❖ Define contour, unbound objective function, unbound problem, alternative Optima

and extreme points

Here are definitions of the terms you're asking about, commonly found in Linear Programming
or Optimization:

1. Contour (Contour Line)

• A contour (in optimization) refers to a curve or line that connects all points in the
solution space where the objective function has the same value.
• For example, in a 2-variable maximization problem Z=3x+4yZ = 3x + 4y, the contour lines
are equations like 3x+4y=k3x + 4y = k, where kk is a constant.
• These lines help visualize how the objective function changes and are used to find
optimal solutions graphically.

2. Unbounded Objective Function

• An unbounded objective function is one that can increase (or decrease) indefinitely
without reaching a maximum (or minimum) within the feasible region.
• This usually happens when the feasible region is open in the direction of optimization.
• Example: If you're trying to maximize Z=3x+2yZ = 3x + 2y, and the feasible region
extends infinitely in the direction that increases ZZ, then ZZ is unbounded.

3. Unbounded Problem
• An unbounded problem is a linear programming problem where the objective function
has no finite optimal solution because it can increase or decrease without limit.
• This doesn't mean "no solution exists" but rather that there's no best solution because
better solutions keep appearing.
• Occurs when constraints do not restrict the variables in the direction of optimization.

4. Alternative Optima (Multiple Optimal Solutions)

• This occurs when more than one solution gives the same optimal value for the
objective function.
 • Graphically, it happens when the objective function line is parallel to a constraint line
that forms part of the boundary of the feasible region.
• All the points along that edge are optimal.
• Example: Maximizing Z=x+yZ = x + y over a triangle where the edge x+y=10x + y = 10 lies
along the feasible region — every point on that line could be an optimal solution.

5. Extreme Points (Corner Points)

• These are the vertices (corners) of the feasible region in linear programming.
• According to the Fundamental Theorem of Linear Programming, if an optimal solution
exists, it will occur at one or more of the extreme points.
• These points are found where the constraint lines intersect.

❖ What is linear programming? graphically define maximum profit line, redundant,

active and inactive constraint.

✅ Definition of Linear Programming (LP):

Linear Programming is a mathematical technique used to maximize or minimize a linear
objective function, subject to a set of linear inequality or equality constraints.

Used in business, economics, engineering for optimal resource allocation.

📉 Graphical Concepts in LP:

Let’s define some key graphical concepts with simple explanations:

1. Maximum Profit Line (Objective Function Line)

• It’s a line representing different combinations of xx and yy that give the same profit.
 • For example, for Z=3x+2yZ = 3x + 2y, a profit of 30 gives:
3x+2y=303x + 2y = 30
• This is a contour line of the objective function.
• To find the maximum profit, you slide this line outward (in the direction of increasing
profit) until it touches the last point of the feasible region.
Graphically:
Imagine lines like Z=20,Z=25,Z=30Z = 20, Z = 25, Z = 30, all parallel. The highest value that still
touches the feasible region is your maximum profit line.

2. Redundant Constraint
• A redundant constraint is one that does not affect the feasible region.
• It is already satisfied by other constraints.
Graphically: The line representing this constraint lies outside the feasible region or fully
overlaps another constraint. Removing it won’t change the solution space.

3. Active Constraint
• A constraint is active if it forms a boundary of the feasible region at the optimal
solution point.
• It’s tight, meaning the solution lies exactly on the constraint line.
Graphically: At the corner (extreme point) where optimal solution lies, the intersecting lines
are active.

4. Inactive Constraint
• A constraint is inactive if it is not binding at the optimal solution.
• The solution lies inside (not on) this constraint's boundary.
Graphically: The constraint's line doesn’t pass through the optimal point and doesn’t limit the
objective function at that point.
 • Feasible region = shaded area satisfying all constraints
• Max profit line = last line of Z=3x+4yZ = 3x + 4y that touches feasible region
• The constraint that intersects at optimal point = Active
• Others not touching optimal point = Inactive
• One constraint fully inside or outside feasible region and not touching boundary =
Redundant

❖ Differentiate between generate basic feasible solution and non degenerate basic
feasible solution?
Here’s the clear difference between a basic feasible solution and a non-degenerate basic
feasible solution in linear programming:

🔹 1. Basic Feasible Solution (BFS)

• A basic feasible solution is a solution to a linear programming problem that:
o Satisfies all the constraints (i.e., it's feasible), and
o Is obtained by setting n−mn - m variables to zero and solving for the remaining
mm variables (where nn = total variables, mm = constraints).
• The solution lies at a vertex (corner point) of the feasible region.

✅ Example:
Let’s say we have 3 variables and 2 constraints. A BFS would be any point where 1 variable is 0
and the other 2 satisfy the system.
🔹 2. Non-Degenerate Basic Feasible Solution
• A non-degenerate BFS is a special type of basic feasible solution where:
o All basic variables are strictly positive (i.e., none of the basic variables is zero).

✳️ This means the BFS is unique and well-defined, and each basic variable contributes to
defining the solution.

🚫 Degenerate BFS (for contrast)

• A degenerate BFS occurs when one or more basic variables are zero, even though the
number of basic variables equals the number of constraints.
• This can lead to:
o Multiple iterations producing the same solution (cycling),
o Multiple optimal solutions (sometimes).

✅ Summary Table:

Basic Feasible Solution

Feature Non-Degenerate Basic Feasible Solution
(BFS)

Feasibility Satisfies all constraints Satisfies all constraints

Number = number of
Basic variables Number = number of constraints
constraints

Zero basic variable

Yes (degenerate case) ❌ No (all basic variables > 0)
allowed?

Position in feasible Vertex, not on a boundary of multiple

Vertex/corner point
region constraints

(2, 0, 0) in a 3-variable
Example (2, 1, 3), all > 0
problem

Let me know if you'd like a step-by-step numerical example to illustrate both!

What is difference between CPM and PERT? explain
Here's a clear and structured comparison between CPM and PERT, two important project
management techniques used for scheduling and planning large-scale projects:

📘 Definition

PERT (Program Evaluation and Review

Aspect CPM (Critical Path Method)
Technique)

Focus Time-cost trade-off and scheduling Time uncertainty and activity estimation

Developed
DuPont & Remington Rand (1950s) U.S. Navy (Polaris Project, 1958)
by

Projects with known activity Projects with uncertain activity durations

Used for
durations (e.g., construction) (e.g., research & development)

🔄 Activity Duration

Aspect CPM PERT

Activity Deterministic (fixed

Probabilistic (uses 3 time estimates)
time and known)

3 time estimates per activity: - Optimistic (O) - Most likely

Estimates Single time estimate
(M) - Pessimistic (P) Expected time: O+4M+P6\frac{O + 4M
used per activity
+ P}{6}

📌 Focus and Application

Aspect CPM PERT

Focuses on Cost optimization and project control Time estimation and risk management

Best for Repetitive or well-known tasks Uncertain, non-repetitive projects

📊 Output and Use

Aspect CPM PERT

Yes – identifies the longest path Yes – also identifies the longest path
Critical Path
and slack time using probabilistic times

Slack time
Yes Yes
calculation

Helps in Time-cost optimization Time-risk evaluation

📋 Comparison Summary

Feature CPM PERT

Type of model Deterministic Probabilistic

Time estimates One fixed time Three time estimates

Focus Cost & time optimization Uncertainty and time estimation

Use case Construction, engineering R&D, new product development

Time vs Cost Emphasizes both Emphasizes time only

✅ Example
• CPM: Building a bridge with known time and cost for each step.
• PERT: Developing new software where duration of each step is uncertain.

Would you like a diagram showing the PERT and CPM network for better understanding?

is it possible that the Primal problem has no feasible solutions or has feasible solutions but
no optimal solutions? explain the solution on your standing.
Yes, it is absolutely possible that a primal linear programming (LP) problem:

✅ 1. Has no feasible solution

✅ 2. Has feasible solutions but no optimal solution
Let’s explain each scenario clearly.

🔹 1. Primal Problem Has No Feasible Solution

✅ Explanation:
This happens when the constraints contradict each other, meaning no point satisfies all the
constraints at once.

🧠 Example:

🛑 No point can satisfy both, so the feasible region is empty, and the problem has no
feasible solution.

🔹 2. Feasible Solutions Exist but No Optimal Solution

✅ Explanation:
This usually happens when the feasible region is unbounded and you're trying to maximize
(or minimize) in an open direction without a limit.

🧠 Example:

👉 These constraints form an unbounded region in the direction where Z=x+yZ = x + y

increases.
• You can keep increasing xx and yy such that Z→∞Z \to \infty

• ✅ Feasible points exist (the region is not empty)

 • ❌ No optimal solution because there's no maximum value of Z; it keeps increasing

🔍 Conclusion:

Case Feasible Region Optimal Solution

Infeasible Problem ❌ Empty ❌ No

Unbounded Problem ✅ Exists ❌ No finite optimum

Well-posed Problem ✅ Exists ✅ Exists

The transportation problem is just a special type of LP problem" to what extent do you
agree?

✅ Yes, I agree — the transportation problem is indeed a special type of Linear

Programming (LP) problem, but with its own structure and features.
Let’s explain to what extent this is true:

🔹 1. Why It Is a Special Case of LP

✅ Transportation problems:
• Have a linear objective function
• Are subject to linear equality constraints
• Require non-negative decision variables

👉 These are the same fundamental properties that define any linear programming
problem.

✅ Standard Form of a Transportation Problem:

🔹 2. Special Structure of the Transportation Problem

🔹 3. Why Is This Important?

• Because of its structure, specialized algorithms are much faster than general LP
methods.
• For large-scale transportation problems, using general LP (like Simplex) is inefficient
compared to transportation-specific methods.

✅ Conclusion: “To What Extent?”

Viewpoint Explanation

Because it has a linear objective, linear constraints, and non-

Yes, it is LP
negativity.
Viewpoint Explanation

**But it’s a special Because its structure allows tailored methods and has simpler
form patterns.

👉 So, we can fully agree that the transportation problem is a special type of LP, but one
that is structured and optimized enough to be handled more efficiently than generic LP
problems.

what are the parameters of a transportation model?

 ❖ What is business game? enlist the properties of the game. Why is game theory
important in decision making

A business game is a simulated scenario—often competitive—used for training,

decision-making, and strategic analysis in business environments. It models real-
world systems and lets participants experiment with decisions under controlled
conditions, whether it's managing a company, investing, or negotiating.

🎮 Properties of a Business Game

 1. Simulation-Based
o Represents real or hypothetical business situations (e.g. market
competition, supply chains).
2. Interactive & Competitive
o Involves multiple players or teams with conflicting objectives.
3. Decision-Oriented
o Requires players to make strategic choices (e.g. pricing, production,
marketing).
4. Dynamic Feedback
o Outcomes evolve based on prior decisions, mirroring real business
cycles.
5. Multiple Variables
o Includes financial data, market forces, customer behaviors, and
competitor actions.
6. Learning-Focused
o Designed to enhance analytical thinking, teamwork, and
adaptability.
7. Quantifiable Results
o Tracks performance, profit/loss, market share—making evaluation clear.

🧠 Why Is Game Theory Important in Decision-Making?

Game theory provides the mathematical framework for understanding strategic

interactions where multiple decision-makers influence each other’s outcomes.

Key Reasons:

• Predicting Behavior
Understand how competitors, customers, or partners might respond to your
decisions.
• Optimizing Strategies
Helps choose the best action by anticipating others’ choices—think Nash
Equilibrium.
• Analyzing Conflicts & Cooperation
Models negotiations, bidding wars, pricing competition, and alliances.
• Minimizing Risk
Allows decision-makers to evaluate payoff matrices and strategic risk in
uncertain scenarios.
 • Improving Market Strategy
Supports pricing, inventory management, and product launches in competitive
landscapes.

🧩 In business games, game theory enhances realism—by simulating not just

decisions, but the strategic thinking behind them.

❖ what is time cost trade off? Describe the crashing procedure.

Sure! Let’s dive into the Time-Cost Trade-Off and the Crashing procedure in
project management:

🕒💰 What Is Time-Cost Trade-Off?

The Time-Cost Trade-Off involves balancing the project duration against

project costs. Shortening the project time usually increases direct costs (like
overtime, expedited shipping), while extending time may reduce costs but delay
benefits or revenues.

🔹 It’s used when:

• A project must be completed earlier than planned.

• There's a financial incentive to finish ahead of schedule.
• Delays would incur penalties or opportunity costs.

⚙️ Crashing Procedure: Step-by-Step

Crashing is a method to shorten the project timeline by adding extra resources to

critical path activities—often at higher cost.

🧩 Steps in Crashing:

1. Identify the Critical Path

o Activities on this path determine the project’s duration. Non-critical
activities won’t affect completion time.
2. Select Crashable Activities
 o Choose tasks with potential time reduction and available cost/time data.
3. Calculate Crash Cost per Unit Time
o Example: If an activity can be reduced by 2 days at a total cost of $400,
the crash cost per day is $200.
4. Prioritize Lowest Crash Cost
o Start crashing with the activity that offers the cheapest time reduction
per unit.
5. Crash One Activity at a Time
o Apply resources, shorten duration, and update project schedule.
6. Recalculate Critical Path
o Crashing may shift the critical path, so reassess it at each step.
7. Continue Until You Reach Limitations
o Stop crashing when:
o Deadline is met
o Budget is exhausted
o Activities can’t be shortened further
o Multiple critical paths make further crashing uneconomical

📌 Important Notes

• Crashing increases direct cost but may reduce indirect cost (like overhead,
supervision).
• It involves trade-offs: speed vs. expense.
• Crashing is most effective when combined with network analysis and cost-
benefit calculations.

❖ Describe the decision variable, the objective function and the constraints
of the liner programming mode.
 ❖ Define Unbound objective function,Maximum profit line,Alternative Optima and
Active cpnstraint.

Absolutely! Here's a clear breakdown of each term from linear programming and
optimization:

📌 1. Unbounded Objective Function

An unbounded objective function means the optimization problem has no finite

maximum or minimum—the objective value can be increased (or decreased)
indefinitely within the feasible region.

• Cause: Often happens when the feasible region is open and the constraints do
not limit the direction in which the objective function grows.
 • Example: Maximize ( Z = 5x + 3y ) without sufficient constraints—Z can
grow infinitely as ( x, y \to \infty ).

💰 2. Maximum Profit Line

The maximum profit line refers to a contour of the objective function (like

that just touches the optimal point on the feasible region.

• It’s also known as the optimal objective function line.

• Geometrically, this line is parallel to all other objective lines and just barely
“kisses” the feasible region at the best possible solution.

🔀 3. Alternative Optima

Alternative optima occur when multiple points on the boundary of the feasible
region yield the same optimal objective value.

• Typically happens when the objective line is parallel to a constraint boundary

along an edge of the feasible region.
• The model doesn’t have a unique solution, but all alternative solutions are
equally optimal.

📐 4. Active Constraint

An active constraint is a constraint that directly affects the optimal solution—it

“binds” at that point.

• Mathematically, it’s satisfied as an equality at the optimal solution.

• If you're minimizing or maximizing and a constraint satisfies:

at the solution, then it’s active.

🧠 Inactive constraints, on the other hand, are satisfied as inequalities and don’t
impact the solution directly.

❖ The dual of the dual problem is again the primal problem,explain

That’s a great insight into the structure of linear programming — and you’re
absolutely right. Let’s break down why "the dual of the dual is the primal" holds
true and what it means mathematically and conceptually.

🔁 Duality in Linear Programming

In linear programming (LP), every optimization problem (called the primal) has a
corresponding dual problem. The relationship between them is:

• If the primal is a maximization problem, the dual is a minimization problem.

• Constraints and variables switch roles:
o Each constraint in the primal becomes a variable in the dual.
o Each variable in the primal becomes a constraint in the dual.

Now if you construct the dual of this dual, you’ll end up right back at the original
primal structure — same objective, constraints, and variable conditions.
💡 Why It Happens

This symmetry comes from:

• The algebraic properties of matrix transposition.

• The bidirectional logic of constraints and variables.
• The foundational principle of duality theory in LP.

So the primal and dual aren’t just connected — they form a mirror pair, meaning
neither is more "true" than the other. Mathematically:

Dual of the Dual = Primal

This principle allows:

• Deeper sensitivity analysis

• Better understanding of shadow prices
• Efficient algorithmic design (like in the simplex method)

❖ what is resources crashing? what are the steps in CPM?

Let’s walk through both concepts—Resource Crashing and CPM (Critical Path
Method)—in a way that connects project planning with smart decision-making:

🚧 What Is Resource Crashing?

Resource Crashing is a project management strategy used to shorten the project

duration by allocating additional resources (like labor, equipment, overtime, or
money) to critical path activities.

🔹 When to Crash:

• Project deadline is moved up

• Late delivery will result in penalties or opportunity loss
• Faster completion offers financial or strategic advantages
🔹 Example:

A task estimated to finish in 5 days with 1 worker could be completed in 3 days by

assigning 2 workers—but at an increased cost. Crashing balances time savings vs.
added cost.

🧩 Steps in the Critical Path Method (CPM)

CPM is a structured technique for planning and controlling complex projects by

identifying the longest path of dependent tasks—the critical path—that
determines total project duration.

🧩 Step-by-Step:

1. List All Activities

o Define every task required to complete the project.
2. Determine Dependencies
o Identify which activities rely on others (precedence relationships).
3. Estimate Activity Durations
o Use realistic time estimates for each task.
4. Construct the Project Network Diagram
o Draw the network showing task sequences and dependencies.
5. Perform Forward Pass
o Calculate earliest start (ES) and earliest finish (EF) for each activity.
6. Perform Backward Pass
o Compute latest start (LS) and latest finish (LF).
7. Identify the Critical Path
o The sequence of activities with zero float (no room to delay)—this
defines the minimum project duration.
8. Calculate Floats (Slacks)
o Determine flexibility for non-critical tasks.
9. Update CPM as Project Progresses
o Revise estimates and paths as changes occur.

❖ explain different methods to obtain an initial solution in transportation problem?

To solve a Transportation Problem efficiently, the first step is to find an initial
basic feasible solution — a starting point for optimizing cost. Here are the most
common methods used:

📌 1. North-West Corner Method

• Start at the top-left (north-west) cell of the cost matrix.

• Allocate as much as possible without exceeding supply or demand.
• Move right if demand is met, and down if supply is exhausted.
• Continue until all requirements are fulfilled.

Pros: Simple and quick

Cons: Ignores transportation cost — may result in high total cost.

📉 2. Least Cost Method (LCM)

• Identify the cell with the lowest transportation cost.

• Allocate maximum possible units without violating supply/demand.
• Cross out fulfilled rows/columns and repeat for remaining cells.

Pros: Considers cost in allocation

Cons: Can still be suboptimal initially.

🎯 3. Vogel’s Approximation Method (VAM)

• For each row and column, compute the penalty = difference between lowest
and second-lowest costs.
• Identify row/column with highest penalty.
• Allocate to the cell with lowest cost in that row/column.
• Update supply/demand and repeat the process.

Pros: Often yields the best starting solution

Cons: Slightly more complex to implement
✏️ 4. Matrix Minima Method

• Similar to Least Cost Method, but systematically selects the absolute

minimum in the cost matrix each time.
• Assign as much as possible to that cell, then proceed to the next lowest-cost
cell.

Pros: Intuitive for visual data

Cons: Doesn’t consider penalties like VAM

⚙️ 5. Row Minima / Column Minima Method

• Pick the minimum cost in each row (or column) and allocate as much as
possible.
• Continue to next row/column after adjusting supply/demand.

Pros: Easy to apply manually

Cons: Often less efficient than VAM or LCM

❖ briefly describe PERT/cost and howit is used?

PERT/Cost (Program Evaluation and Review Technique with cost analysis) is an

advanced project management tool that combines time scheduling with cost
control, helping organizations manage projects more efficiently.

🧩 What Is PERT/Cost?

PERT/Cost integrates the logic of PERT (for planning and scheduling tasks with
uncertain durations) with cost tracking, allowing managers to assess not only when
tasks will be completed but how much they will cost at each phase.

It’s especially valuable for:

• Large, complex projects with uncertain timelines

• Projects with detailed budgeting requirements
• Evaluating the financial impact of schedule changes
💼 How PERT/Cost Is Used

1. Break Down the Project

o Use a network diagram (PERT chart) to identify tasks, dependencies,
and durations.
2. Estimate Time and Cost
o For each activity, define:
▪ Optimistic, pessimistic, and most likely durations
▪ Direct costs, labor, materials, overhead
3. Assign Time-Phased Budgets
o Spread costs across the project timeline using the activity durations.
4. Analyze Critical Path & Cost Impact
o Determine which tasks affect the project end date and monitor their costs
closely.
5. Monitor Performance (Earned Value Analysis)
o Compare planned vs. actual progress and cost to spot overruns or delays.
6. Adjust Plan as Needed
o Update budgets or timelines to keep the project aligned with goals.

In short, PERT/Cost helps ensure time-sensitive decisions are financially sound.

❖ why liner proggramming is useful in CPM crashing?

Great question! Linear Programming (LP) is incredibly useful in CPM (Critical

Path Method) crashing because it helps project managers optimize both time and
cost under constraints. Let me explain how they fit together:

🧩 What Is CPM Crashing?

CPM crashing is the process of shortening the project duration by accelerating

specific activities on the critical path — often by adding more resources. But each
time reduction comes with a cost, so the goal is to minimize total crashing cost
while meeting the deadline.
📈 Why Use Linear Programming in CPM Crashing?

LP lets you mathematically model and solve this time-cost trade-off by:

✅ Defining Decision Variables

• How many days to crash each critical activity.

✅ Building an Objective Function

• Minimize the total crashing cost:

✅ Setting Constraints

• Project duration must be less than or equal to target time.

• Activities cannot be crashed beyond their maximum allowable limit.
• Some resources (budget, labor) might have upper bounds.

📌 Benefits of Using LP

• Finds the least-cost schedule that meets time goals.

• Handles multiple critical paths efficiently.
• Offers a systematic, data-driven approach to complex decisions.
• Can integrate with software tools for large-scale projects.

❖ what do you mean by Two person zero sum game? Explain the theory of
dominance in solving a game?

A two-person zero-sum game is a classic framework in game theory where:

• There are exactly two players.

• Whatever one player gains, the other loses.
• The sum of their payoffs always equals zero.
🎯 Example: If Player A gains +10, Player B must lose –10. Think of competitive
scenarios like poker, chess, or bidding wars—where one’s win is another’s loss.

🔁 Theory of Dominance in Solving a Game

The dominance principle helps simplify game matrices by eliminating strategies

that are clearly inferior. A strategy is considered dominated if there’s another
strategy that always yields equal or better results, regardless of what the opponent
does.

⚙️ How It Works:

1. Row Dominance (for Player A):

o If row i always yields less than or equal payoff than row j → eliminate
row i.
2. Column Dominance (for Player B):
o If column k always yields greater than or equal loss than column l →
eliminate column k.

✅ This trimming process simplifies the matrix—making it easier to apply mixed

strategy or saddle point methods later.

🧠 Why It Matters

• Cuts down unnecessary complexity.

• Focuses only on rational, competitive choices.
• Helps identify equilibria faster—where neither player has an incentive to
deviate.

Would you like me to demonstrate dominance with a step-by-step matrix reduction

example? I can make it visual and intuitive! 🎲