mass is found
in 90% of the volume in the solar envelope.

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 The solar envelope maintains the core's temperature and applies pressure to it. A gas is
more transparent at higher temperatures. The solar envelope is more opaque and colder
than the core.
 The efficiency of radiation-induced energy transfer decreases, leading to the
accumulation of heat energy outside the radioactive zone.
 Convection starts to transfer the energy in massive, hundreds of kilometers-diameter
cells of circulating gas.
 The outermost convection cells are smaller than the innermost ones. Each cell has a
granule at the top. When viewed through a telescope, these granules resemble
microscopic light particles.
 The sun's spectra exhibit modest wavelength fluctuations due to variations in the
particle velocity within granules.

1.7.3 Radiative Zone

Between the core and the convection zone, there lies the Radiative zone; by means of Radiative
diffusion and thermal conduction, the energy in this layer transports outside, which travels in
the form of electromagnetic radiation by photons. Bouncing from particle to particle, photons
transfer energy. At the edge of the Radiative zone, the density of this layer reduces from 20
g/𝑐𝑚3 to 0.2 g/𝑐𝑚3 .

1.7.4 Convection Zone

The outermost layer of the Sun’s interior is known as the convection zone. This zone uses
convection mode to transfer energy. The temperature at its base is about 2 million degrees
Celsius. The temperature in this zone is low enough for the heavier ions like carbon, oxygen,
nitrogen, iron and calcium to hold on to some of their electrons.

1.7.5 Photosphere
The Photosphere has a thickness of about 500 KM, and all the visible light from the Sun comes
from this layer. With temperature coming down to approximately 6000 degrees Celsius, it is
said to be the coolest part of the Sun because with an increase in height, the temperature drops.
The phenomenon of Sunspots happens in the Photosphere. The composition, temperature, and
pressure of the photosphere are revealed by the spectrum of sunlight.

1.7.6 Chromosphere
The Chromosphere is visible as a dim red ring, and it lies just above the Photosphere. Only
during the Solar Eclipses, when the Photosphere is hidden, visible light from the Chromosphere
can be seen. With the increase in height, its temperature increases. The chromospheres’
temperature, however, is 7,000 K, which is hotter than that of the photosphere. Temperatures
continue to increase through the corona.

1.7.7 Corona
The Corona layer is the outermost layer of the Sun’s atmosphere, and it lies above the
Chromosphere. During a total Solar Eclipse, it can be seen as a white glowing Corona. Up to 2
million degrees Celsius, the temperature on the Corona spreads, and the reason for it is still
unknown. Coronal mass ejection, Solar winds, and Solar flares are the phenomenon related to
Corona.

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1.7.8 . Sunspots
The dark spots on the surface of the Sun are known as Sunspots; this happens because the
region becomes darker and cooler than the surroundings due to intense magnetic fields on the
surface. The lifetime of Sunspots is generally less; it fluctuates from a few days to a few
months. The absence of Sunspots might affect the Earth’s climate because it is supposed that
the Sun becomes 1% cooler in the absence of Sunspots.

1.7.9 Solar Flares

When magnetic energy is suddenly released, immediate flashy and increased brightness occurs,
which is known as Solar flares. Magnetic irregularities are the reason for their occurrence.
Anywhere between 10 to 20 million degrees Celsius, these are magnetic storms that heat up.

1.7.10 Solar Winds

The flow of energized, charged particles at a very high speed is known as Solar wind. At a
temperature equal to 1 million degrees Celsius, the speed of Solar wind is as high as 900 km/s.
It is composed of plasma and generally contains protons, electrons, and alpha particles

1.8 Earth Sun Angles and their Relationship

In order to understand how to collect energy from the sun, one must first be able to predict the
location of the sun relative to the collection device.
(With the help of diagram, define 1) Hour Angle, 2) Latitude Angle , 3) Surface Azimuth
Angle 4)Declination angle 5)Solar Azimuth angle 6)Zenith Angle
1.8.1 Hour Angle(𝝎)
The hour angle is the angular distance between the meridian of the observer and the meridian
whose plane contains the sun. To describe the earth’s rotation about its polar axis, the concept
of the hour angle (ω) is used. As shown in Figure 2.3, the hour angle is zero at solar noon
(when the sun reaches its highest point in the sky). At this time, the sun is said to be ‘due
south’ (or ‘due north’, in the Southern Hemisphere) since the meridian plane of the observer
contains the sun. The hour angle increases by 15° every hour. An expression to calculate the
hour angle from solar time is,
𝝎 = 𝟏𝟓 × 𝒕𝒔 − 𝟏𝟐 in degrees
Where, 𝑡𝑠 is the solar time in hours.
Since the earth makes one revolution on its axis is 24 hour, then 15 minutes will be equal to
15 60 = 1 4 min,
𝝎 = 𝟏 𝟒 × 𝒕𝒎 in degrees
Where, 𝑡𝑚 is the time in minutes after local solar noon. ω will be +ve if solar time is after solar
noon. However, ω will be –ve if solar time is before solar noon as shown in Figure 1.7.

Figure 1.7 Solar hour angle Figure 1.8 Variation of hour angle (𝜔)in 24 hours

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1.8.2 Equation of Time(EOT)

The equation of time (EOT) is the difference between local apparent solar time and local mean solar
time. It changes slightly each year due to Earth's orbit shape, tilt, and timing of solstices and equinoxes.
Around the year 2000, it can be approximated with high accuracy using a specific formula.

𝑬𝑶𝑻 = 𝟗. 𝟖𝟕 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐𝑩 − 𝟕. 𝟓𝟑 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝑩 − 𝟏. 𝟓 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝑩

Another formula equation for EOT can be approximated as

𝑬𝑶𝑻 = 𝟗. 𝟖 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐𝑨 + 𝟕. 𝟔 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝑨 − 𝟎. 𝟐)

Where,
𝐵 = 360(𝑛 − 81)/365 in degrees
𝐴 = 𝐾 × 𝑛 + 10 + 0.033 × 𝐾 𝑛 − 2
𝐾 = 2𝜋/365
n is the total number of days of the year (e.g., n = 1 on Jan 1 and n = 33 on Feb 2)

1.8.3 Declination angle(𝜹)

The solar declination angle (δ) is the angle between the sun's rays and Earth's equatorial plane.
Earth's axial tilt, currently about 23°26′, changes slowly over thousands of years. This tilt
causes δ to vary with the seasons over a year. At the solstices, δ reaches ±23°26′, and at the
equinoxes, it is 0°, when the sun aligns with the celestial equator. The equatorial plane is the
plane that includes Earth's equator.

Figure 1.9 Declination angle Figure 2.0 Declination angle and Months

If a line is drawn between the centre of the earth and the sun, then the angle between this line
and the earth’s equatorial plane is called the declination angle (δ), as depicted in Figure 1.9.

Around June 21, during the summer solstice, the Northern Hemisphere tilts toward the sun,
causing the noon sun to reach its highest point, with a declination angle (δ) of +23.45°. This
marks the start of summer. About three months later, during the equinoxes (around March 22
and September 23), the sun aligns with the equatorial plane, resulting in equal day and night
durations (12 hours each) worldwide, and the declination angle (δ) becomes zero. The tropics
are defined by the Earth's tilt at the solstices, while the Arctic and Antarctic circles are defined
by extreme sun rays.
The declination angle (δ) can be approximately obtained as,

𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜹 ≈ 𝟎. 𝟑𝟗𝟕𝟗𝟓 × 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟎. 𝟗𝟖𝟓𝟔𝟑 × 𝒏 − 𝟏𝟕𝟑 ---------------1

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Where, the argument of the cosine here is in degrees and n is the total number of days
calculated from January 1. The annual variation of the declination angle is shown in Figure 2.0.
A formula that gives an approximation of declination in degrees based on the day number (e.g.,
01 Jan = 1, 02 Jan = 2, etc.) is shown below

𝜹 = 𝟐𝟑. 𝟒𝟓 × 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟑𝟔𝟎 × 𝟐𝟖𝟒 + 𝒏 /𝟑𝟔𝟓 --------------2

1.8.4 Latitude Angle 𝝋

The latitude angle (ϕ) measures the angle between a location on Earth and the equatorial plane.
The equator is at 0° latitude, the North Pole at +90°, and the South Pole at -90°. Key latitudes
include:

 Tropic of Cancer (+23.45°) and Tropic of Capricorn (-23.45°), marking the furthest
points where the sun is directly overhead at noon.
 Arctic Circle (66.55°) and Antarctic Circle (-66.55°), marking areas with 24 hours of
daylight or darkness during solstices.

These events happen at the summer and winter solstices due to Earth's tilt.

1.8.5 Solar Altitude Angle ∝

It is defined as the angle between the central ray from
the sun and a horizontal plane containing the observer,
as shown in Figure 2.1. The earth’s surface coordinates
system for the observer at showing the Surface Azimuth
angle (γ), the solar altitude angle (α), and the solar
zenith angle (θz) for a central sun ray along direction
vector S. As an alternative, the sun’s altitude may be
described in terms of the solar zenith angle (θz), which
is simply the complement of the solar altitude angle (α)
or
𝜽𝒛 = 𝟗𝟎𝟎−∝ (in degrees) ------------1
Figure 2.1 Solar Altitude Angle ∝
1.8.6 Solar Elevation Angle ∝
It is the elevation angle of the sun. That is, the angle between the direction of the geometric
centre of the sun’s apparent disk and the (idealized) horizon. It can be calculated, to a good
approximation, using the following formula:
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜶 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ∅ . 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜹. 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝎 + 𝐬𝐢𝐧 ∅ . 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜹
Where
𝛼 = the solar elevation angle
𝜔 = the hour angle is the local solar time
∅= the local latitude

1.8.7 Surface Azimuth Angle 𝜸

The other angle defining the position of the sun is the surface azimuth angle (γ). It is the angle
measured clockwise on the horizontal plane from the north-pointing coordinate axis to the
projection of the sun’s central ray.

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The surface azimuth angle is the azimuth angle of the sun. It is most often defined as the angle
from due north in a clockwise direction. It can be calculated in various ways, and it has been
explained in different ways during various periods. It can be calculated, to a good
approximation, using the following formula; however, angles should be interpreted with care
due to the inverse sign, i.e., x = 𝑆𝑖𝑛−1 (𝑦) has more than one solution, only one of which will
be correct.
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜸 = − 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝎 × 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜹 / 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜶

Figure 2.2 surface azimuth angles 𝛾

1.8.8 Relationship Between Different Sun–Earth Angles

Let us consider and define different earth–sun angles before establishing a relation between
them as shown in Figure 2.3.
 α = Solar altitude angle: It is defined as the angle between the central ray from the sun
and a horizontal plane containing the observer.
 β = Slope angle: It is defined as the angle between tilted and horizontal surfaces.
 γ = Surface azimuth angle: It is the angle made in the horizontal plan between the line
due south and the projection and of the normal to the surface on the horizontal plane.
 𝛾𝑠 = Solar azimuth angle: It is the angle made in horizontal plane between the line due
south and the projection of line of site of the sun on the horizontal plane.
 δ = Declination angle: It is the angle made by the line joining the centre of the sun and
earth with its projection on the equatorial plane (Figs 2.1 and 2.1).
 θ = Angle of incidence: The angle of incidence of a ray to a surface is measured as the
difference in angle between the ray and the normal vector of the surface at the point of
intersection.
 𝜃𝑧 = Zenith angle: It is simply the complement of the solar altitude angle (α).
 ϕ = Latitude angle: The latitude angle (ϕ) is the angle between a line drawn from a
point on the earth’s surface to the centre of the earth and the earth’s equatorial plane.
 𝛿𝜔 = Hour angle: The hour angle is the angular distance between the meridian of the
observer and the meridian whose plane contains the sun.

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Figure 2.3 Different solar angles

The relationship between different angles is given by

𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 =
𝐬𝐢𝐧∅×𝐬𝐢𝐧𝜹.𝐜𝐨𝐬𝜷+𝐜𝐨𝐬𝜹.𝐜𝐨𝐬𝜸.𝐜𝐨𝐬𝝎.𝐬𝐢𝐧𝜷+𝐜𝐨𝐬∅𝐜𝐨𝐬𝜹.𝐜𝐨𝐬𝜸.𝐜𝐨𝐬𝝎−𝐬𝐢𝐧𝜹.𝐜𝐨𝐬𝜸.𝐬𝐢
𝐧𝜷+𝐜𝐨𝐬𝜹.𝐬𝐢𝐧𝜸.𝐬𝐢𝐧𝝎.𝐬𝐢𝐧𝜷

The expressions for incidence angle (θ) can be further simplified as given below. For
horizontal surface, slope or tilt angle β = 0° and the angle of incidence θ becomes zenith angle
𝜃𝑧 of the sun. Therefore,
𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽𝒛 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ∅ . 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜹 . 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝎 + 𝐬𝐢𝐧 ∅ . 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜹

1.9 Solar Energy Reaching the earth surface

 The sun emits electromagnetic radiation, which is known as solar radiation. The sun is
producing photons, which are light particles, from its mass.
 The amount of solar radiation that reaches different parts of the planet varies on a
number of variables, including time, season, local weather, local topography, and
geographic location.
 The eccentric orbit of the earth brings it closer to the sun at certain times of the year. A
little more solar energy reaches the earth's surface when the sun is closer to the planet.
The earth's rotation is what causes the hourly changes in sunlight.
 Air molecules, water vapor, clouds, dust, pollution, forest fires, and other elements all
absorb, scatter, and reflect sunlight as it moves through the atmosphere.
 A photon's energy is converted into either electrical or thermal energy when it is
absorbed.
 Without changing the electromagnetic energy's wavelength, scattering happens when
gas molecules and tiny particles disperse from the incoming solar radiation in various
directions.

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 After striking an air particle, sunlight is deflected 180 degrees, a process known as
reflection of solar radiation. Clouds are the primary source of reflections.
 On the sun's surface, the radiation intensity is roughly 6.33 × 107 W/𝑚2 . The solar
constant is the amount of solar energy that, for all intents and purposes, reaches the
earth's atmosphere's periphery.
 The precise value of the solar constant is unknown due to the challenge of making
precise measurements, although it is thought to be between 1,353 and 1,395 W/𝑚2 .
 The solar radiation received by a unit area exposed perpendicularly to the sun's rays at
an average distance between the sun and the earth is used to estimate the value of the
solar constant.
 By the time radiation reaches a distance of one astronomical unit (AU), which is
approximately the mean distance between the sun and the earth, the radiant energy
falling on the surface area has decreased to 1,367 W/𝑚2 , as radiation spreads out as the
distance squared. Although this is a slow cycle, there is a 1% change in sun intensity.
 In India, the rate of solar radiation has been found to be 6–8 kWh/m2, which may be
considered as one of its important energy resource in the near future, especially for the
rural areas.

1.9.1 Problems Associated with Harnessing Full Solar Energy

The following are the three main reasons why this is not possible:

 Since of the planet's displacement from the sun, only a small portion of the energy that
leaves one area of the solar reaches an equal area on the earth since the sun's energy
disperses like candlelight.
 Since the world revolves on its polar axis, any collection apparatus situated on the
surface of the planet can receive the sun’s radiant energy for only about one-half of
each day.
 The least predictable factor is the condition of the thin shell of atmosphere that
surrounds the earth’s surface.
At best, another 30% of the sun's energy is lost due to the earth's atmosphere. However, it is
well known that for many days in a succession, the weather can prevent all but a small
amount of solar energy from reaching the earth's surface.

1.9.2 Solar Constant

The "solar constant" measures the energy from the Sun that reaches a unit area perpendicular to
the Sun's rays at Earth's average distance (1 Astronomical Unit). It includes all types of solar
radiation, not just visible light. Although the exact value is uncertain, it is estimated to be
between 1,353 and 1,395 W/m². Recent observations suggest a more accurate average value of
about 1,361 W/m², with slight variations due to solar activity.

1.9.3 Solar Radiation Spectrum

Variations of solar irradiance with wavelength of solar radiation is called solar radiation
spectrum as given in Figure 2.10. This spectrum of electromagnetic radiation striking the
earth’s atmosphere spans a range of 0.1 μm to about 3 μm. This can be divided into five
regions in increasing order of wavelengths as given below.

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1) UVC radiation has wavelengths between 0.1 μm and 0.28 μm. It is called "ultraviolet"
because its frequency is higher than violet light, making it invisible to the human eye.
Almost all UVC radiation is absorbed by the atmosphere, so very little reaches Earth's
surface.
2) Ultraviolet B or (UVB) range: It spans 0.28 μm to 0.315 μm. It is also greatly absorbed
by the atmosphere, and along with UVC, it is responsible for the photochemical
reaction leading to the production of the ozone layers.
3) Ultraviolet A or (UVA) range: It spans 0.315 μm to 0.4 μm. It has been traditionally
held as less damaging to the DNA and hence used in tanning and PUVA (Photo-
chemoUVA) therapy for psoriasis.
4) Visible range or light: It spans 0.38 μm to 0.78 μm. As the name suggests, it is this
range that is visible to the naked eye.
5) Infrared range: It spans 0.7 μm to 1,000 μm. It is responsible for an important part of
the electromagnetic radiation that reaches the earth. It is also divided into three types on
the basis of wavelength:
a) Infrared-A: 0.7 μm to 1.4 μm
b) Infrared-B: 1.4 μm to 3.0 μm
c) Infrared-C: 3.0 μm to 100 μm

Sunlight reaching the Earth's surface can be categorized into four key wavelength regions:
UVB (0.28–0.315 μm), UVA (0.315–0.4 μm), visible light (0.38–0.78 μm), and infrared (0.7–
1,000 μm). These are the biologically significant parts of solar radiation.

Visible light is generally harmless to healthy individuals, except in special cases like drug
reactions or certain diseases. Infrared, which is essentially heat, may cause health issues in non-
solar forms, but its role in skin cancer from sunlight is unclear. The primary harmful effects of
sunlight come from ultraviolet (UVB and UVA) radiation between 0.29 μm and 0.4 μm, as
different UV wavelengths penetrate the skin to varying depths, causing different biological
effects.

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1.9.4 Solar Radiation on the Earth’s Surface

Irradiance, measured in watts per square metre (W/m²), refers to the rate of solar energy
reaching a surface and varies over time. System design uses the maximum irradiance value to
determine peak energy input, and designers must also consider irradiance variations for
optimization, especially when storage is involved.

On a clear day, the total solar energy (insolation) received on a horizontal surface differs by
location. A surface perpendicular to the sun’s rays receives more energy than a horizontal one.
For reference, peak insolation at noon is about 1 kW/m² in the U.S. and 1.75 kW/m² in India,
though it varies across areas.

Before reaching Earth's surface, solar radiation is absorbed and scattered by gases like water
vapor, ozone, and carbon dioxide. Maximum radiation reaches the surface under clear skies,
without clouds.
1. Beam radiation (direct solar radiation): The solar radiation received on the earth’s
surface without change of direction (without any attenuation) in line with sun.
2. Diffuse radiation: When solar radiation is subjected to attenuation and reaches the
earth’s surface from all parts of the sky hemisphere.
3. Global radiation: The sum of beam radiation and diffuse radiation is known as global
radiation.
Air mass is a term normally used as a measure of the distance travelled by beam radiation
through the earth’s atmosphere before it reaches a location at the earth’s surface. It is defined
as the ratio of the mass of atmosphere through which the beam radiation passes to the mass of
the atmosphere through which it will pass if the sun is directly overhead (i.e., at its Zenith).
𝐴𝑖𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 = sec 𝜃𝑧
(Write brief notes on applications of solar thermal energy or Write a note on Solar
Thermal Energy Storage)
1.10 Thermal Energy Application
Energy from the sun can be converted into usable form of energy for multi-purpose utilization
as given in Figure 2.13 for the applications based on the controlled technology.

Figure 1.8 Multi-purpose utilization of solar energy

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These technologies include passive and active systems.

1.10.1 Passive system

Passive solar systems collect and use solar energy without pumps or motors, relying on the
design, materials, and orientation of a collector. These systems are ideal for buildings, where
the structure itself can act as the collector, and for thermo-siphoning solar water heaters. For
new buildings, they usually add little to no extra cost, as they leverage the building's design to
capture solar energy. In colder climates, they can cut heating costs by up to 40%, while in
hotter climates, they reduce solar heat absorption, lowering cooling costs.

1.10.2 Active System

Active solar systems use pumps to circulate water or a heat-absorbing fluid through solar
collectors. These collectors are typically made of copper tubes attached to a black-painted
metal plate, enclosed in an insulated box with a glass cover. For pool heating or temperatures
below 40°C, unglazed synthetic rubber materials are often used.
An active system can be open loop, directly heating water, or closed loop, where a heat-transfer
fluid like antifreeze warms the water via a heat exchanger. A popular closed loop design is the
drain-back system, which prevents freezing by draining water into a holding tank during cold
temperatures.

(Briefly explain any three solar thermal energy applications or Write a note on Solar
Thermal Energy Storage)
1.10.3 Direct Thermal Applications
The sun's energy can be used to produce high-temperature steam (above 100°C) and low-
temperature heat (below 100°C) for various purposes. Solar thermal collectors are categorized
as low-, medium-, or high-temperature based on their applications.
1. Low-temperature collectors are flat plates generally used to heat swimming pools.
2. Medium-temperature collectors are also usually flat plates but are used for heating
water or air for residential and commercial use.
3. High-temperature collectors concentrate sunlight using mirrors or lenses and are
generally used for electric power production.

These systems use mirrors to focus solar radiation. Parabolic dish systems concentrate sunlight
to a point, reaching over 1,000°C. Line-focus parabolic concentrators focus along one axis,
producing temperatures around 350°C. Central receiver systems direct sunlight to a central
boiler, generating high temperatures for steam production, which can drive turbines or support
processes like hydrogen production.

1.10.3.1 Low-temperature Solar Thermal Systems

It collects solar radiation to heat air and water for industrial applications including:
1. Space heating for homes, offices, and greenhouses
2. Domestic and industrial hot water
3. Pool heating
4. Desalination
5. Solar cooking
6. Crop drying

1.10.3.2 Domestic Water heating

A solar domestic hot water system uses energy from the sun, collected by flat-plate solar collectors, to
heat water or another liquid in tubes. The heated water is stored and used as needed, often alongside an

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electric or gas system, reducing utility bills and providing 40%–70% of a household's annual hot water
needs. In Europe, these systems typically meet 50%–65% of hot water needs, while in subtropical
regions like Asia and northern Australia, they can cover 80%–100%.

1.10.3.3 Domestic Space Heating

A solar space heater uses solar collectors to store the sun's energy in a thermal mass, like walls, floors,
or storage drums, for use during colder periods. It often includes systems to circulate heat and prevent
energy loss. These heaters can be combined with solar hot water systems and are more cost-effective
than electric heating. The same collectors used in domestic solar systems are suitable for space heating.
In countries like Sweden, large systems heat water in summer for use during winter.

1.10.3.4 Solar cooking

In developing countries, solar cookers provide basic cooking energy in sunny areas. They are simple,
made from local materials, and often consist of an insulated box with a glass cover and reflective
surfaces to concentrate heat. Black-painted pots absorb solar radiation, raising temperatures to boil
food. While cooking is slower than conventional stoves, there are no fuel costs. However, solar cookers
are limited to sunny hours and need backup stoves during cloudy or low-light periods. Subsidized solar
cooker programs have been implemented in countries like India, Pakistan, and China.

1.10.3.5 Crop Drying

Controlled drying improves the quality of crops like grains, coffee, fruits, and fish. Solar thermal
technology helps by heating the product in a compartment while passing air to remove moisture.
Airflow can be driven by the stack effect (hot air rising through a chimney) or by a fan. Systems range
in size, from large barns to small trays in wooden housings. Solar drying reduces reliance on fuel wood
or fossil fuels, lowering costs and benefiting the environment. It also helps protect crops, improving
health and nutrition. Special features of solar drying systems are as follows:

 Uses solar energy to heat the air. The hot air can be circulated for drying.
 As a fuel source, it can be integrated with the existing systems as retrofit or merged
with new construction.
 It can be installed vertically or at any slope.
 No need of glazing or insulation.
 As a building material, it can form the roof or walls of the drier chamber.
 One can walk on its surface, which is resistant to all types of weathering.
 Increase in temperature, over ambient by 40°C to 60°C depending on insulation.
 Improve quality of dried product due to uniform drying.

1.10.3.6 Space cooling

In tropical regions, where space heating is unnecessary, there is a demand for cooling. Many
warm-climate cultures have developed simple, traditional techniques using passive solar
principles to cool their homes. Methods include building in shaded areas, near water, or using
landscaping to direct wind. Good town planning can also optimize shade and wind. Buildings
are designed for specific climates, like domed roofs and thick structures for hot, arid areas,
shaded windows to reduce heat, bamboo housing for humid climates, or even underground
homes that use the stable, cool ground temperature.

1.10.3.7 Day lighting

A clear use of solar energy is to provide natural light in buildings. Many modern structures rely
on electric lighting even during the day, but designing buildings to utilize sunlight can save
energy and is often preferred over artificial lighting.

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1.10.3.8 Heating and cooling system design consideration

For designing a heating or cooling system, the following points need special consideration:
1. Solar and weather conditions in the locality.
2. Amount of solar radiation reaching the surface of a collector in a year
3. Development of improved collector materials with good resistance to degradation from
sun light
4. Economic collector design
5. Impact of a hot dry climate on the solar system

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