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Understanding the Oracle Database

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relational database systems (RDBMS), such as SQL
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with the Oracle Database. The Oracle Database
Introduction In this tutorial
offers the following benefits: page, you will gain all the
fundamental knowledge
Cross-platform: Oracle is compatible with a related to Web…

wide range of hardware and operating

systems, including Windows Server, Unix, Linux,
and others.
Simple integration: Oracle facilitates
 seamless communication between
applications running on multiple platforms and
the Oracle database.
Oracle databases are ACID-compliant and
contribute to the reliability and integrity of
data.
Flexible in the face of emerging technologies:
Oracle was among the first databases to
support GNU/Linux.

The Oracle database also has the following structural benefits:

Logical data structure

Partitioning
Memory caching
Data dictionary
Backup and recovery
Clustering

Editions of Oracle Database

Oracle Enterprise Edition (EE): Common and

expensive
Oracle Standard Edition (SE): Enterprise use
Oracle Express Edition (XE): Free to use with
limited features.

Installing Oracle Database

You must download the installer from the Oracle
website’s download page to install the Oracle
database on your PC.

Once the installation files are downloaded in ZIP

format, you must extract them onto your computer
and place them in a designated folder.

To begin the installation procedure, double-click the

setup.exe file at this point. There are 9 steps in the
installation of the Oracle database.

Step 1: Once you double-click the setup.exe file, it

asks for your email address for security purposes.
You can skip it by giving it next.
Step 2: Here, you have three choices. Select option 1
and press the Next button if this is your first time
installing an Oracle database. If you want to
update the current one, select “upgrade an existing
database.”

Step 3: You should select the system class during

the installation. After selecting Desktop Class as the
first choice, press the Next button.
Step 4: In this step, you can install and configure
Oracle Home for enhanced security by specifying
the Windows user account. Select the third option,
“Use Windows Built-in Account.”

Step 5: This step allows you to select the pluggable

database name, global database name, and
password, as well as the location where the Oracle
database will be installed.

Step 6: The prerequisite check is carried out in this

step.
Step 7: Once the information you submitted is
shown, check it over and, if everything checks out,
click the install button.

Step 8: The Oracle database installation process

begins when the installer launches. It should take a
few minutes to complete, depending on your
computer.
You’ll see the Database Configuration Assistant
window. To enter passwords for Oracle database
accounts, click the Password Management icon.
Enter the passwords for the SYS and SYSTEM
accounts, then click OK.

Step 9: When installation is completed successfully,

the installer will notify you, as shown in the
screenshot below. Just click the Close button to end
the window.

Checking the connection with the database

Launch the Oracle Database’s SQL developer

application.
To make a new connection, right-click on the
connections node and select New Connection
from the menu.
Enter the information you gave during the
installation procedure, as illustrated in the
screenshot below. To connect to the Oracle
database, simply click the Connect button.

Every object will appear as follows in SQL

Developer.
Kudos! Oracle Database 12c has been installed
successfully.

Oracle Interview Questions

Oracle Basics
The principles of the Oracle database are covered
in the section on Oracle basics. Helping you build a
strong foundation in the Oracle database is the
main objective of this tutorial series.

Section 1: Querying Data

To start, below is a basic query that pulls

information from a single table.

SELECT Query: It demonstrates how to run a query

over data in a single table.

Tables in Oracle are made up of rows and columns.

For example, the customer_id, name, address,

website, and credit_limit columns are present in the
sample database’s customers table.

These columns contain data from the customer’s

table as well.

The SELECT statement with the following syntax is

used to retrieve data from one or more table
columns:

SELECT
 column_1,

column_2,

FROM

table_name;

You can select customer details as follows:

Select data from a single column

Select data from multiple columns
Select all columns of a table.

Section 2: Sorting Data

Order By: Sort the query result set in either

ascending or descending order using this option.

An Oracle table keeps its rows in an indeterminate

order, regardless of how they were entered into the
database. You must specifically inform Oracle
Database if you wish to query rows based on a
column in either ascending or descending order.

One possible way to display all of your clients is to

list them alphabetically by name or by credit limit.

The SELECT statement’s ORDER BY clause is added

as follows to sort the data:

SELECT

column_1,

column_2,

column_3,

FROM

table_name

ORDER BY
 column_1 [ASC | DESC] [NULLS FIRST | NULLS LAST],

column_1 [ASC | DESC] [NULLS FIRST | NULLS LAST],

The sort order can be as follows after the column

name:

ASC for sorting in ascending order

DESC for sorting in descending order

You can use “order by” for the following sorting

requirements:

Sort rows by column

Sort rows by multiple columns
Sort rows by column’s position
Sort rows by null values
Sort rows by the result of a function
Sort by date

Section 3: Filtering Data

DISTINCT: Remove duplicate rows from a query’s

output.

Syntax:

SELECT DISTINCT column_1

FROM table;

Code lang

WHERE: Discover how to give a condition for each

row in the result set that a query returns.

Syntax:

SELECT

select_list

FROM

table_name
WHERE

search_condition

ORDER BY

sort_expression;

Code lang

AND: Concatenate two or more Boolean

expressions; if all expressions are true, return true.

The AND operator has the following syntax:

expression_1 AND expression_2

OR: Join two or more Boolean expressions and, if at

least one of them is true, return true.

The OR operator’s syntax is demonstrated as

follows:

expression_1 OR expression_2

FETCH: demonstrates how to use the row limiting

clause to restrict the number of rows a query
returns.

The row-limiting clause’s syntax is seen in the

following example:

[ OFFSET offset ROWS]

FETCH NEXT [ row_count | percent PERCENT ]

ROWS [ ONLY | WITH TIES ]

Code

Example

SELECT

product_name,

quantity

FROM
 inventories

INNER JOIN products

USING(product_id)

ORDER BY

quantity DESC

FETCH NEXT 10 ROWS ONLY;

IN: Ascertain whether a given value corresponds to

any value in a subquery or list.

Finding out if a value matches any values in a list or

subquery is done using the Oracle IN operator.

The following is the syntax of the Oracle IN operator,

which checks if an expression matches a list of
values:

expression [NOT] IN (v1,v2,…)

Programming language: A subquery’s syntax and

an expression match in Structured Query Language
(SQL):

expression [NOT] IN (subquery)

BETWEEN: Use a range of values to filter data.

The range to be tested can be specified using the

BETWEEN operator. Rows generated by a SELECT
query that has a search criterion set using the
BETWEEN operator only return rows whose values fall
inside the specified range.

The BETWEEN operator’s syntax is demonstrated as

follows:

expression [ NOT ] BETWEEN low AND high

LIKE: Match data according to predefined patterns.

There are occasions when you wish to query data

according to a particular pattern. For instance, you
might want to locate people whose first names
finish in “er” or whose last names begin in “St.” Use
the Oracle LIKE operator in this situation.

The Oracle LIKE operator has the following syntax:

expression [NOT] LIKE pattern [ ESCAPE

escape_characters ]

IS NULL and IS NOT NULL: Determine whether a value

or expression in a column is NULL or not.

The following SELECT query attempts to retrieve all

sales orders that do not have a responsible
salesman attached to them:

SELECT * FROM orders

WHERE salesman_id = NULL

ORDER BY order_date DESC;

Section 4: Joining Tables

Based on the values of the linked columns, an

Oracle join is used to merge columns from two or
more tables. The primary key column(s) of the first
table and the foreign key column(s) of the second
table are usually related columns.

Inner Join: Use the INNER JOIN clause to query data

from two or more linked tables. The way to combine
two tables, T1 and T2, is shown in the following
sentence.

SELECT

FROM

T1

INNER JOIN T2 ON join_predicate;

Left Join: It allows you to choose which rows in the

left table match or do not match the rows in the
right table.

SELECT

column_list

FROM

T1

LEFT JOIN T2 ON

join_predicate;

Right Join: It can be used to find out which rows in

the left table match or don’t match rows in the right
table.

SELECT

column_list

FROM

T1

RIGHT OUTER JOIN T2 ON

join_predicate;

Full Outer Join: To query data from two tables, you

can use the complete join or full outer join.

SELECT

select_list

FROM

T1

FULL OUTER JOIN T2 ON join_condition;

Cross Join: The Cartesian product of the rows and

columns of the two unrelated tables is what you get
when you cross-join them.

SELECT
 column_list

FROM

T1

CROSS JOIN T2;

Self Join: A join that unites a table with itself is

called a self-join. When comparing rows within a
table or querying hierarchical data, a self-join is
helpful.

SELECT

column_list

FROM

T t1

INNER JOIN T t2 ON

join_predicate;

Section 5: Grouping Data

You will learn how to use “Group By” and “Having”

clauses:

Group By: In a SELECT statement, the arrange BY

clause is used to arrange rows based on column or
expression values into a set of summary rows. One
row per group is returned by the GROUP BY clause.

SELECT

column_list

FROM

GROUP BY c1,c2,c3;

Having: One optional clause in the SELECT

statement is the HAVING clause. It is employed to
filter sets of rows that the GROUP BY clause returns.
For this reason, the GROUP BY clause and the
HAVING clause are frequently used together.

SELECT

column_list

FROM

GROUP BY

c1

HAVING

group_condition;

Section 6: Subquery

Subquery: You can use them for sophisticated data

selection methods.

A subquery is an INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE, or SELECT

statement nestled inside another statement.
Generally, a subquery can be utilized anytime an
expression is used.

SELECT

MAX( list_price )

FROM

products;

Correlated Subquery: You can use the correlated

subquery, which is dependent on the results that
the outer query returns.

SELECT

product_id,

product_name,

list_price
FROM

products

WHERE

list_price =(

SELECT

MIN( list_price )

FROM

products

);

EXISTS and NOT EXISTS: It is used to verify whether

the rows a subquery returns are present.

SELECT

FROM

table_name

WHERE

EXISTS(subquery);

ANY, SOME, and ALL: You can evaluate a value

against a subquery or list. Keep in mind that ANY
and SOME are interchangeable because they are
the same.

Any: operator ANY ( v1, v2, v3)

operator ANY ( subquery)

Some: operator SOME ( v1)

operator SOME ( subquery)

All: operator ALL ( v1, v2, v3)

operator ALL ( subquery)

Section 7: Set Operators

You will learn how to combine result sets from two

or more independent queries by using the set
operators.

UNION: You can create a single result by combining

the answers to two queries.

A set operator called the UNION operator creates a

single result set by combining the result sets of two
or more SELECT operations.

SELECT

column_list_1

FROM

T1

UNION

SELECT

column_list_1

FROM

T2;

INTERSECT: You can create an intersection between

two separate queries’ results.

After comparing the results of two searches, the

Oracle INTERSECT operator delivers the unique rows
that are generated in both queries.

SELECT

column_list_1

FROM

T1
INTERSECT

SELECT

column_list_2

FROM

T2;

MINUS: Acquire the skill of deducing one result from

another.

When two queries are compared, the Oracle MINUS

operator provides unique rows from the first query
that are not produced with the second query.
Stated differently, one result set is subtracted from
another using the MINUS operator.

SELECT

column_list_1

FROM

T1

MINUS

SELECT

column_list_2

FROM

T2;

Oracle Data Types

An overview of the built-in Oracle data types is
provided by Oracle Data Types.

NUMBER: The numeric data type used to build

columns with numbers in a table. Numerical values
that can be either positive or negative are stored
using the Oracle NUMBER data type.

NUMBER[(precision [, scale])]
FLOAT: The subtype of the NUMBER data type in
Oracle is called FLOAT. Its primary goal is to make
ANSI SQL FLOAT data types more compatible.

Float(p)

CHAR: Fixed-length character strings can be stored

using the Oracle CHAR data type. Character strings
with sizes ranging from 1 to 2000 bytes can be
stored using the CHAR data type.

CHAR(length BYTE)

CHAR(length CHAR)

NCHAR: Fixed-length Unicode character data is

stored in the Oracle NCHAR datatype. Only AL16UTF16
or UTF8, which is designated as the national
character set at the time the database is created,
may be used as the NCHAR character set.

CREATE TABLE nchar_demo (

description NCHAR(10)

);

VARCHAR2: The Oracle VARCHAR2 data type is used

to store character strings with various lengths. A
value in a VARCHAR2 column can be anything from
one to four thousand bytes.

This indicates that a VARCHAR2 column can hold up

to 4000 characters for a single-byte character set.

VARCHAR2(max_size BYTE)

NVARCHAR2: Unicode characters can be stored in

the NVARCHAR2 data type. The national character
set that was specified at the time the database was
created is the NVARCHAR2 character set.

SELECT

*
FROM

nls_database_parameters

WHERE

PARAMETER = ‘NLS_NCHAR_CHARACTERSET’;

Date: With a precision of one second, you can save

point-in-time values with the date and time
included using the DATE data type.

SELECT

value

FROM

V$NLS_PARAMETERS

WHERE

parameter = ‘NLS_DATE_FORMAT’;

The value of NLS_DATE_FORMAT in our Oracle

Database system is: DD-MON-RR

TIMESTAMP: You can store date and time

information, such as the year, month, day, hour,
minute, and second, using the TIMESTAMP data type.

column_name
TIMESTAMP[(fractional_seconds_precision)]

INTERVAL: For storing point-in-time data, Oracle

offers you two date-time data types: TIMESTAMP
and DATE. Furthermore, it offers the INTERVAL data
type, which enables the storage of temporal
intervals.

There are two types of INTERVAL:

INTERVAL YEAR TO MONTH: This method uses year

and month for storing the intervals.

INTERVAL YEAR [(year_precision)] TO MONTH

INTERVAL ‘year[-month]’ leading (precision) TO
trailing

INTERVAL DAY TO SECOND: This interval storage

keeps track of days, hours, minutes, and seconds,
including fractional seconds.

INTERVAL DAY [(day_precision)] TO SECOND

[(fractional_seconds_precision)]

TIMESTAMP WITH TIME ZONE: The time stamp and

time zone information are both stored in the
TIMESTAMP WITH TIME ZONE data type.

TIMESTAMP [(fractional_seconds_precision)] WITH

TIME ZONE

Constraints
Oracle has the following constraints to use in the
database:

Primary key: A table’s primary key is a column or

set of columns that together uniquely identify a
particular table row.

When a column meets these criteria, it becomes a

main key.

An empty string or NULL value cannot be found

in a primary key column.
A primary key value needs to be distinct across
the whole table.
It is not advisable to alter a primary key value
over time.

CREATE TABLE purchase_orders (

po_nr NUMBER PRIMARY KEY,

vendor_id NUMBER NOT NULL,

po_status NUMBER(1,0) NOT NULL,

created_at TIMESTAMP WITH TIME ZONE NOT NULL

);
Foreign key: The connection is the focal point of a
foreign key. To make its concept obvious, let’s begin
with an example.

CREATE TABLE suppliers (

supplier_id NUMBER GENERATED BY DEFAULT AS

IDENTITY,

supplier_name VARCHAR2(255) NOT NULL,

group_id NUMBER NOT NULL,

PRIMARY KEY(supplier_id),

FOREIGN KEY(group_id) REFERENCES

supplier_groups(group_id)

);

NOT NULL constraint: A column cannot have NULL

values in it, according to an Oracle NOT NULL
constraint. Usually employed in the column
specification of the CREATE TABLE statement, the
Oracle NOT NULL constraints are inline constraints.

CREATE TABLE table_name (

column_name data_type NOT NULL

);

UNIQUE constraint: An integrity constraint known as

a unique constraint makes sure that the information
kept in a column, or set of columns, is distinct from
other rows in a table.

CREATE TABLE table_name (

column_name data_type UNIQUE

 …

);

CHECK constraint: You can ensure domain integrity

by restricting the values that one or more columns
will accept with an Oracle check constraint.

CREATE TABLE table_name (

column_name data_type CHECK (expression),

);

Conclusion
We hope this basic concept of the Oracle tutorial
will be helpful to get started with your Oracle
learning. Learn everything with hands-on exposure
in our Oracle training in Chennai.

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