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MATLAB®
Programming Fundamentals

R2023a
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MATLAB Programming Fundamentals
© COPYRIGHT 1984–2023 by The MathWorks, Inc.
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Revision History
June 2004 First printing New for MATLAB 7.0 (Release 14)
October 2004 Online only Revised for MATLAB 7.0.1 (Release 14SP1)
March 2005 Online only Revised for MATLAB 7.0.4 (Release 14SP2)
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March 2023 Online only Revised for MATLAB 9.14 (Release 2023a)
 Contents

Language

Syntax Basics
1
Continue Long Statements on Multiple Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-2

Name=Value in Function Calls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-3

Ignore Function Outputs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-4

Variable Names . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-5

Valid Names . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-5
Conflicts with Function Names . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-5

Case and Space Sensitivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-7

Choose Command Syntax or Function Syntax . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-8

Command Syntax and Function Syntax . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-8
Avoid Common Syntax Mistakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-9
How MATLAB Recognizes Command Syntax . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-9

Resolve Error: Undefined Function or Variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-11

Issue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-11
Possible Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-11

Program Components
2
MATLAB Operators and Special Characters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2
Arithmetic Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2
Relational Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2
Logical Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2
Special Characters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-3
String and Character Formatting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-16

Array vs. Matrix Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-20

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-20
Array Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-20
Matrix Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-22

v
 Compatible Array Sizes for Basic Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-25
Inputs with Compatible Sizes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-25
Inputs with Incompatible Sizes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-27
Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-27

Array Comparison with Relational Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-30

Array Comparison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-30
Logic Statements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-32

Operator Precedence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-33

Precedence of AND and OR Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-33
Overriding Default Precedence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-33

Average Similar Data Points Using a Tolerance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-35

Group Scattered Data Using a Tolerance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-37

Bit-Wise Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-39

Perform Cyclic Redundancy Check . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-45

Conditional Statements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-48

Loop Control Statements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-50

Regular Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-52

What Is a Regular Expression? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-52
Steps for Building Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-53
Operators and Characters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-56

Lookahead Assertions in Regular Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-64

Lookahead Assertions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-64
Overlapping Matches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-64
Logical AND Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-65

Tokens in Regular Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-67

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-67
Multiple Tokens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-69
Unmatched Tokens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-70
Tokens in Replacement Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-70
Named Capture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-71

Dynamic Regular Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-73

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-73
Dynamic Match Expressions — (??expr) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-74
Commands That Modify the Match Expression — (??@cmd) . . . . . . 2-74
Commands That Serve a Functional Purpose — (?@cmd) . . . . . . . . 2-75
Commands in Replacement Expressions — ${cmd} . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-77

Comma-Separated Lists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-80

What Is a Comma-Separated List? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-80
Generating a Comma-Separated List . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-80
Assigning Output from a Comma-Separated List . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-82
Assigning to a Comma-Separated List . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-82
How to Use Comma-Separated Lists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-83

vi Contents
 Fast Fourier Transform Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-86
Troubleshooting Operations with Comma-Separated Lists . . . . . . . . 2-86

Alternatives to the eval Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-91

Why Avoid the eval Function? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-91
Variables with Sequential Names . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-91
Files with Sequential Names . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-92
Function Names in Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-92
Field Names in Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-93
Error Handling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-93

Classes (Data Types)

Overview of MATLAB Classes

3
Fundamental MATLAB Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-2

Use is* Functions to Detect State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-5

Numeric Classes
4
Integers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-2
Integer Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-2
Creating Integer Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-2
Arithmetic Operations on Integer Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-4
Largest and Smallest Values for Integer Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-4
Loss of Precision Due to Conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-5

Floating-Point Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-7

Double-Precision Floating Point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-7
Single-Precision Floating Point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-7
Creating Floating-Point Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-8
Arithmetic Operations on Floating-Point Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-9
Largest and Smallest Values for Floating-Point Classes . . . . . . . . . . 4-10
Accuracy of Floating-Point Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-11
Avoiding Common Problems with Floating-Point Arithmetic . . . . . . 4-12

Create Complex Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-15

Infinity and NaN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-16

Infinity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-16
NaN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-16

Identifying Numeric Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-18

vii
 Display Format for Numeric Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-19

Integer Arithmetic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-21

Single Precision Math . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-28

The Logical Class

5
Find Array Elements That Meet a Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-2

Reduce Logical Arrays to Single Value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-6

Characters and Strings

6
Text in String and Character Arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2

Create String Arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-5

Cell Arrays of Character Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-12

Create Cell Array of Character Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-12
Access Character Vectors in Cell Array . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-12
Convert Cell Arrays to String Arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-13

Analyze Text Data with String Arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-15

Test for Empty Strings and Missing Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-20

Formatting Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-24

Fields of the Formatting Operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-24
Setting Field Width and Precision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-28
Restrictions on Using Identifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-30

Compare Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-32

Search and Replace Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-37

Build Pattern Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-40

Convert Numeric Values to Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-45

Convert Text to Numeric Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-48

Unicode and ASCII Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-52

Hexadecimal and Binary Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-54

viii Contents
 Frequently Asked Questions About String Arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-58
Why Does Using Command Form With Strings Return An Error? . . 6-58
Why Do Strings in Cell Arrays Return an Error? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-59
Why Does length() of String Return 1? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-59
Why Does isempty("") Return 0? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-60
Why Does Appending Strings Using Square Brackets Return Multiple
Strings? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-61

Update Your Code to Accept Strings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-63

What Are String Arrays? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-63
Recommended Approaches for String Adoption in Old APIs . . . . . . 6-63
How to Adopt String Arrays in Old APIs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-65
Recommended Approaches for String Adoption in New Code . . . . . 6-65
How to Maintain Compatibility in New Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-66
How to Manually Convert Input Arguments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-67
How to Check Argument Data Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-67
Terminology for Character and String Arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-69

Dates and Time

7
Represent Dates and Times in MATLAB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2

Specify Time Zones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-5

Convert Date and Time to Julian Date or POSIX Time . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-7

Set Date and Time Display Format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-10

Formats for Individual Date and Duration Arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-10
datetime Display Format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-10
duration Display Format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-11
calendarDuration Display Format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-12
Default datetime Format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-12

Generate Sequence of Dates and Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-14

Sequence of Datetime or Duration Values Between Endpoints with
Step Size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-14
Add Duration or Calendar Duration to Create Sequence of Dates . . 7-15
Specify Length and Endpoints of Date or Duration Sequence . . . . . 7-16
Sequence of Datetime Values Using Calendar Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-17

Share Code and Data Across Locales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-19

Write Locale-Independent Date and Time Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-19
Write Dates in Other Languages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-20
Read Dates in Other Languages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-20

Extract or Assign Date and Time Components of Datetime Array . . 7-22

Combine Date and Time from Separate Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-25

Date and Time Arithmetic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-27

ix
 Compare Dates and Times Using Relational Operators . . . . . . . . . . 7-32
Compare Dates and Times . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-32

Plot Dates and Times . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-39

Core Functions Supporting Date and Time Arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-50

Convert Between Text and datetime or duration Values . . . . . . . . . 7-51

Replace Discouraged Instances of Serial Date Numbers and Date

Strings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-60
Convert Serial Date Numbers and Date Strings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-60
Replace Functions That Use Date Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-60
Discouraged Syntaxes for Date and Time Components . . . . . . . . . . 7-64
Guidelines for Updating Your Own Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-65

Carryover in Date Vectors and Strings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-67

Converting Date Vector Returns Unexpected Output . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-69

Categorical Arrays
8
Create Categorical Arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2

Convert Text in Table Variables to Categorical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-6

Plot Categorical Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-10

Compare Categorical Array Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-16

Combine Categorical Arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-19

Combine Categorical Arrays Using Multiplication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-22

Access Data Using Categorical Arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-24

Select Data By Category . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-24
Common Ways to Access Data Using Categorical Arrays . . . . . . . . . 8-24

Work with Protected Categorical Arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-30

Advantages of Using Categorical Arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-34

Natural Representation of Categorical Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-34
Mathematical Ordering for Character Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-34
Reduce Memory Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-34

Ordinal Categorical Arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-36

Order of Categories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-36
How to Create Ordinal Categorical Arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-36
Working with Ordinal Categorical Arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-38

x Contents
 Core Functions Supporting Categorical Arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-39

Tables
9
Create Tables and Assign Data to Them . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-2

Add and Delete Table Rows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-9

Add, Delete, and Rearrange Table Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-12

Clean Messy and Missing Data in Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-18

Rename and Describe Table Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-26

Add Custom Properties to Tables and Timetables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-33

Access Data in Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-38

Summary of Table Indexing Syntaxes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-38
Table Indexing with Specified Rows and Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-43
Find Rows Where Values Meet Logical Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-47
Dot Notation with Any Variable Name or Expression . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-50
Extract Data from Specified Rows and Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-52

Direct Calculations on Tables and Timetables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-54

Rules for Table and Timetable Mathematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-61

Functions and Operators That Support Tables and Timetables . . . . 9-61
Rules for Operations on Tables and Timetables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-61
Rules for Tables and Timetables with Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-62

Calculations When Tables Have Both Numeric and Nonnumeric Data

..................................................... 9-65

Split Data into Groups and Calculate Statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-73

Perform Calculations by Group in Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-76

Advantages of Using Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-88

Grouping Variables To Split Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-93

Grouping Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-93
Group Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-93
The Split-Apply-Combine Workflow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-94
Missing Group Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-94

Changes to DimensionNames Property in R2016b . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-96

Data Cleaning and Calculations in Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-98

Grouped Calculations in Tables and Timetables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-116

xi
 Timetables
10
Create Timetables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-2

Resample and Aggregate Data in Timetable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-5

Combine Timetables and Synchronize Their Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-8

Retime and Synchronize Timetable Variables Using Different

Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-14

Select Times in Timetable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-19

Clean Timetable with Missing, Duplicate, or Nonuniform Times

.................................................... 10-27

Using Row Labels in Table and Timetable Operations . . . . . . . . . . 10-36

Loma Prieta Earthquake Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-41

Preprocess and Explore Time-Stamped Data Using timetable . . . 10-51

Add Event Table from External Data to Timetable . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-71

Find Events in Timetable Using Event Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-87

Structures
11
Structure Arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-2
Create Scalar Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-2
Access Values in Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-2
Index into Nonscalar Structure Array . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-4

Concatenate Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-8

Generate Field Names from Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-10

Access Data in Nested Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-11

Access Elements of a Nonscalar Structure Array . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-13

Ways to Organize Data in Structure Arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-15

Plane Organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-15
Element-by-Element Organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-16

Memory Requirements for Structure Array . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-18

xii Contents
 Cell Arrays
12
What Is a Cell Array? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2

Create Cell Array . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-3

Access Data in Cell Array . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-5

Add Cells to Cell Array . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-8

Delete Data from Cell Array . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-9

Combine Cell Arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-10

Pass Contents of Cell Arrays to Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-11

Preallocate Memory for Cell Array . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-15

Cell vs. Structure Arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-16

Multilevel Indexing to Access Parts of Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-20

Function Handles
13
Create Function Handle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-2
What Is a Function Handle? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-2
Creating Function Handles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-2
Anonymous Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-3
Arrays of Function Handles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-4
Saving and Loading Function Handles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-4

Pass Function to Another Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-5

Call Local Functions Using Function Handles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-6

Compare Function Handles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-8

Dictionaries
14
Map Data with Dictionaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-2

Dictionaries and Custom Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-7

Hash Equivalence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-7
Overload keyHash and keyMatch for Custom Classes . . . . . . . . . . . 14-7

xiii
 Combining Unlike Classes
15
Valid Combinations of Unlike Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-2

Combining Unlike Integer Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-3

Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-3
Example of Combining Unlike Integer Sizes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-3
Example of Combining Signed with Unsigned . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-4

Combining Integer and Noninteger Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-5

Combining Cell Arrays with Non-Cell Arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6

Empty Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-7

Concatenation Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-8

Combining Single and Double Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-8
Combining Integer and Double Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-8
Combining Character and Double Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-8
Combining Logical and Double Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-8

Using Objects
16
Copying Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-2
Two Copy Behaviors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-2
Handle Object Copy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-2
Value Object Copy Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-2
Handle Object Copy Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-3
Testing for Handle or Value Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-5

Defining Your Own Classes

17

Scripts and Functions

Scripts
18
Create Scripts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-2

xiv Contents
 Add Comments to Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-3

Create and Run Sections in Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-5

Divide Your File into Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-5
Run Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-6
Navigate Between Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-8
Behavior of Sections in Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-8
Behavior of Sections in Loops and Conditional Statements . . . . . . . 18-8

Scripts vs. Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-10

Add Functions to Scripts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-12

Create a Script with Local Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-12
Run Scripts with Local Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-12
Restrictions for Local Functions and Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-13
Access Help for Local Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-13

Live Scripts and Functions

19
What Is a Live Script or Function? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-2
Differences with Plain Code Scripts and Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-3
Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-4
Unsupported Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-5

Create Live Scripts in the Live Editor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-6

Create Live Script . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-6
Add Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-6
Run Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-7
Display Output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-7
Change View . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-8
Format Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-10
Save Live Scripts as Plain Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-11

Modify Figures in Live Scripts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-12

Explore Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-12
Add Formatting and Annotations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-13
Update Code with Figure Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-15
Save and Print Figure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-16

Format Text in the Live Editor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-18

Change Fonts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-20
Autoformatting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-21

Insert Equations into the Live Editor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-24

Insert Equation Interactively . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-24
Insert LaTeX Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-26
Supported LaTeX Commands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-27

Add Interactive Controls to a Live Script . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-34

Insert Controls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-34
Modify Control Labels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-35

xv
 Link Variables to Controls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-35
Specify Default Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-37
Modify Control Execution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-37
Create Live Script with Multiple Interactive Controls . . . . . . . . . . 19-38
Share Live Script . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-41

Add Interactive Tasks to a Live Script . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-43

What Are Live Editor Tasks? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-43
Insert Tasks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-43
Run Tasks and Surrounding Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-46
Modify Output Argument Name . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-47
View and Edit Generated Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-47
Custom Live Editor Tasks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-48

Create Live Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-49

Create Live Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-49
Add Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-49
Add Help . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-50
Run Live Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-50
Save Live Functions as Plain Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-51

Add Help for Live Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-52

Add Help Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-52
View Help Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-53
Add Formatted Text and Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-54

Share Live Scripts and Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-57

Hide Code Before Sharing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-58

Live Code File Format (.mlx) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-59

Benefits of Live Code File Format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-59
Source Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-59

Introduction to the Live Editor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-60

Accelerate Exploratory Programming Using the Live Editor . . . . . 19-65

Create an Interactive Narrative Using the Live Editor . . . . . . . . . . 19-70

Create Interactive Course Materials Using the Live Editor . . . . . . 19-78

Create Runnable Examples Using the Live Editor . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-84

Create an Interactive Form Using the Live Editor . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-86

Create a Real-Time Dashboard Using the Live Editor . . . . . . . . . . 19-92

Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-96

xvi Contents
 Function Basics
20
Create Functions in Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-2
Syntax for Function Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-2
Contents of Functions and Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-3
End Statements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-4

Add Help for Your Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-5

Configure the Run Button for Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-7

Base and Function Workspaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-9

Share Data Between Workspaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-10

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-10
Best Practice: Passing Arguments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-10
Nested Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-10
Persistent Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-11
Global Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-12
Evaluating in Another Workspace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-12

Check Variable Scope in Editor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-14

Use Automatic Function and Variable Highlighting . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-14
Example of Using Automatic Function and Variable Highlighting . 20-14

Types of Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-17

Local and Nested Functions in a File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-17
Private Functions in a Subfolder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-18
Anonymous Functions Without a File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-18

Anonymous Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-20

What Are Anonymous Functions? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-20
Variables in the Expression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-21
Multiple Anonymous Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-21
Functions with No Inputs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-22
Functions with Multiple Inputs or Outputs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-22
Arrays of Anonymous Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-23

Local Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-25

Nested Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-27

What Are Nested Functions? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-27
Requirements for Nested Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-27
Sharing Variables Between Parent and Nested Functions . . . . . . . 20-27
Using Handles to Store Function Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-29
Visibility of Nested Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-31

Resolve Error: Attempt to Add Variable to a Static Workspace. . . 20-33

Issue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-33
Possible Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-33

Private Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-36

xvii
 Function Precedence Order . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-37
Change in Rules For Function Precedence Order . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-38

Update Code for R2019b Changes to Function Precedence Order

.................................................... 20-40
Identifiers cannot be used for two purposes inside a function . . . . 20-40
Identifiers without explicit declarations might not be treated as
variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-40
Variables cannot be implicitly shared between parent and nested
functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-41
Change in precedence of wildcard-based imports . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-42
Fully qualified import functions cannot have the same name as nested
functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-42
Fully qualified imports shadow outer scope definitions of the same
name . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-43
Error handling when import not found . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-43
Nested functions inherit import statements from parent functions
................................................ 20-44
Change in precedence of compound name resolution . . . . . . . . . . 20-44
Anonymous functions can include resolved and unresolved identifiers
................................................ 20-45

Indexing into Function Call Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-46

Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-46
Supported Syntaxes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-46

Function Arguments
21
Find Number of Function Arguments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-2

Support Variable Number of Inputs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-4

Support Variable Number of Outputs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-5

Validate Number of Function Arguments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-6

Checking Number of Arguments in Nested Functions . . . . . . . . . . . 21-8

Ignore Inputs in Function Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-10

Check Function Inputs with validateattributes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-11

Parse Function Inputs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-13

Input Parser Validation Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-17

xviii Contents
 Debugging MATLAB Code
22
Debug MATLAB Code Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-2
Display Output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-2
Debug Using Run to Here . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-3
View Variable Value While Debugging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-5
Pause a Running File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-5
Step Into Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-5
Add Breakpoints and Run Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-6
End Debugging Session . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-7
Debug by Using Keyboard Shortcuts or Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-8

Set Breakpoints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-9

Standard Breakpoints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-9
Conditional Breakpoints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-10
Error Breakpoints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-11
Breakpoints in Anonymous Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-11
Invalid Breakpoints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-12
Disable Breakpoints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-12
Clear Breakpoints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-13

Examine Values While Debugging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-14

View Variable Value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-14
View Variable Value Outside Current Workspace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-15

Presenting MATLAB Code

23
Publish and Share MATLAB Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-2
Create and Share Live Scripts in the Live Editor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-2
Publish MATLAB Code Files (.m) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-2
Add Help and Create Documentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-4

Publishing Markup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-6

Markup Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-6
Sections and Section Titles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-8
Text Formatting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-9
Bulleted and Numbered Lists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-10
Text and Code Blocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-10
External File Content . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-11
External Graphics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-12
Image Snapshot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-14
LaTeX Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-14
Hyperlinks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-16
HTML Markup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-18
LaTeX Markup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-19

Output Preferences for Publishing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-21

How to Edit Publishing Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-21
Specify Output File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-22

xix
 Run Code During Publishing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-23
Manipulate Graphics in Publishing Output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-24
Save a Publish Setting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-28
Manage a Publish Configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-29

Coding and Productivity Tips

24
Save and Back Up Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-2
Save Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-2
Back Up Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-2
Recommendations on Saving Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-3
File Encoding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-3

Check Code for Errors and Warnings Using the Code Analyzer . . . 24-5
Enable Continuous Code Checking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-5
View Code Analyzer Status for File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-6
View Code Analyzer Messages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-7
Fix Problems in Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-7
Analyze Files Using the Code Analyzer App . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-9
Identify and Store Issues in Files With codeIssues Object . . . . . . . 24-10
Analyze Files Using the Code Issues tool in MATLAB Online . . . . . 24-11
Adjust Code Analyzer Message Indicators and Messages . . . . . . . 24-13
Enable custom checks and configure existing checks . . . . . . . . . . 24-15
Understand Code Containing Suppressed Messages . . . . . . . . . . . 24-15
Understand the Limitations of Code Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-15
Enable MATLAB Compiler Deployment Messages . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-17

Edit and Format Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-19

Column Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-19
Change Case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-19
Automatically Complete Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-19
Refactor Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-20
Indent Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-20
Fold Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-21
Change the Right-Side Text Limit Indicator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-22

Find and Replace Text in Files and Go to Location . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-24

Find and Replace Any Text in Current File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-24
Find and Replace Functions or Variables in Current File . . . . . . . . 24-24
Automatically Rename All Variables or Functions in a File . . . . . . 24-25
Find Text in Multiple File Names or Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-26
Go To Location in File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-27

MATLAB Code Analyzer Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-30

Open the Code Analyzer Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-30
Run the Code Analyzer Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-30
Change Code Based on Code Analyzer Messages . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-33
Other Ways to Access Code Analyzer Messages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-33
Configure Code Analyzer Messages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-34

xx Contents
 MATLAB Code Compatibility Analyzer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-35
Open the Code Compatibility Analyzer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-35
Programmatic Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-37
Unsupported Functionality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-37

Code Generation Readiness Tool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-38

Issues Tab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-38
Files Tab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-39

Programming Utilities
25
Identify Program Dependencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-2
Simple Display of Program File Dependencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-2
Detailed Display of Program File Dependencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-2
Dependencies Within a Folder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-2

Security Considerations to Protect Your Source Code . . . . . . . . . . . 25-4

Create P-Code Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-4
Build Standalone Executables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-4
Use Model Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-5
Convert Code to Native Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-5
Host Compiled Application on Remote Protected Server . . . . . . . . . 25-5
Utilize Secure OS Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-5

Create a Content-Obscured File with P-Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-7

Create P-Code Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-7
Invoke P-Code Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-7
Run Older P-Code Files on Later Versions of MATLAB . . . . . . . . . . . 25-7

Create Hyperlinks that Run Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-9

Run a Single Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-9
Run Multiple Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-10
Provide Command Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-10
Include Special Characters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-10

Create and Share Toolboxes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-12

Create Toolbox . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-12
Share Toolbox . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-16

Run Parallel Language in MATLAB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-18

Run Parallel Language in Serial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-18
Use Parallel Language Without a Pool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-19

Measure Code Complexity Using Cyclomatic Complexity . . . . . . . 25-21

xxi
 Function Argument Validation
26
Function Argument Validation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-2
Where to Use Argument Validation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-2
arguments Block Syntax . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-2
Validate Size and Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-3
Validation Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-4
Default Value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-5
Conversion to Declared Class and Size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-5
Output Argument Validation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-6
Kinds of Arguments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-7
Order of Argument Validation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-7
Restrictions on Variable and Function Access . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-8
Debugging Arguments Blocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-9

Validate Required and Optional Positional Arguments . . . . . . . . . 26-11

Set Default Value for Optional Arguments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-11
Ignored Positional Arguments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-11

Validate Repeating Arguments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-13

Avoid Using varargin for Repeating Arguments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-14

Validate Name-Value Arguments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-16

Default Values for Name-Value Arguments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-17
Using Repeating and Name-Value Arguments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-17
Multiple Name-Value Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-18
Robust Handling of Name-Value Arguments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-19
Name-Value Arguments from Class Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-20

Use Validation Functions to Avoid Unwanted Class and Size

Conversions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-22

Use nargin Functions During Argument Validation . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-25

Argument Validation Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-27

Numeric Value Attributes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-27
Comparison with Other Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-28
Data Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-28
Size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-28
Membership and Range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-29
Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-29
Define Validation Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-29

Transparency in MATLAB Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-31

Writing Transparent Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-31

xxii Contents
Software Development

Error Handling
27
Exception Handling in a MATLAB Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2
Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2
Getting an Exception at the Command Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2
Getting an Exception in Your Program Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-3
Generating a New Exception . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-3

Throw an Exception . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-4

Suggestions on How to Throw an Exception . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-4

Respond to an Exception . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-6

Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-6
The try/catch Statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-6
Suggestions on How to Handle an Exception . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-7

Clean Up When Functions Complete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-9

Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-9
Examples of Cleaning Up a Program Upon Exit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-10
Retrieving Information About the Cleanup Routine . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-11
Using onCleanup Versus try/catch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-12
onCleanup in Scripts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-12

Issue Warnings and Errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-14

Issue Warnings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-14
Throw Errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-14
Add Run-Time Parameters to Your Warnings and Errors . . . . . . . . 27-15
Add Identifiers to Warnings and Errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-15

Suppress Warnings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-17

Turn Warnings On and Off . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-18

Restore Warnings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-20

Disable and Restore a Particular Warning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-20
Disable and Restore Multiple Warnings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-21

Change How Warnings Display . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-22

Enable Verbose Warnings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-22
Display a Stack Trace on a Specific Warning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-22

Use try/catch to Handle Errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-23

xxiii
 Program Scheduling
28
Schedule Command Execution Using Timer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28-2
Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28-2
Example: Displaying a Message . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28-2

Timer Callback Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28-4

Associating Commands with Timer Object Events . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28-4
Creating Callback Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28-5
Specifying the Value of Callback Function Properties . . . . . . . . . . . 28-6

Handling Timer Queuing Conflicts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28-8

Drop Mode (Default) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28-8
Error Mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28-9
Queue Mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28-10

Performance
29
Measure the Performance of Your Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29-2
Overview of Performance Timing Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29-2
Time Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29-2
Time Portions of Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29-2
The cputime Function vs. tic/toc and timeit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29-2
Tips for Measuring Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29-3

Profile Your Code to Improve Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29-4

What Is Profiling? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29-4
Profile Your Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29-4
Profile Multiple Statements in Command Window . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29-10
Profile an App . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29-11

Techniques to Improve Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29-12

Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29-12
Code Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29-12
Programming Practices for Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29-12
Tips on Specific MATLAB Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29-13

Preallocation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29-14
Preallocating a Nondouble Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29-14

Vectorization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29-16
Using Vectorization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29-16
Array Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29-17
Logical Array Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29-18
Matrix Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29-19
Ordering, Setting, and Counting Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29-20
Functions Commonly Used in Vectorization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29-21

xxiv Contents
 Background Processing
30
Asynchronous Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30-2
Asynchronous Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30-2
Background Workers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30-4

Run MATLAB Functions in Thread-Based Environment . . . . . . . . . 30-6

Run Functions in the Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30-6
Run Functions on a Thread Pool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30-6
Automatically Scale Up . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30-6
Check Thread Supported Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30-6

Create Responsive Apps by Running Calculations in the Background

..................................................... 30-8
Open App Designer App . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30-8
Add a Future Array to the Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30-8
Create y-axis Data in the Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30-9
Automatically Update Plot After Data Is Calculated in the Background
................................................. 30-9
Make Your App More Responsive by Canceling the Future Array . 30-10
Responsive App That Calculates and Plots Simple Curves . . . . . . . 30-11

Run Functions in Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30-13

Update Wait Bar While Functions Run in the Background . . . . . . 30-14

Memory Usage
31
Strategies for Efficient Use of Memory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31-2
Use Appropriate Data Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31-2
Avoid Temporary Copies of Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31-3
Reclaim Used Memory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31-4

Resolve “Out of Memory” Errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31-6

Issue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31-6
Possible Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31-6

How MATLAB Allocates Memory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31-12

Avoid Unnecessary Copies of Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31-16

Passing Values to Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31-16
Why Pass-by-Value Semantics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31-19
Handle Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31-19

xxv
 Custom Help and Documentation
32
Create Help for Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32-2
Help Text from the doc Command . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32-2
Custom Help Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32-3

Create Help Summary Files — Contents.m . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32-8

What Is a Contents.m File? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32-8
Create a Contents.m File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32-8

Customize Code Suggestions and Completions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32-11

Function Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32-12
Signature Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32-12
Argument Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32-13
Create Function Signature File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32-16
How Function Signature Information is Used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32-17
Multiple Signatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32-18

Display Custom Documentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32-20

Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32-20
Create HTML Help Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32-21
Create info.xml File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32-22
Create helptoc.xml File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32-23
Build a Search Database . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32-25
Address Validation Errors for info.xml Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32-26

Display Custom Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32-28

How to Display Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32-28
Elements of the demos.xml File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32-29

Projects
33
Create Projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-2
What Are Projects? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-2
Create Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-2
Open Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-2
Set Up Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-3
Add Files to Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-5
Other Ways to Create Projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-6

Automate Startup and Shutdown Tasks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-8

Specify Project Path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-8
Set Startup Folder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-8
Specify Startup and Shutdown Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-8

Set MATLAB Projects Preferences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-10

Determine Order for Resolving Conflicts Using Dependency Analyzer

.................................................... 33-14

xxvi Contents
Manage Project Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-16
Automatic Updates When Renaming, Deleting, or Removing Files
................................................ 33-17

Find Project Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-18

Group and Sort Project Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-18
Search for and Filter Project Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-18
Search the Content in Project Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-18
Find Project Files in MATLAB Online . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-19

Create Shortcuts to Frequent Tasks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-21

Run Shortcuts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-21
Create Shortcuts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-21
Organize Shortcuts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-21

Add Labels to Project Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-23

Add Labels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-23
View and Edit Label Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-23
Create Labels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-24

Create Custom Tasks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-25

Create a Custom Task Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-25
Run a Custom Task . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-25
Save Custom Task Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-26

Componentize Large Projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-27

Add or Remove Reference to a Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-27
View, Edit, or Run Referenced Project Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-27
Extract Folder to Create a Referenced Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-28
Manage Changes in Referenced Project Using Checkpoints . . . . . 33-28

Share Projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-30

Create an Export Profile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-33

Upgrade Projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-34

Run Upgrade Project Tool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-34
Examine Upgrade Project Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-35

Analyze Project Dependencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-37

Run a Dependency Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-37
Explore the Dependency Graph, Views, and Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-39
Investigate and Resolve Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-45
Find Required Products and Add-Ons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-48
Find File Dependencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-49
Export Dependency Analysis Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-51

Clone Remote Git Repository into New Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-54

Use Source Control with Projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-55

Setup Source Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-55
Perform Source Control Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-57
Work with Derived Files in Projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-63
Find Project Files With Unsaved Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-64
Manage Open Files When Closing a Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-64

xxvii
 Create and Edit Projects Programmatically . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-65

Explore an Example Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-72

Source Control Interface

34
Source Control Integration in MATLAB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-2
Classic and Distributed Source Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-2

Set Source Control Preferences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-4

Set Git Preferences in MATLAB Online . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-4

Use Git in MATLAB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-5

Clone Remote Git Repository . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-5
Mark Files for Addition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-6
Review Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-6
Commit Modified Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-7
Push Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-8
Resolve Conflicts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-9
Manage Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-10
Create Local Git Repository . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-10
Store Uncommitted Changes Using Git Stashes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-11

Set Up Git Source Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-13

Register Binary Files with Git . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-13
Configure MATLAB for Git on Windows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-13
Configure MATLAB to Use Git SSH Authentication . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-14
Install Git Credential Helper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-18
Disable Compression for Simulink Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-18
Configure Git to Use Git LFS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-18
Configure Git to use MATLAB for Diff and Merge . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-18
Install Command-Line Git Client . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-19

Branch and Merge with Git . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-20

Create Branch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-20
Switch Branch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-21
Compare Branches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-22
Merge Branches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-22
Revert to Head . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-22
Delete Branches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-23

Add Git Submodules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-24

Update Submodules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-24
Use Fetch and Merge with Submodules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-24
Use Push to Send Changes to the Submodule Repository . . . . . . . 34-24

Review Changes in SVN Source Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-26

Mark Files for Addition to SVN Source Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-27

Move, Rename, or Delete Files Under SVN Source Control . . . . . . 34-28

xxviii Contents
Resolve SVN Source Control Conflicts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-29
Examining and Resolving Conflicts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-29
Resolve Conflicts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-29
Merge Text Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-29
Extract Conflict Markers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-30

Commit Modified Files to SVN Source Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-32

Revert Changes in SVN Source Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-33

Revert Local Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-33
Revert a File to a Specified Revision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-33

Set Up SVN Source Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-34

SVN Source Control Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-34
Register Binary Files with SVN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-34
Standard Repository Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-37
Tag Versions of Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-37
Enforce Locking Files Before Editing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-37
Share a Subversion Repository . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-38

Check Out from SVN Repository . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-39

Retrieve Tagged Version of Repository . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-39

Update SVN File Status and Revision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-41

Refresh Status of Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-41
Update Revisions of Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-41

Get SVN File Locks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-42

Manage SVN Repository Locks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-42

Continuous Integration Using MATLAB Projects and Jenkins . . . 34-43

Prerequisites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-43
Set Up MATLAB Project for Continuous Integration in Jenkins . . . 34-43
Reduce Test Runtime Using Dependency Cache and Impact Analysis
................................................ 34-44
Enhance Workflow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-45

Customize External Source Control to Use MATLAB for Diff and

Merge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-47
Finding the Full Paths for MATLAB Diff, Merge, and AutoMerge . . 34-47
Integration with Git . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-48
Integration with SVN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-49
Integration with Other Source Control Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-50

MSSCCI Source Control Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-52

Set Up MSSCCI Source Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-53

Create Projects in Source Control System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-53
Specify Source Control System with MATLAB Software . . . . . . . . 34-54
Register Source Control Project with MATLAB Software . . . . . . . . 34-55
Add Files to Source Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-57

Check Files In and Out from MSSCCI Source Control . . . . . . . . . . 34-58

Check Files Into Source Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-58
Check Files Out of Source Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-58

xxix
 Undoing the Checkout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-59

Additional MSSCCI Source Control Actions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-60

Getting the Latest Version of Files for Viewing or Compiling . . . . . 34-60
Removing Files from the Source Control System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-61
Showing File History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-61
Comparing the Working Copy of a File to the Latest Version in Source
Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-62
Viewing Source Control Properties of a File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-63
Starting the Source Control System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-64

Access MSSCCI Source Control from Editors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-66

Troubleshoot MSSCCI Source Control Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-67

Source Control Error: Provider Not Present or Not Installed Properly
................................................ 34-67
Restriction Against @ Character . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-68
Add to Source Control Is the Only Action Available . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-68
More Solutions for Source Control Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-68

Unit Testing
35
Write Test Using Live Script . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-3

Write Script-Based Unit Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-6

Write Script-Based Test Using Local Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-11

Extend Script-Based Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-14

Test Suite Creation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-14
Test Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-14
Programmatic Access of Test Diagnostics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-15
Test Runner Customization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-15

Run Tests in Editor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-17

Run Tests Using Test Browser . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-20

Create Test Suite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-20
Run Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-22
Debug Test Failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-24
Customize Test Run . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-24
Generate Code Coverage Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-26

Write Function-Based Unit Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-28

Create Test Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-28
Run the Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-30
Analyze the Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-31

Write Simple Test Case Using Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-32

Write Test Using Setup and Teardown Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-35

xxx Contents
Extend Function-Based Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-40
Fixtures for Setup and Teardown Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-40
Test Logging and Verbosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-41
Test Suite Creation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-41
Test Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-41
Test Running . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-42
Programmatic Access of Test Diagnostics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-42
Test Runner Customization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-43

Author Class-Based Unit Tests in MATLAB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-44

The Test Class Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-44
The Unit Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-44
Additional Features for Advanced Test Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-45

Write Simple Test Case Using Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-47

Write Setup and Teardown Code Using Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-50

Test Fixtures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-50
Test Case with Method-Level Setup Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-50
Test Case with Class-Level Setup Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-51

Table of Verifications, Assertions, and Other Qualifications . . . . . 35-53

Tag Unit Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-56

Tag Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-56
Select and Run Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-57

Write Tests Using Shared Fixtures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-60

Create Basic Custom Fixture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-63

Create Advanced Custom Fixture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-65

Use Parameters in Class-Based Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-70

How to Write Parameterized Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-70
How to Initialize Parameterization Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-71
Specify Parameterization Level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-72
Specify How Parameters Are Combined . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-73
Use External Parameters in Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-75

Create Basic Parameterized Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-76

Create Advanced Parameterized Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-81

Use External Parameters in Parameterized Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-88

Define Parameters at Suite Creation Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-92

Create Simple Test Suites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-99

Run Tests for Various Workflows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-101

Set Up Example Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-101
Run All Tests in Class or Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-101
Run Single Test in Class or Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-101
Run Test Suites by Name . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-102

xxxi
 Run Test Suites from Test Array . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-102
Run Tests with Customized Test Runner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-103

Programmatically Access Test Diagnostics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-104

Add Plugin to Test Runner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-105

Write Plugins to Extend TestRunner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-108

Custom Plugins Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-108
Extending Test Session Level Plugin Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-108
Extending Test Suite Level Plugin Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-109
Extending Test Class Level Plugin Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-109
Extending Test Level Plugin Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-110

Create Custom Plugin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-111

Run Tests in Parallel with Custom Plugin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-116

Write Plugin to Add Data to Test Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-124

Write Plugin to Save Diagnostic Details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-129

Plugin to Generate Custom Test Output Format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-133

Analyze Test Case Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-136

Analyze Failed Test Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-139

Rerun Failed Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-141

Dynamically Filtered Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-144

Test Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-144
Method Setup and Teardown Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-146
Class Setup and Teardown Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-147

Create Custom Constraint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-150

Create Custom Boolean Constraint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-153

Overview of App Testing Framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-157

App Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-157
Gesture Support of UI Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-157
Example: Write a Test for an App . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-159

Write Tests for an App . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-162

Write Tests That Use App Testing and Mocking Frameworks . . . 35-166
Create App . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-166
Test App With Manual Intervention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-167
Create Fully Automated Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-168

Overview of Performance Testing Framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-171

Determine Bounds of Measured Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-171
Types of Time Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-172

xxxii Contents
 Write Performance Tests with Measurement Boundaries . . . . . . . 35-172
Run Performance Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-173
Understand Invalid Test Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-173

Test Performance Using Scripts or Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-175

Test Performance Using Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-179

Measure Fast Executing Test Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-184

Create Mock Object . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-187

Specify Mock Object Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-194

Define Mock Method Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-194
Define Mock Property Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-195
Define Repeating and Subsequent Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-196
Summary of Behaviors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-198

Qualify Mock Object Interaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-199

Qualify Mock Method Interaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-199
Qualify Mock Property Interaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-200
Use Mock Object Constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-201
Summary of Qualifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-203

Ways to Write Unit Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-205

Script-Based Unit Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-205
Function-Based Unit Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-206
Class-Based Unit Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-206
Extend Unit Testing Framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-207

Compile MATLAB Unit Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-208

Run Tests with Standalone Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-208
Run Tests in Parallel with Standalone Applications . . . . . . . . . . . 35-209
TestRand Class Definition Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-209

Types of Code Coverage for MATLAB Source Code . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-211

Statement Coverage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-211
Function Coverage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-211

Collect Statement and Function Coverage Metrics for MATLAB

Source Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-213

Insert Test Code Using Editor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-218

Create Test Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-218
Add Parameters and Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-218
Run Tests in Test Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-221

Develop and Integrate Software with Continuous Integration . . 35-222

Continuous Integration Workflow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-222
Continuous Integration with MathWorks Products . . . . . . . . . . . 35-224

Generate Artifacts Using MATLAB Unit Test Plugins . . . . . . . . . . 35-226

Continuous Integration with MATLAB on CI Platforms . . . . . . . . 35-230

Azure DevOps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-230

xxxiii
 Bamboo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-230
CircleCI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-230
GitHub Actions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-230
GitLab CI/CD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-231
Jenkins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-231
Travis CI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-231
Other Platforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-231

Build Automation
36
Overview of MATLAB Build Tool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-2
Create Plan with Tasks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-2
Run Tasks in Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-3

Create and Run Tasks Using Build Tool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-4

Create Build File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-4
Summary of Build File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-5
Visualize Task Dependencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-6
Run Tasks in Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-6

Create and Run Tasks That Accept Arguments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-8

Create Build File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-8
Summary of Build File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-9
Run Tasks with Arguments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-10

Improve Performance with Incremental Builds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-12

MATLAB Incremental Builds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-12
Create and Run Tasks That Support Incremental Builds . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-12

System object Usage and Authoring

37
What Are System Objects? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37-2
Running a System Object . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37-3
System Object Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37-3

System Objects vs MATLAB Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37-5

System Objects vs. MATLAB Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37-5
Process Audio Data Using Only MATLAB Functions Code . . . . . . . . . . . . 37-5
Process Audio Data Using System Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37-6

System Design in MATLAB Using System Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37-7

System Design and Simulation in MATLAB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37-7
Create Individual Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37-7
Configure Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37-8
Create and Configure Components at the Same Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37-8
Assemble Components Into System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37-9
Run Your System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37-9

xxxiv Contents
 Reconfiguring Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37-10

Define Basic System Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37-11

Create System Object Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37-11
Define Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37-11

Change the Number of Inputs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37-13

Validate Property and Input Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37-16

Validate a Single Property . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37-16
Validate Interdependent Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37-16
Validate Inputs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37-16
Complete Class Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37-16

Initialize Properties and Setup One-Time Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37-18

Set Property Values at Construction Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37-20

Reset Algorithm and Release Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37-22

Reset Algorithm State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37-22
Release System Object Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37-22

Define Property Attributes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37-24

Specify Property as Nontunable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37-24
Specify Property as DiscreteState . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37-24
Example Class with Various Property Attributes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37-24

Hide Inactive Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37-26

Specify Inactive Property . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37-26
Complete Class Definition File with Inactive Properties Method . . . . . . 37-26

Limit Property Values to Finite List . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37-28

Property Validation with mustBeMember . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37-28
Enumeration Property . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37-28
Create a Whiteboard System Object . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37-29

Process Tuned Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37-32

Define Composite System Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37-34

Define Finite Source Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37-36

Use the FiniteSource Class and Specify End of the Source . . . . . . . . . . 37-36
Complete Class Definition File with Finite Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37-36

Save and Load System Object . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37-38

Save System Object and Child Object . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37-38
Load System Object and Child Object . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37-38
Complete Class Definition Files with Save and Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37-38

Define System Object Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37-41

Handle Input Specification Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37-43

React to Input Specification Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37-43
Restrict Input Specification Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37-43

xxxv
 Summary of Call Sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37-45
Setup Call Sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37-45
Running the Object or Step Call Sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37-45
Reset Method Call Sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37-46
Release Method Call Sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37-47

Detailed Call Sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37-48

setup Call Sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37-48
Running the Object or step Call Sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37-48
reset Call Sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37-49
release Call Sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37-49

Tips for Defining System Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37-50

General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37-50
Inputs and Outputs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37-50
Using ~ as an Input Argument in Method Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37-50
Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37-50
Text Comparisons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37-51
Simulink . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37-51
Code Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37-52

Insert System Object Code Using MATLAB Editor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37-53

Define System Objects with Code Insertion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37-53
Create a Temperature Enumeration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37-55
Create Custom Property for Freezing Point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37-56
Add Method to Validate Inputs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37-57

Analyze System Object Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37-58

Use Global Variables in System Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37-61

System Object Global Variables in MATLAB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37-61
System Object Global Variables in Simulink . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37-61

Create Moving Average System Object . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37-65

Create New System Objects for File Input and Output . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37-70

Create Composite System Object . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37-76

xxxvi Contents
Language

37
 1

Syntax Basics

• “Continue Long Statements on Multiple Lines” on page 1-2

• “Name=Value in Function Calls” on page 1-3
• “Ignore Function Outputs” on page 1-4
• “Variable Names” on page 1-5
• “Case and Space Sensitivity” on page 1-7
• “Choose Command Syntax or Function Syntax” on page 1-8
• “Resolve Error: Undefined Function or Variable” on page 1-11
1 Syntax Basics

Continue Long Statements on Multiple Lines

This example shows how to continue a statement to the next line using ellipsis (...).

s = 1 - 1/2 + 1/3 - 1/4 + 1/5 ...

- 1/6 + 1/7 - 1/8 + 1/9;

Build a long character vector by concatenating shorter vectors together:

mytext = ['Accelerating the pace of ' ...

'engineering and science'];

The start and end quotation marks for a character vector must appear on the same line. For example,
this code returns an error, because each line contains only one quotation mark:

mytext = 'Accelerating the pace of ...

engineering and science'

An ellipsis outside a quoted text is equivalent to a space. For example,

x = [1.23...
4.56];

is the same as

x = [1.23 4.56];

1-2
 Name=Value in Function Calls

Name=Value in Function Calls

Since R2021a

MATLAB supports two syntaxes for passing name-value arguments.

plot(x,y,LineWidth=2) name=value syntax

plot(x,y,"LineWidth",2) comma-separated syntax

Use the name=value syntax to help identify name-value arguments for functions and to clearly
distinguish names from values in lists of name-value arguments.

Most functions and methods support both syntaxes, but there are some limitations on where and how
the name=value syntax can be used:

Mixing name,value and name=value syntaxes: The recommended practice is to use only one
syntax in any given function call. However, if you do mix name=value and name,value syntaxes
in a single call, all name=value arguments must appear after the name,value arguments. For
example, plot(x,y,"Color","red",LineWidth=2) is a valid combination, but
plot(x,y,Color="red","LineWidth",2) errors.
• Using positional arguments after name-value arguments: Some functions have positional
arguments that appear after name-value arguments. For example, this call to the verifyEqual
method uses the RelTol name-value argument, followed by a string input:

verifyEqual(testCase,1.5,2,"RelTol",0.1,...
"Difference exceeds relative tolerance.")

Using the name=value syntax (RelTol=0.1) causes the statement to error. In cases where a
positional argument follows name-value arguments, use the name,value syntax.
• Names that are invalid variable names: Name-value arguments with names that are invalid
MATLAB variable names cannot be used with the name=value syntax. See “Variable Names” on
page 1-5 for more info. For example, a name-value argument like "allow-empty",true errors
if passed as allow-empty=true. Use the name,value syntax in these cases.

Function authors do not need to code differently to support both the name,value and name=value
syntaxes. For information on using argument validation with name-value arguments, see “Validate
Name-Value Arguments” on page 26-16.

1-3
1 Syntax Basics

Ignore Function Outputs

This example shows how to ignore specific outputs from a function using the tilde (~) operator.

Request all three possible outputs from the fileparts function.

helpFile = which('help');
[helpPath,name,ext] = fileparts(helpFile);

The current workspace now contains three variables from fileparts: helpPath, name, and ext. In
this case, the variables are small. However, some functions return results that use much more
memory. If you do not need those variables, they waste space on your system.

If you do not use the tilde operator, you can request only the first N outputs of a function (where N is
less than or equal to the number of possible outputs) and ignore any remaining outputs. For example,
request only the first output, ignoring the second and third.

helpPath = fileparts(helpFile);

If you request more than one output, enclose the variable names in square brackets, []. The
following code ignores the output argument ext.

[helpPath,name] = fileparts(helpFile);

To ignore function outputs in any position in the argument list, use the tilde operator. For example,
ignore the first output using a tilde.

[~,name,ext] = fileparts(helpFile);

You can ignore any number of function outputs using the tilde operator. Separate consecutive tildes
with a comma. For example, this code ignores the first two output arguments.

[~,~,ext] = fileparts(helpFile);

See Also

More About
• “Ignore Inputs in Function Definitions” on page 21-10

1-4
 Variable Names

Variable Names

In this section...
“Valid Names” on page 1-5
“Conflicts with Function Names” on page 1-5

Valid Names
A valid variable name starts with a letter, followed by letters, digits, or underscores. MATLAB is case
sensitive, so A and a are not the same variable. The maximum length of a variable name is the value
that the namelengthmax command returns.

You cannot define variables with the same names as MATLAB keywords, such as if or end. For a
complete list, run the iskeyword command.

Examples of valid names: Examples of invalid names:

x6 6x
lastValue end
n_factorial n!

Conflicts with Function Names

Avoid creating variables with the same name as a function (such as i, j, mode, char, size, and
path). In general, variable names take precedence over function names. If you create a variable that
uses the name of a function, you sometimes get unexpected results.

Check whether a proposed name is already in use with the exist or which function. exist returns
0 if there are no existing variables, functions, or other artifacts with the proposed name. For example:

exist checkname

ans =
0

If you inadvertently create a variable with a name conflict, remove the variable from memory with the
clear function.

Another potential source of name conflicts occurs when you define a function that calls load or eval
(or similar functions) to add variables to the workspace. In some cases, load or eval add variables
that have the same names as functions. Unless these variables are in the function workspace before
the call to load or eval, the MATLAB parser interprets the variable names as function names. For
more information, see:

• “Unexpected Results When Loading Variables Within a Function”

• “Alternatives to the eval Function” on page 2-91

1-5
1 Syntax Basics

See Also
clear | exist | iskeyword | namelengthmax | which | isvarname

1-6
 Case and Space Sensitivity

Case and Space Sensitivity

MATLAB code is sensitive to casing, and insensitive to blank spaces except when defining arrays.

Uppercase and Lowercase

In MATLAB code, use an exact match with regard to case for variables, files, and functions. For
example, if you have a variable, a, you cannot refer to that variable as A. It is a best practice to use
lowercase only when naming functions. This is especially useful when you use both Microsoft®
Windows® and UNIX®1 platforms because their file systems behave differently with regard to case.

When you use the help function, the help displays some function names in all uppercase, for
example, PLOT, solely to distinguish the function name from the rest of the text. Some functions for
interfacing to Oracle® Java® software do use mixed case and the command-line help and the
documentation accurately reflect that.

Spaces

Blank spaces around operators such as -, :, and ( ), are optional, but they can improve readability.
For example, MATLAB interprets the following statements the same way.

y = sin (3 * pi) / 2
y=sin(3*pi)/2

However, blank spaces act as delimiters in horizontal concatenation. When defining row vectors, you
can use spaces and commas interchangeably to separate elements:

A = [1, 0 2, 3 3]

A =

1 0 2 3 3

Because of this flexibility, check to ensure that MATLAB stores the correct values. For example, the
statement [1 sin (pi) 3] produces a much different result than [1 sin(pi) 3] does.

[1 sin (pi) 3]

Error using sin

Not enough input arguments.

[1 sin(pi) 3]

ans =

1.0000 0.0000 3.0000

1 UNIX is a registered trademark of The Open Group in the United States and other countries.

1-7
1 Syntax Basics

Choose Command Syntax or Function Syntax

MATLAB has two ways of calling functions, called function syntax and command syntax. This page
discusses the differences between these syntax formats and how to avoid common mistakes
associated with command syntax.

For introductory information on calling functions, see “Calling Functions”. For information related to
defining functions, see “Create Functions in Files” on page 20-2.

Command Syntax and Function Syntax

In MATLAB, these statements are equivalent:

load durer.mat % Command syntax

load('durer.mat') % Function syntax

This equivalence is sometimes referred to as command-function duality.

All functions support this standard function syntax:

[output1, ..., outputM] = functionName(input1, ..., inputN)

In function syntax, inputs can be data, variables, and even MATLAB expressions. If an input is data,
such as the numeric value 2 or the string array ["a" "b" "c"], MATLAB passes it to the function
as-is. If an input is a variable MATLAB will pass the value assigned to it. If an input is an expression,
like 2+2 or sin(2*pi), MATLAB evaluates it first, and passes the result to the function. If the
functions has outputs, you can assign them to variables as shown in the example syntax above.

Command syntax is simpler but more limited. To use it, separate inputs with spaces rather than
commas, and do not enclose them in parentheses.

functionName input1 ... inputN

With command syntax, MATLAB passes all inputs as character vectors (that is, as if they were
enclosed in single quotation marks) and does not assign outputs to user defined variables. If the
function returns an output, it is assigned to the ans variable. To pass a data type other than a
character vector, use the function syntax. To pass a value that contains a space, you have two options.
One is to use function syntax. The other is to put single quotes around the value. Otherwise, MATLAB
treats the space as splitting your value into multiple inputs.

If a value is assigned to a variable, you must use function syntax to pass the value to the function.
Command syntax always passes inputs as character vectors and cannot pass variable values. For
example, create a variable and call the disp function with function syntax to pass the value of the
variable:

A = 123;
disp(A)

This code returns the expected result,

123

You cannot use command syntax to pass the value of A, because this call

1-8
 Choose Command Syntax or Function Syntax

disp A

is equivalent to

disp('A')

and returns

Avoid Common Syntax Mistakes

Suppose that your workspace contains these variables:

filename = 'accounts.txt';
A = int8(1:8);
B = A;

The following table illustrates common misapplications of command syntax.

This Command... Is Equivalent to... Correct Syntax for Passing Value

open filename open('filename') open(filename)
isequal A B isequal('A','B') isequal(A,B)
strcmp class(A) int8 strcmp('class(A)','int8') strcmp(class(A),'int8')
cd tempdir cd('tempdir') cd(tempdir)
isnumeric 500 isnumeric('500') isnumeric(500)
round 3.499 round('3.499'), which is round(3.499)
equivalent to round([51 46 52
57 57])
disp hello world disp('hello','world') disp('hello world')

or

disp 'hello world'

disp "string" disp('"string"') disp("string")

Passing Variable Names

Some functions expect character vectors for variable names, such as save, load, clear, and whos.
For example,

whos -file durer.mat X

requests information about variable X in the example file durer.mat. This command is equivalent to

whos('-file','durer.mat','X')

How MATLAB Recognizes Command Syntax

Consider the potentially ambiguous statement

1-9
1 Syntax Basics

ls ./d

This could be a call to the ls function with './d' as its argument. It also could represent element-
wise division on the array ls, using the variable d as the divisor.

If you issue this statement at the command line, MATLAB uses syntactic rules, the current workspace,
and path to determine whether ls and d are functions or variables. However, some components, such
as the Code Analyzer and the Editor/Debugger, operate without reference to the path or workspace.
When you are using those components, MATLAB uses syntactic rules to determine whether an
expression is a function call using command syntax.

In general, when MATLAB recognizes an identifier (which might name a function or a variable), it
analyzes the characters that follow the identifier to determine the type of expression, as follows:

• An equal sign (=) implies assignment. For example:

ls =d
• An open parenthesis after an identifier implies a function call. For example:

ls('./d')
• Space after an identifier, but not after a potential operator, implies a function call using command
syntax. For example:

ls ./d
• Spaces on both sides of a potential operator, or no spaces on either side of the operator, imply an
operation on variables. For example, these statements are equivalent:

ls ./ d

ls./d

Therefore, MATLAB treats the potentially ambiguous statement ls ./d as a call to the ls function
using command syntax.

The best practices is to avoid defining variable names that conflict with common functions to prevent
ambiguity and have consistent whitespace around operators or to call functions with explicit
parentheses..

See Also
“Calling Functions” | “Create Functions in Files” on page 20-2

1-10
 Resolve Error: Undefined Function or Variable

Resolve Error: Undefined Function or Variable

Issue
You may encounter the following error message, or something similar, while working with functions
or variables in MATLAB:

Undefined function or variable 'x'.

These errors usually indicate that MATLAB cannot find a particular variable or MATLAB program file
in the current directory or on the search path.

Possible Solutions
Verify Spelling of Function or Variable Name

One of the most common causes is misspelling the function or variable name. Especially with longer
names or names containing similar characters (such as the letter l and numeral one), it is easy to
make mistakes and hard to detect them.

Often, when you misspell a MATLAB function, a suggested function name appears in the Command
Window. For example, this command fails because it includes an uppercase letter in the function
name:

accumArray

Undefined function or variable 'accumArray'.

Did you mean:

>> accumarray

When this happens, press Enter to execute the suggested command or Esc to dismiss it.

Verify Inputs Correspond to the Function Syntax

Object methods are typically called using function syntax: for instance method(object,inputs).
Alternatively, they can be called using dot notation: for instance object.method(inputs). One
common error is to mix these syntaxes. For instance, you might call the method using function syntax,
but to provide inputs following dot notation syntax and leave out the object as an input: for instance,
method(inputs). To avoid this, when calling an object method, make sure you specify the object
first, either through the first input of function syntax or through the first identifier of dot notation.

Make Sure Function Name Matches File Name

When you write a function, you establish its name when you write its function definition line. This
name should always match the name of the file you save it to. For example, if you create a function
named curveplot,

function curveplot(xVal, yVal)

- program code -

then you should name the file containing that function curveplot.m. If you create a pcode file for
the function, then name that file curveplot.p. In the case of conflicting function and file names, the
file name overrides the name given to the function. In this example, if you save the curveplot

1-11
1 Syntax Basics

function to a file named curveplotfunction.m, then attempts to invoke the function using the
function name will fail:
curveplot
Undefined function or variable 'curveplot'.

If you encounter this problem, change either the function name or file name so that they are the
same.

To Locate the file that defines this function, use the MATLAB Find Files utility as follows:
1
On the Home tab, in the File section, click Find Files.
2 Under Find files named, enter *.m
3 Under Find files containing text, enter the function name.
4 Click the Find button

Make Sure Necessary Toolbox Is Installed and Correct Version

If you are unable to use a built-in function from MATLAB or its toolboxes, make sure that the function
is installed and is the correct version.

If you do not know which toolbox contains the function you need, search for the function
documentation at https://www.mathworks.com/help. The toolbox name appears at the top of the
function reference page. Alternatively, for steps to identify toolboxes that a function depends on, see
“Identify Program Dependencies” on page 25-2.

Once you know which toolbox the function belongs to, use the ver function to see which toolboxes
are installed on the system from which you run MATLAB. The ver function displays a list of all
currently installed MathWorks® products. If you can locate the toolbox you need in the output
displayed by ver, then the toolbox is installed. If you cannot, you need to install it in order to use it.
For help with installing MathWorks products, see “Install License Manager on License Server”.

1-12
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