UNIT - IV : Databases on the Web and

Semi Structured Data

XML and Its Applications

Web Interfaces
Web interfaces act as the front-end layer of a web application, allowing users to
interact with the database through forms, dashboards, and other UI
components. These interfaces are built using:
 HTML, CSS, JavaScript – For structuring, styling, and interactive
elements.
 Front-end frameworks – Like React, Angular, or Vue.js for dynamic user
interfaces.
 Responsive design – Ensuring compatibility across devices using CSS
frameworks like Bootstrap or Tailwind CSS.

Back-End Technologies
The back-end is responsible for processing user requests, interacting with the
database, and returning responses. Popular back-end technologies include:
 Node.js (Express.js) – JavaScript-based server-side framework.
 Python (Django, Flask) – Frameworks offering rapid development and
security features.
 Java (Spring Boot) – Enterprise-grade web application framework.
 PHP (Laravel, CodeIgniter) – Popular for CMS-based web applications.

Database Connectivity and Interaction

For a web application to interact with a database, it needs a way to send queries
and retrieve results.
 SQL Databases (MySQL, PostgreSQL, SQLite, SQL Server) – Use
structured data storage and querying via SQL.
 NoSQL Databases (MongoDB, Firebase, Cassandra) – Suitable for
unstructured data and scalability.
  ORM (Object-Relational Mapping) – Tools like Sequelize (Node.js),
Hibernate (Java), and SQLAlchemy (Python) help interact with databases
using object-oriented syntax instead of raw SQL.
 Connection management – Techniques like connection pooling optimize
database performance.

Security Considerations
Security is a critical factor in database-driven web applications. Common
security measures include:
 SQL Injection Prevention – Use prepared statements and ORM to avoid
malicious SQL queries.
 Authentication and Authorization – Implement secure login systems
using JWT, OAuth, or session-based authentication.
 Data Encryption – Encrypt sensitive information in transit (HTTPS) and at
rest.
 Rate Limiting – Prevent excessive API requests to avoid denial-of-service
attacks.

Restful APIs and Web Services

Web applications often use RESTful APIs to enable communication between the
front end and the database via HTTP requests.
 REST (Representational State Transfer) – Uses GET, POST, PUT,
DELETE methods to interact with resources.
 GraphQL – An alternative to REST for fetching only required data
efficiently.
 WebSockets – Used for real-time communication (e.g., chat applications).
 API Documentation – Tools like Swagger help in documenting APIs for
better maintainability.

Binding and Front-End Frameworks

To connect the database with the front-end, binding mechanisms ensure smooth
data flow.
 AJAX and Fetch API – Allow asynchronous data retrieval without
reloading the page.
  State Management – Tools like Redux (React), Pinia (Vue.js), and NgRx
(Angular) manage application state efficiently.
 Data Binding – Two-way data binding in Angular or Vue.js helps in
automatic UI updates when the database changes.

Overview of XML
XML (Extensible Markup Language) is a widely used format for structuring and
storing data in a hierarchical manner. It is designed to be both human-readable
and machine-readable, making it a popular choice for data exchange between
systems, web services, and databases.
Key Features of XML
1. Self-Descriptive Structure
o XML stores data using custom tags that describe the data’s
meaning.
o Unlike HTML, which is for presentation, XML is purely for data
representation.
2. Hierarchical Data Storage
o XML organizes data in a tree-like structure, making it ideal for
nested and structured data.
3. Platform and Language Independent
o XML is universally supported across different programming
languages and platforms.
4. Extensibility
o There are no predefined tags; users define their own structure based
on their needs.
5. Data Transport and Storage
o XML is commonly used for exchanging data between applications,
such as APIs and web services.
6. Separation of Data and Presentation
o XML stores raw data, and stylesheets (XSLT) or other methods are
used to define how the data should be displayed.

Uses of XML
 Web Services (SOAP, REST) – XML is used to exchange data between
different systems.
  Configuration Files – Many applications use XML to store configuration
settings.
 Data Storage and Transfer – Used in databases, document formats (like
Microsoft Office files), and data interchange formats.
 Metadata Representation – XML helps define metadata in various
domains, such as multimedia and digital libraries.
Advantages of XML
1. Structured and Organized – Data is stored in a well-defined hierarchical
format.
2. Human and Machine Readable – XML can be understood by both
humans and computers.
3. Interoperability – Enables seamless data exchange between different
systems.
4. Customizable – Users can define their own tags and structure.
5. Supports Internationalization – Can store multilingual data using
Unicode.

Limitations of XML
1. Verbosity – XML files can be large due to redundant tags.
2. Processing Overhead – Parsing XML is slower compared to other
lightweight formats like JSON.
3. Complexity – Defining and maintaining large XML structures can be
cumbersome.

Structure of XML
XML (Extensible Markup Language) follows a hierarchical structure, similar to a
tree, where data is organized using custom tags. The structure ensures that
data is stored and exchanged in a meaningful and readable format.
1. Declaration
 The XML document begins with an optional declaration that defines the
version and encoding.
 This helps software interpret the document correctly.
Structure of XML
XML (Extensible Markup Language) follows a hierarchical structure, similar to a
tree, where data is organized using custom tags. The structure ensures that
data is stored and exchanged in a meaningful and readable format.

1. Declaration
 The XML document begins with an optional declaration that defines the
version and encoding.
 This helps software interpret the document correctly.

2. Root Element
 Every XML document has a single root element that contains all other
elements.
 It acts as the parent node for all data.

3. Elements and Nesting

 XML data is structured using elements, enclosed within opening and
closing tags.
 Elements can contain:
o Text
o Attributes
o Other nested elements (child elements)

4. Attributes
 Additional information about an element can be provided using attributes.
 Attributes are written inside the opening tag of an element.

5. Hierarchical Structure
 XML follows a tree-like structure, where elements can have parent-child
relationships.
 Nested elements (child elements) provide a clear representation of
complex data.

6. Well-Formed XML Rules

For XML to be valid, it must follow these rules:
 Every opening tag must have a closing tag.
 Elements must be properly nested.
 Only one root element should exist in the document.
 Attribute values must be enclosed in quotes.

7. Comments
 XML allows comments to describe parts of the document, improving
readability.
 Comments do not affect the functionality of the XML document.
8. Processing Instructions
 These provide special instructions to applications processing the XML
document.
 They are not part of the data but guide how the document should be
handled.

Document Schema
A Document Schema defines the structure and rules for a document to ensure
consistency and validity. It acts as a blueprint for organizing data in a structured
format.
Key Features of Document Schema
1. Defines Data Structure – Specifies the arrangement of elements,
attributes, and their relationships.
2. Ensures Consistency – Helps maintain uniformity across documents.
3. Validates Data – Ensures that the document follows predefined rules
before processing.
4. Improves Data Exchange – Facilitates interoperability between different
systems.
A Document Schema can be implemented using XML Schema (XSD), Document
Type Definition (DTD), or JSON Schema, depending on the format used.

XML Schema
An XML Schema (XSD - XML Schema Definition) is a powerful way to define the
structure and constraints of an XML document. It provides a more detailed and
strict validation mechanism compared to DTD (Document Type Definition).

Key Features of XML Schema

1. Defines Data Types – Supports primitive types like integers, strings,
dates, and custom data types.
2. Specifies Element and Attribute Rules – Determines which elements
and attributes are required and their valid values.
3. Supports Hierarchical Structure – Defines parent-child relationships in
XML data.
4. Enforces Constraints – Includes rules like minimum and maximum
occurrences, value restrictions, and uniqueness constraints.
5. Namespace Support – Prevents element name conflicts by grouping
elements under a namespace.

Benefits of XML Schema

 More expressive and strict validation compared to DTD.
 Supports datatypes and constraints for better data integrity.
 Enables interoperability between different applications using XML.

Querying XML Data

Querying XML data involves extracting and manipulating information stored in
an XML document. Since XML is hierarchical, specialized query languages like
XPath and XQuery are used to navigate and retrieve specific data efficiently.

Tree Model of XML

The Tree Model represents an XML document as a hierarchical structure similar
to a tree, with nodes connected in a parent-child relationship.
Components of XML Tree Model
1. Root Node – The topmost node representing the document.
2. Element Nodes – Represent XML tags (e.g., <book>).
3. Attribute Nodes – Hold additional information within elements.
 4. Text Nodes – Contain the actual data or values inside elements.
5. Comment and Processing Instruction Nodes – Provide metadata or
instructions for processing the XML.
This tree structure allows efficient navigation and querying using XPath and
XQuery.

XPath
XPath is a query language used to navigate through XML documents and
retrieve specific nodes. It defines paths similar to file system paths.
Key Features of XPath
 Selects nodes using absolute (/) or relative (//) paths.
 Uses predicates ([ ]) to filter nodes based on conditions.
 Supports functions for string manipulation, numeric operations, and
boolean logic.
XPath is widely used in XML parsing, transformations, and query processing.

XQuery
XQuery is a powerful query language designed specifically for extracting and
manipulating XML data. It extends XPath with additional functionalities like
sorting, filtering, and constructing new XML documents.
Key Features of XQuery
 Retrieves data from XML documents in a structured manner.
 Supports joining XML data from multiple sources.
 Can modify and transform XML documents dynamically.
 Integrates well with databases that store XML data.

FLWOR Expressions
FLWOR (For, Let, Where, Order by, Return) expressions are the core of XQuery,
providing SQL-like querying capabilities for XML.
FLWOR Components
1. For – Iterates over XML elements.
2. Let – Assigns values to variables.
3. Where – Filters results based on conditions.
 4. Order by – Sorts the output.
5. Return – Specifies the final result format.

Storage of XML Data

Storing XML data efficiently depends on the system requirements and the type
of database being used. Various storage techniques help in managing XML data
effectively while ensuring easy retrieval and processing.

Non-relational Data Stores

Non-relational databases, also known as NoSQL databases, are well-suited for
storing XML data. These databases store XML documents as native objects
without needing to map them into relational structures.
 Examples: MongoDB, CouchDB, BaseX
 Advantages: Handles complex hierarchies, supports flexible schemas,
and allows direct querying using XPath and XQuery.
Relational Databases
Traditional relational databases (RDBMS) can store XML data in various ways,
even though they are primarily designed for structured tabular data.
Storage Techniques in RDBMS
1. Store as String
o XML documents are stored as text blobs (CLOB, BLOB, or VARCHAR)
in a single column.
o Suitable for applications that store XML without frequent querying.
o Limitation: Querying requires additional parsing, making it slower.
2. Tree Representation
o Converts XML into a tree structure inside the database, storing each
node as a separate row.
o Advantage: Enables efficient searching and retrieval using
hierarchical queries.
3. Map to Relations
o Transforms XML elements into normalized relational tables using
primary-foreign key relationships.
o Example: An XML document with <customer> and <order>
elements can be mapped to Customer and Order tables.
 o Advantage: Allows faster SQL-based querying.
o Limitation: Complex to maintain when dealing with deeply nested
XML structures.

Publishing and Shredding XML Data

Publishing: Converts relational data into XML format for web services, APIs,
and data exchange.

Shredding: Breaks XML documents into smaller pieces and stores them in
relational tables.
 Used when frequent SQL-based querying is needed on XML content.
 Requires predefined mapping rules to maintain data consistency.

Native Storage within a Relational Database

Some modern relational databases provide native XML support, storing XML as
structured rather than simple text.
 Examples: IBM DB2, Microsoft SQL Server, Oracle XML DB
 Features include:
o Indexing XML data for efficient querying.
o XQuery and XPath support within SQL queries.
o Schema validation for maintaining XML integrity.

XML Applications
XML (Extensible Markup Language) is widely used across various domains due
to its flexibility, structured format, and ability to store and exchange data
efficiently. Below are some of its key applications:
1. Storing Data with Complex Structure
XML is ideal for hierarchical and nested data, making it useful for storing
structured information such as:
 Configuration files (e.g., application settings, metadata).
 Scientific and research data with complex relationships.
  Financial and banking records with multiple levels of transactions.
Unlike relational databases, XML allows flexible schema definitions, making it
useful for cases where data structures frequently change.

2. Standardized Data Exchange Formats

XML provides a platform-independent way to exchange data between different
systems and applications.
 Used in B2B communication and enterprise applications (e.g., ERP, CRM).
 Forms the basis of many industry-specific standards, such as:
o HL7 (Healthcare)
o XBRL (Financial reporting)
o SVG (Scalable Vector Graphics)
o RSS/ATOM (Web feeds)
3. Web Services
XML plays a crucial role in enabling communication between web applications.
 SOAP (Simple Object Access Protocol) uses XML for exchanging structured
data between client and server.
 RESTful APIs often return data in XML format (although JSON is more
common today).
 XML helps in defining WSDL (Web Services Description Language), which
describes the services offered by a web server.
Web services rely on XML for platform-independent and language-neutral data
communication.

4. Data Mediation
XML acts as a bridge between different data formats and databases in
distributed systems.
 Helps convert data between different formats (e.g., CSV to JSON via XML).
 Used in middleware and ETL (Extract, Transform, Load) processes for
integrating diverse databases.
 Supports data transformation using XSLT (Extensible Stylesheet Language
Transformations).
By acting as an intermediate format, XML enables seamless data integration
across different platforms and industries.
Semi Structured Data Model
A semi-structured data model is a flexible approach to data organization where
data does not adhere to a fixed schema like relational databases. Instead, it
allows irregular, hierarchical, and self-descriptive structures. It is widely used in
web data, XML, JSON, NoSQL databases, and document storage systems.

Implementation Issues in Semi-Structured Data

Despite its flexibility, implementing semi-structured data models comes with
challenges:
1. Schema Evolution
o Unlike relational databases, the schema is not strictly defined,
making it harder to enforce constraints.
o Changes in structure (e.g., adding new fields in JSON/XML) must be
managed dynamically.
2. Data Integrity
o Maintaining consistency across heterogeneous sources is difficult.
o Duplicate and inconsistent data can arise due to flexible formatting.
3. Query Optimization
o Querying semi-structured data is less efficient compared to
structured databases.
o XPath, XQuery, or NoSQL query languages require specialized
indexing and processing techniques.
4. Storage and Indexing
o Efficiently storing hierarchical data in traditional databases requires
mapping techniques.
o Indexing strategies need to be adapted for nested and dynamic
structures.
5. Interoperability
o Integration with relational databases and structured data models is
complex.
o Data conversion between formats (e.g., JSON to SQL tables) requires
additional processing.
Indexes for Text Data
Indexing plays a crucial role in efficiently retrieving semi-structured text-based
data. Common indexing techniques include:
1. Inverted Index
o Stores a mapping of words to their occurrences in documents.
o Commonly used in search engines and full-text search systems.
2. Trie-Based Indexing
o Organizes words in a tree structure, allowing fast prefix-based
searches.
o Useful for auto-complete and dictionary lookups.
3. Suffix Tree and Suffix Array
o Efficient for pattern matching and substring searches in large text
datasets.
4. N-Gram Indexing
o Breaks text into substrings of N characters, enabling approximate
matching.
o Useful for spell-checking and fuzzy searching.