Course Name: TAPE 4104 AUTOMOTIVE CONTROL SYSTEMS

Course Level: YEAR FOUR SEMESTER I

Course Credit: 3 CU
Brief course description:
The course unit covers the fundamentals of control theory and automotive control systems.
Also covered is vehicle modelling road and driver models and vehicle parameters and states.
Course Objectives:
By the end of this course students should be able to:
 Be able to explain the fundamentals and analysis methods used in automatic control.
 Be able to explain the engine management and control systems.
 Be able to explain the automotive control systems for the driveline, and the vehicle
 Know and be able to explain the basics of vehicle modelling.
 Be able to explain and to construct road and driver models for modelling vehicle motion and
performance.
 Be able to explain the vehicle performance parameters and states.
Detailed Course Description:
Control theory 12hrs
Principles of automatic controls; Open and closed loop systems; Transfer functions; Types of
control actions, on, off, proportional derivative and integral; Transient and steady state response;
Frequency response analysis
Automotive control systems 18hrs
Review of engine thermodynamic cycles; Engine management systems;
Engine control systems; Driveline control systems; Vehicle modelling; Vehicle parameters and
state; Vehicle control systems; Road and driver models
 Overview of automotive control systems
Automotive control system design process
Review of engine modelling, engine operations, engine control loops
Review of Vehicle dynamics, longitudinal, lateral and vertical vehicle motion
Human factors and driver modelling
Air-fuel rate control (lambda control)
Control of spark-timings, idle speed control
Transmission control Cruise and Headway
Control Antilock Brake and Traction control systems
Vehicle stability control

Control System Basics

1.1 Introduction

A control system (also called a controller) manages a system’s operation so that the system’s
response approximates commanded behavior. A common example of a control system is the
cruise control in an automobile: The cruise control manipulates the throttle setting so that the
vehicle speed tracks the commanded speed provided by the driver.

In years past, mechanical or electrical hardware components performed most control functions in
technological systems. When hardware solutions were insufficient, continuous human
participation in the control loop was necessary.

In modern system designs, embedded processors have taken over many control functions. A
well-designed embedded controller can provide excellent system performance under widely
varying operating conditions. To ensure a consistently high level of performance and robustness,
an embedded control system must be carefully designed and thoroughly tested.

The focus is on presenting control system design and testing procedures in a format that puts
them to immediate use.

This chapter introduces the fundamental concepts of control systems engineering and describes
the steps of designing and testing a controller. It introduces the terminology of control system
design and shows how to interpret block diagram representations of systems.
Many of the techniques of control system engineering rely on mathematical manipulations of
system models. The easiest way to apply these methods is to use a good control system design
software package such as the MATLAB® Control System Toolbox. MATLAB and related
products such as Simulink® and the Control System Toolbox are used in later chapters to
develop system models and apply control system design techniques.
1.2 Chapter Objectives

After reading this chapter you should be able to:

 Describe the basic principles of feedback control systems.
 Recognize the significant characteristics of a plant (a system to be controlled) as they relate to
control system design.
 Describe the two basic steps in control system design: Controller structure selection and
parameter specification.
 Develop control system performance specifications.
 Understand the concept of system stability.
 Describe the principal steps involved in testing a control system design.

1.3 Feedback Control Systems

The goal of a controller is to move a system from its initial condition to a desired state and, once
there, maintain the desired state. For the cruise control mentioned earlier, the initial condition is
the vehicle speed at the time the cruise control is engaged. The desired state is the speed setting
supplied by the driver. The difference between the desired and actual state is called the error
signal. It is also possible that the desired state will change over time. When this happens, the
controller must adjust the state of the system to track changes in the desired state.

A control system that attempts to keep the output signal at a constant level for long periods of
time is called a regulator. In a regulator, the desired output value is called the set point. A control
system that attempts to track an input signal that changes frequently (perhaps continuously) is
called a servomechanism.

Some examples will help clarify the control system elements in familiar systems. Control
systems typically have a sensor that measures the output signal to be controlled and an actuator
that changes the system’s state in a way that affects the output signal. As Table 1.1 shows, many
control systems are implemented using simple sensing hardware that turns an actuator such as a
valve or switch on and off.

System Sensor Actuator

Home heating Temperature

system sensor Furnace on/off switch

Automotive engine
temperature control Thermostat Thermostat

Toilet tank water

level control Float Valve operated by float

Table 1.1 Some Common Control Systems

The systems shown in Table 1.1 are some of the simplest applications of control systems. More
advanced control system applications appear in the fields of automotive, aerospace, chemical
processing, and in many other areas. This study focuses on the design and implementation of
control systems in complex applications.
Comparison of Open Loop Control and Feedback Control

In many control system designs, it is possible to use either open loop control or feedback control.
Feedback control systems measure the system parameter being controlled and use that
information to determine the control actuator signal. Open loop systems do not use feedback. All
the systems described in Table 1.1 use feedback control. The example below demonstrates why
feedback control is the nearly universal choice for control system applications.

Consider a home heating system consisting of a furnace and a controller that cycles the furnace
off and on to maintain a desired room temperature. Let’s look at how this type of controller could
be implemented using open loop control and feedback control.

Open Loop Control: For a given combination of outdoor temperature and desired indoor
temperature, it is possible to experimentally determine the ratio of furnace on time to off time
that maintains the desired indoor temperature. Suppose a repeated cycle of 5 minutes of furnace
on and 10 minutes furnace off produces the desired indoor temperature for a specific outdoor
temperature. An open loop controller implementing this algorithm will produce the desired
results only so long as the system and environment remain unchanged. If the outdoor
temperature changes or if the furnace airflow changes because the air filter was replaced, the
desired indoor temperature will no longer be maintained. This is clearly an unsatisfactory design.
Feedback Control: A feedback controller for this system measures the indoor temperature and
turns the furnace on when the temperature drops below a turn-on threshold. The controller turns
the furnace off when the temperature reaches a higher turn-off threshold. The threshold
temperatures are set slightly above and below the desired temperature to keep the furnace from
rapidly cycling on and off. This controller adapts automatically to outside temperature changes
and to changes in system parameters such as airflow.

This book focuses on control systems that use feedback. This is because feedback controllers, in
general, provide superior system performance in comparison to open loop controllers.

While it is possible to develop very simple feedback control systems through trial and error, for
more complex applications the only feasible approach is the application of design methods that
have been proven over time. This study covers a number of control system design methods and
shows how to employ them directly. The emphasis is on understanding the input and results of
each technique, without requiring a deep understanding of the mathematical basis for the
method.

As the applications of embedded computing expand, an increasing number of controller

functions are moving to software implementations. To function as a feedback controller, an
embedded processor uses one or more sensors to measure the system state and drives one or
more actuators that change the system state. The sensor measurements are inputs to a control
algorithm that computes the actuator commands. The control system design process encompasses
the development of a control algorithm and its implementation in software along with related
issues such as the selection of sensors, actuators, and the sampling rate.
 The design techniques described here can be used to develop mechanical and electrical hardware
controllers, as well as software controller implementations. This approach allows you to defer
the decision of whether to implement a control algorithm in hardware or software until after its
initial design has been completed.
1.4 Plant Characteristics

In the context of control systems, a plant is a system to be controlled. From the controller’s point
of view, the plant has one or more outputs and one or more inputs. Sensors measure the plant
outputs and actuators drive the plant inputs. The behavior of the plant itself can range from
trivially simple to extremely complex. At the beginning of a control system design project, it is
helpful to identify a number of plant characteristics relevant to the design process.
Linear and Nonlinear Systems

A linear plant model is required for some of the control system design techniques. In simple
terms, a linear system produces an output that is proportional to its input. Small changes in the
input signal result in small changes in the output. Large changes in the input cause large changes
in output. A truly linear system must respond proportionally to any input signal, no matter how
large. Note that this proportionality could also be negative: A positive input might produce a
proportional negative output.
Definition of a Linear System
Consider a plant with one input and one output. Suppose you run the system for a period of time
while recording the input and output signals. Call the input signal u1(t) and the output signal y1(t).
Perform this experiment again with a different input signal. Name the input and output signals
from this run u2(t) and y2(t) respectively. Now perform a third run of the experiment with the
input signal u3(t) = u1(t) + u2(t).
The plant is linear if the output signal y3(t) = y1(t) + y2(t) for any arbitrarily selected input
signals u1(t) and u2(t).

Real world systems are never precisely linear. Various factors always exist that introduce
nonlinearities into the response of a system. For example, some nonlinearity in the automotive
cruise control discussed earlier are:
 The force of air drag on the vehicle is proportional to the square of its speed through the air.
 Friction (a nonlinear effect) exists within the drive train and between the tires and road.
 The speed of the vehicle is limited to a range between minimum and maximum values.

However, the linear idealization is extremely useful as a tool for system analysis and control
system design. Several of the design methods in the following chapters require a linear plant
model. This immediately raises a question: If you do not have a linear model of your plant, how
do you obtain one?

The approach usually taught in engineering courses is to develop a set of mathematical equations
based on the laws of physics as they apply to the operation of the plant. These equations are
often non-linear; in which case it is necessary perform additional steps to linearize them. This
procedure requires intimate knowledge of plant behavior as well as a strong mathematical
background.

Our focus is on simpler methods of acquiring a linear plant model. For instance, if you need a
linear plant model but don’t want to develop one, you can always let someone else do it for you.
Linear plant models are sometimes available from system data sheets or by request from experts
familiar with the mathematics of a particular type of plant. Another approach is to perform a
literature search to locate linear models of plants similar to the one of interest.

System identification is an alternative if none of the above approaches are suitable. System
identification is a technique for performing semi-automated linear plant model development.
This approach uses recorded plant input signals and output signals data to develop a linear
system model that best fits the input and output data. System identification is discussed further in

With no plant model, an iterative procedure must be used to determine a suitable controller
structure and parameter values. Procedures for applying and tuning PID controllers are also
discussed. PID controller tuning is carried out using the results of experiments performed on the
system consisting of plant plus controller.
Time Delays

Sometimes a linear model accurately represents the behavior of a plant, but a time delay exists
between an actuator input and the start of the plant response to the input. This does not refer to
sluggishness in the plant’s response. A time delay exists only when there is absolutely no
response for some time interval following a change to the plant input.

For example, a time delay occurs when controlling the temperature of a shower. Changes in the
hot or cold water valve positions do not have immediate results. There is a delay while water
with the adjusted temperature flows up to the shower head and then down onto the shower-taker.
Only then does feedback exist to indicate if further temperature adjustments are needed.

Many industrial processes exhibit time delays. Control system design methods that rely on linear
plant models can’t directly work with time delays, but it is possible to extend a linear plant
model to simulate the effects of a time delay. The resulting model is also linear and captures the
approximate effects of the time delay. Linear control system design methods are applicable to the
extended plant model.
Continuous-Time and Discrete-Time Systems

A continuous-time system has outputs with values defined at all points in time. The outputs of a
discrete-time system are only updated or used at discrete points in time. Real world plants are
usually best represented as continuous-time systems. In other words, these systems have
measurable parameters such as speed, temperature, weight, etc. defined at all points in time.
The discrete-time systems of interest in this study are embedded processors and their associated
input/output (I/O) devices. An embedded computing system measures its inputs and produces its
outputs at discrete points in time. The embedded software typically runs at a fixed sampling rate,
which results in input and output device updates at equally spaced points in time.
I/O Between Discrete-Time Systems and Continuous-Time Systems

A class of I/O devices interfaces discrete-time embedded controllers with continuous plants by
performing direct conversions between analog voltages and the digital data values used in the
processor. The analog to digital converter (ADC) performs input from an analog plant sensor to a
discrete-time embedded computer. Upon receiving a conversion command, the ADC samples its
analog input voltage and converts it to a quantized digital value. The behavior of the analog input
signal between samples is unknown to the embedded processor.

The digital to analog converter (DAC) converts a quantized digital value to an analog voltage,
which drives an analog plant actuator. The output of the DAC remains constant until it is updated
at the next control algorithm iteration.

Two basic approaches are available for developing control algorithms that run as discrete-time
systems. The first is to perform the design entirely in the discrete-time domain. For design
methods that require a linear plant model, this method requires conversion of the continuous-
time plant model to a discrete-time equivalent. One drawback of this approach is that it is
necessary to specify the sampling rate of the discrete-time controller at the very beginning of the
design process. If the sampling rate changes, all the steps in the control algorithm development
process must be repeated to compensate for the change.

An alternative procedure is to perform the control system design in the continuous-time domain
followed by a final step to convert the control algorithm to a discrete-time representation. Using
this method, changes to the sampling rate only require repetition of the final step. Another
benefit of this approach is that the continuous-time control algorithm can be implemented
directly in analog hardware, if that turns out to be the best solution for a particular design. A final
benefit of this approach is that the methods of control system design tend to be more intuitive in
the continuous-time domain than in the discrete-time domain.

For these reasons, the design techniques covered in this book will be based in the continuous-
time domain. Chapter 8 will discuss the conversion of a continuous-time control algorithm to an
implementation in a discrete-time embedded processor using the C/C++ programming languages.
Number of Inputs and Outputs

The simplest feedback control system has one input and one output, and is called a single-input-
single-output (SISO) system. In a SISO system, a sensor measures one signal and the controller
produces one signal to drive an actuator. All of the design procedures in this study are applicable
to SISO systems.
Control systems with more than one input or output are called MIMO systems, meaning
multiple-input-multiple-output systems. Because of the added complexity, fewer MIMO system
design procedures are available. Only the pole placement and optimal control design techniques
are directly suitable for MIMO systems.

In many cases, MIMO systems can be decomposed into a number of approximately equivalent
SISO systems. For example, flying an aircraft requires simultaneous operation of several
independent control surfaces including the rudder, ailerons, and elevator. This is clearly a MIMO
system, but focusing on a particular aspect of behavior can result in a SISO system for control
system design purposes. For instance, assume the aircraft is flying straight and level and must
maintain a desired altitude. A SISO system for altitude control uses the measured altitude as its
input and the commanded elevator position as its output. In this situation, the sensed parameter
and the controlled parameter are directly related and have little or no interaction with other
aspects of system control.

The critical factor that determines whether a MIMO system is suitable for decomposition into a
number of SISO systems is the degree of coupling between inputs and outputs. If changes to a
particular plant input result in significant changes to only one of its outputs, it is probably
reasonable to represent the behavior of that input-output signal pair as a SISO system. When use
of this technique is appropriate, all of the SISO control system design approaches become
available for use with the system.

However, when too much coupling exists from a plant input to multiple outputs, there is no
alternative but to perform a control system design using a MIMO method. Even in systems with
weak cross coupling, the use of a MIMO design procedure will generally produce a superior
design compared to the multiple SISO designs developed assuming no cross coupling between
input-output signal pairs.
1.5 Controller Structure and Design Parameters

The two fundamental steps in designing a controller are:

1. Specify the controller structure.
2. Determine the value of the design parameters within that structure.

The controller structure identifies the inputs, outputs, and mathematical form of the control
algorithm. Each controller structure contains one or more adjustable design parameters. Given a
controller structure, the control system designer must select a value for each parameter so that
the overall system (consisting of the plant and the controller) satisfies performance requirements.

For example, in the root locus method described in Chapter 4, the controller structure might
produce an actuator signal computed as a constant (called the gain) times the error signal. The
adjustable parameter in this case is the value of the gain.

Like engineering design in other domains, control system design tends to be an iterative process.
During the initial controller design iteration, it is best to begin with the simplest controller
structure that could possibly provide adequate performance. Then, using one or more of the
design methods in the following chapters, the designer attempts to identify values for the
controller parameters that result in acceptable system performance.

It may turn out that no combination of parameter values for a given controller structure results in
satisfactory performance. When this happens, the controller structure must be altered in some
way to enable performance goals to be met. The designer then determines values for the
adjustable parameters of the new structure. The cycle of controller structure modification and
design parameter selection repeats until a final design with acceptable system performance has
been achieved.

The following chapters contain several examples demonstrating the application of this two-step
procedure using different control system design techniques. The examples come from
engineering domains where control systems are regularly applied. Studying the steps in each
example helps develop an understanding of how to select an appropriate controller structure. For
some of the design techniques, the determination of design parameter values is an automated
process using control system design software. For the other design methods, you must follow the
appropriate steps to select values for the design parameters.

Following each iteration of the two-step design procedure, you must evaluate the resulting
controller to see if it meets performance requirements.
1.6 Block Diagrams

A block diagram of a plant and controller is a graphical means to represent the structure of a
controller design and its interaction with the plant. Figure 1.1 is a block diagram of an
elementary feedback control system. Each block in the figure represents a system component.
The solid lines with arrows indicate the flow of signals between the components.

Figure 1.1 Block diagram of a feedback control system

In block diagrams of SISO systems, a solid line represents a single scalar signal. In MIMO
systems, a single line may represent multiple signals. The circle in the figure represents a
summing junction, which combines its inputs by addition or subtraction depending on the + and
– signs next to each input.
 The contents of the dashed box in Fig. 1.1 are the control system components. The controller
inputs are the reference input (also called a set point) and the plant output signal (measured by
the sensor), which is used as feedback. The controller output is the actuator signal that drives the
plant.

A block in a diagram can represent something as simple as a constant value that multiplies the
block input, or as complex as a nonlinear system with no known mathematical representation.
The design techniques in Chapter 2 do not require a model of the Plant block in Fig. 1.1, but the
methods in the subsequent chapters will require a linear model of the plant.
Linear System Block Diagram Algebra

It is possible to manipulate block diagrams containing only linear components to achieve

compact mathematical expressions representing system behavior. The goal of this manipulation
is to determine the system output as a function of its input. The expression resulting from this
exercise is useful in various control system analysis and design procedures.

Each block in the diagram must represent a linear system expressed in the form of a transfer
function. Transfer functions are introduced in Chapter 3. Knowledge of the details of transfer
functions is not required to perform block diagram algebra.

Figure 1.2 is a block diagram of a simple linear feedback control system. Lower case characters
identify the signals in this system.
 r is the reference input, also called the set point.
 e is the error signal, computed by subtracting the sensor measurement from the reference input.
 y is the system output, which is measured and used as the feedback signal.

The blocks in the diagram represent linear system components. Each block can represent
dynamic behavior with any degree of complexity as long as the requirement of linearity is
satisfied.
 Gc is the linear controller algorithm.
 Gp is the linear plant model (including actuator dynamics.)
 H is a linear model of the sensor, which can be modelled as a constant such as 1 if the sensor
dynamics are negligible.

Figure 1.2 Linear feedback control system.

 The fundamental rule of block diagram algebra states that the output of a block equals the block
input multiplied by the block transfer function. Applying this rule twice results in Eq. 1.1. In
words, Eq. 1.1 says the system output y is the error signal e multiplied by the controller transfer
function Gc, and then multiplied again by the plant transfer function Gp.
y=e Gc G p (1.1)

Block diagram algebra obeys the usual rules of algebra. Multiplication and addition are
commutative, so the parentheses in Eq. 1.1 are unnecessary. This also means that the positions of
the Gc and Gp blocks in Fig. 1.2 can be swapped without altering the external behavior of the
system.
The error signal e is the output of a summing junction subtracting the sensor measurement from
the reference input r. The sensor measurement is the system output y multiplied by the sensor
transfer function H. This relationship appears in Eq. 1.2.
e=r − yH (1.2)

Substituting Eq. 1.2 into Eq. 1.1 and rearranging algebraically results in Eq. 1.3.
y Gc G p
= (1.3)
r 1+ H Gc G p

Equation 1.3 is a transfer function giving the ratio of the system output to its reference input.
This form of system model is suitable for use in numerous control system analysis and design
tasks.
Using the relation of Eq. 1.3, the entire system in Fig. 1.2 can be replaced by the equivalent
system shown in Fig. 1.3. Remember, these manipulations are only valid when the components
of the block diagram are all linear.

Figure 1.3 Equivalent system to the system shown in Fig. 1.2.

1.7 Performance Specifications

One of the first steps in the control system development process is the definition of a suitable set
of system performance specifications. Performance specifications guide the design process and
provide the means for determining when a controller design is satisfactory. Controller
performance specifications can be stated in both the time domain and in the frequency domain.

Time domain specifications usually relate to performance in response to a step change in the
reference input. An example of such a step input is instantaneously changing the reference input
from 0 to 1. Time domain specifications include, but are not limited to, the following parameters:
 Rise time from 10% to 90% of the commanded value, tr.
 Time to peak magnitude, tp.
 Peak magnitude, Mp. This is often expressed as the peak percentage by which the output signal
overshoots the step input command.
 Settling time to within some fraction (such as 1%) of the step input command value, ts.

Examples of these parameters appear in Fig. 1.4. This figure shows the response of a
hypothetical plant plus controller to a step input command with an amplitude of one. The time
axis zero location is the instant of application of the step input.

Figure 1.4 Time domain control system performance parameters.

The step response in Fig. 1.4 represents a system with a fair amount of overshoot (in terms
of Mp) and oscillation before converging to the reference input. Sometimes the step response has
no overshoot at all. When no overshoot occurs, the tp parameter becomes meaningless and Mp is
zero.

Tracking error is the error in the output that remains after the input function has been applied for
a long time and all transients have died out. It is common to specify the steady-state controller
tracking error characteristics in response to different commanded input functions such as steps,
ramps, and parabolas.

Here are some example specifications of tracking error in response to different input functions:
 Zero tracking error in response to a step input.
 Less than X tracking error magnitude in response to a ramp input, where X is some nonzero
value.

In addition to the time domain specifications discussed above, performance specifications can be
specified in the frequency domain. The controller reference input is usually a low frequency
signal, while noise in the sensor measurement used by the controller often contains high
frequency components. It is normally desirable for the control system to suppress the high
frequency components related to sensor noise while responding to changes in the reference input.
 Performance specifications capturing these low and high frequency requirements would look
similar to these:
 For sinusoidal reference input signals with frequencies below a cut off point, the amplitude of
the closed loop (plant plus controller) response must be within X% of the commanded
amplitude.
 For sinusoidal reference input signals with frequencies above a higher cut off point, the
amplitude of the closed loop response must be reduced by at least Y%.

In other words, the frequency domain performance requirements given above say that the system
response to expected changes in the reference input must be acceptable while simultaneously
attenuating the effects of noise in the sensor measurement. Looked at in this way, the closed loop
system exhibits the characteristics of a low pass filter.

Frequency domain performance specifications will be discussed in more detail in Chapter 4.

1.8 System Stability

Stability is a critical issue throughout the control system design process. A stable controller
produces appropriate responses to changes in the reference input. If the system stops responding
properly to changes in the reference input and does something else instead, it has become
unstable.

Figure 1.5 shows an example of unstable system behavior. The initial response to the step input
overshoots the commanded value by a large amount. The response to that overshoot is an even
larger overshoot in the other direction. This pattern continues, with increasing output amplitude
over time. In a real system, an unstable oscillation like this grows in amplitude until some
nonlinearity such as actuator saturation (or a system breakdown!) limits the response.

Figure 1.5 System with an unstable oscillatory response.

System instability is a risk when using feedback control. Avoiding instability is an important part
of the control system design process.
In addition to achieving a bare minimum degree of stability, a control system must possess a
degree of robustness. A robust controller can tolerate limited changes to the parameters of the
plant and its operating environment while continuing to provide satisfactory, stable performance.
For example, an automotive cruise control must maintain the desired vehicle speed by adjusting
the throttle position in response to changes in road grade (an environmental change.) The cruise
control must also perform properly whether or not the vehicle is pulling a trailer (a change in
system parameters.)

Determining the allowable ranges of system and environmental parameter changes is part of the
controller specification and design process. To demonstrate robustness, the designer must
evaluate controller stability under worst-case combinations of expected plant and environment
parameter variations. For each combination of parameter values, a robust controller must satisfy
all of its performance requirements.
When working with linear models of plants and controllers it is possible to precisely determine
whether a particular plant and controller form a stable system. Chapter 3 describes how to
determine linear system stability.

If no mathematical model for the plant exists, stability can only be evaluated by testing the plant
and controller under a variety of operating conditions. Chapter 2 covers techniques for
developing stable control systems without the use of a plant model. Chapter 9 describes methods
for performing thorough control system testing.
1.9 Control System Testing

Testing is an integral part of the control system design process. Many of the design methods in
this book rely on the use of a linear plant model. Creating a linear model always involves
approximation and simplification of the true plant behavior. The implementation of a controller
using an embedded processor introduces nonlinear effects such as quantization. As a result, both
the plant and the controller contain nonlinear effects that are not accounted for in a linear control
system design.
The ideal way to demonstrate correct operation of the nonlinear plant and controller over the full
range of system behavior is by performing thorough testing with an actual plant. This type of
system-level testing normally occurs late in the product development process when prototype
hardware becomes available. Problems found at this stage of the development cycle tend to be
very expensive to fix.

Because of this, it is highly desirable to perform thorough testing at a much earlier stage of the
development cycle. Early testing enables discovery and repair of problems when they are
relatively easy and inexpensive to fix. However, testing the controller early in the product
development process may not be easy if a prototype plant does not exist on which to perform
tests.
 A simulation containing detailed models of the plant and controller is extremely valuable for
performing early-stage control system testing. This simulation should include all relevant
nonlinear effects present in the actual plant and controller implementations. While the simulation
model of the plant must necessarily be a simplified approximation of the actual system, it should
be a much more authentic representation than the linear plant model used in the controller
design.

When using a simulation in a product development process, it is imperative to perform thorough

simulation verification and validation.
 Verification demonstrates the simulation has been implemented correctly according to its
design specifications.
 Validation demonstrates that the simulation accurately represents the behavior of the simulated
system and its environment for the intended purposes of the simulation.
The verification step is relevant for any software development process, and simply shows that
the software performs as its designers intended. In simulation work, verification can occur in the
early stages of a product development project. It is possible (and common) to perform
verification for a simulation of a system that does not yet exist. This consists of making sure that
the models used in the simulation are correctly implemented and produce the expected results.
Verification allows the construction and application of a simulation in the earliest phases of a
product development project.

Validation is a demonstration that the simulation models the embedded system and the real world
operational environment with acceptable accuracy. A standard approach for validation is to use
the results of system operational tests for comparison against simulation results. This involves
running the simulation in a scenario that is identical to a test that was performed by the actual
system in a real world environment. The results of the two tests are compared and the differences
are analyzed to determine if they represent significant deviations between the simulation and the
actual system.

A drawback of this approach to validation is that it cannot happen until a complete system
prototype is available. Even when a prototype does not exist, it may be possible to perform
validation at an earlier project phase at the component and subsystem level. You can perform
tests on those system elements in a laboratory environment and duplicate the tests with the
simulation. Comparing the results of the two tests provides confidence in the validity of the
component or subsystem model.
TAPE 4104: Automotive Control Systems-Assignment (5 marks)
The objectives of Yaw Slip Control (YSC) and Roll Slip Control (RSC) are to follow the driver
intention and limit the maximum of the vehicle lateral acceleration, respectively. In order to
maximize the vehicle yaw and roll stability, YSC and RSC are integrated. Figure 1 indicates the
cascade block diagram of the control algorithm, which consists of three levels. First, a 3-DoF
rollover prediction model and a 2-DoF single-track model are implemented to obtain the roll
track error and the yaw track error, respectively. Then an RSC braking torque controller and a
YSC yaw moment controller are established to generate a desired torque control input based on
the errors obtained previously, and the coordinated control of yaw and rollover (CCYR) stability
controllers is applied to coordinate the demand of these controllers based on the Time-to-rollover
(TTR). In the underlying structure, the braking torque and the yaw moment are distributed to
each wheel and achieved by the hydraulic control unit (HCU) valve controller, and the ABS
controller is also used to prevent wheel lock.
In addition to the cascaded control logic, a vehicle status observer is implemented to obtain the
status used in the controller which includes reference longitudinal speed and lateral speed (G 1),
road adhesion coefficient (G2), vehicle sideslip angle (G3), wheel rotation speed, and wheel
cylinder pressure (G4). The disturbance D caters for; Axle lateral stiffness considering steering
system stiffness, suspension stiffness, and tire lateral elasticity.

YSC is designed to enhance vehicle maneuverability by tracking a reference yaw rate generated
by a driver’s steering input. The yaw moment control is adopted to generate a desired yaw
moment (H1) in order to reduce the yaw rate error between the reference and actual yaw rate
(H2). A linear model was used to compute the reference yaw rate, and the 3-DoF model,
including the direct yaw moment so that eventually the output C is obtained.
1. Derive or determine the transfer function in terms of block descriptors.
2. Find the overall transfer function from the driver’s steering input R through the disturbance
D to the output C.