Spatial Data
Modelling
Spatial Data Models
The construction of models of spatial form can be thought of as a
series of stages of data abstraction.
By applying these abstraction techniques, the GIS designer
moves from the position of observing the geographical
complexities of the real world to one of simulating them in the
computer .
This involves:
• identifying the spatial features in the real world and choosing
how to represent them in a conceptual model (points, lines, area);
• representing the conceptual model by an appropriate spatial data
model; and
• Selecting an appropriate spatial data structure to store the model
within the computer.
Raster vs. Vector: types of GIS
map representation
• Vector vs. Raster
• Two basic ways that spatial data can be
represented
• Raster:
Raster
– Data represented by pixels with values,
creating a grid
– Allows certain types of operations not
possible with vector data
– Map algebra is possible with multiple Vector
data layers – creating index maps
• Vector:
– Data stored as points, lines, and
polygons
– Uses less memory than raster format Real World
– Does not loose positional accuracy
Spatial Data Structures
Data structures provide the information that the computer
requires to reconstruct the spatial data model in digital form.
These can be classified according to whether they are used to
structure raster or vector data.
A Simple Raster Map Plus the
Encoding Structure Used for
data Storage
Spatial Data Structures
Data structures provide the information that the computer
requires to reconstruct the spatial data model in digital form.
These can be classified according to whether they are used to
structure raster or vector data.
Modelling Surfaces
Maps of continuous data
Elevation
Temperature
Rainfall
Population, etc.
DTM
3D Modelling
High End 3-D Representation
• Surfaces are made from
Triangular Irregular
Networks (TIN) that
interpolate 3-D surfaces
from 2-D contour values.
• Uses:
– Hydrology: surface and
underground flows
– Line-of-Sight analysis
– Pollution Plume tracking
– Customer analysis
– Soil erosion potential
Modelling Networks
A network is a set of
interconnected lines
making up a set of features
Network modelling applications
•Rail transport
•Road transport
•Water
•Waste water
•Transport
•Electricity
•Natural gas
Data Capture, Storage
and Management
Methods of Data Input
A GIS without data can be likened to a car without fuel - without
fuel you cannot go anywhere; without data a GIS will not produce
output.
Whereas fuel can only be obtained from only one place - a fuel
station,
Spatial data on the other hand can be obtained from many
different sources, in different formats, and can be input to GIS
using a number of different methods.
Methods of Data Input
Data Source Analogue/Digital Encoding Methods Examples
Tabular Data Analogue • Keyboard entry • Census data
• Text scanning • Survey data
• Address list
Aerial photographs Analogue • Manual digitizing • Extent of floods
• Automatic digitizing • Ski Piste location
• Scanning
Map data Analogue • Manual digitizing • Admin maps
• Automatic digitizing • Infrastructure Map
• Scanning
Tabular data Digital • Digital file transfer • Census data
• Survey data
• Address list
Map data Digital • Digital file transfer • DTM data
• Topographic data
Aerial photographs Digital • Digital file transfer • Background data
• Ski Piste location
Satellite Imagery Digital • Digital file transfer • Land use data
• Image processing and •Forest condition
reformatting
The Database Approach
A database is a collection of related data
• GIS stores data in a relational
database structure (‘3-D
spreadsheets’)
– e.g. employee names linked to
store number, store number linked
to shipment arrival
– any data can be linked by a
common attribute to any other data
• Example shown here is a list
of counties (geographic data)
by income code (demographic
data)
Database Management System
The data in a computer database are managed and accessed
through a database management system (DBMS)
A DBMS is a computer program to control the storage,
retrieval and modification of data (in a database).
Data Analysis
Queries and Analysis
Once you have a functioning GIS containing your geographic
information, you can begin to ask simple questions such as:
•Who owns the land parcel on the corner?
•How far is it between two places?
•Where is land zoned for industrial use?
And analytical questions such as:
•Where are all the sites suitable for building new houses?
•What is the dominant soil type for oak forest?
•If I build a new highway here, how will traffic be affected?
Queries and Analysis
• Query building is a data exploration operation
– Example statement: ‘([acres] > 500 AND [age] > 55)’
– This would highlight all land parcels of greater than 500 acres owned by people
older than 55 years old in a data set loaded into the GIS.
• Map algebra with raster data, in this type of operation mathematical
operations are done on each pixel of multiple data layers. This results
in a new data layer that is calculated from all the input layers.
Proximity Analysis
(Buffering and Neighbourhood Functions)
Proximity Analysis
•How many houses lie within 100 m of this water
main?
•What is the total number of customers within 10 km
of this store?
•What proportion of the alfalfa crop is within 500 m
of the well?
To answer such questions, GIS technology uses a
process called buffering to determine the proximity
relationship between features.
Proximity Analysis
(Buffering and Neighbourhood Functions)
• Two or more data layers are overlaid
• GIS creates buffers around features on a particular layer
• This allows analyses such as flood zone delineation and
features near a route such as hotels along a bike route.
Integrating Data - Map Overlay
The integration of different data layers involves a process
called overlay. Analytical operations require one or more data
layers to be joined physically. This overlay, or spatial join, can
integrate data on soils, drainage, and vegetation, or property
ownership.
Analysis of Surfaces
• Raster data can also be
used to create surfaces
• Other raster data uses:
– Density analysis
– Proximity analysis
– Least-cost paths
– Line-of-sight
– Hydrology analysis
Network Analysis
Shortest Path Problem
Travelling Salesman Problem
Location Allocation Modelling
Route Tracing
Visualization
For many types of geographic
operation the end result is best
visualized as a map or graph.
GIS provides new and exciting
tools to extend the art and science
of cartography.
Map displays can be integrated
with reports, three-dimensional
views, photographic images, and
other output such as multimedia.
We Use GIS…
•Perform Geographic Queries & Analysis
•Improve Organizational Integration
–Data Management
–Sharing Data
•Making Maps
•Improved Efficiency
…for Better Decisions
Areas Where GIS Helps Utilities
• Map maintenance Switching • Vehicle Tracing & Market
• Distribution Analysis Analysis
• Work Order Processing • Environmental Monitoring
• Leak Detection (Gas/water) • Lease Management.
• Load Forecasting • Right-of-Way Management.
• Ad Hoc Mapping
• Interface to external
corporate databases
Where GIS can help Municipal
Infrastructures
• Land Use Planning • Visualize Urban
• Track Cadastral Structure
Information • Manage Local
• Community Resources
Development • Redistricting
• Aid in Crime Prevention • School Bus routing
• Garbage Collection
Routing
Where GIS can help Transportation
• Transportation Infrastructure Management
• Fleet and Logistics Management
• Transit Management
• Point to Point Routing
– Shortest Path
– Closest Facility
– Service Areas
Where GIS can help the Environmental
Industry
• Site Remediation
• Waste Management
• Environmental Impact Assessment
• Natural Resource Management
• Policy Assessment
• Groundwater Modelling
• Environmental Compliance Permit Tracking
• Vegetation Mapping
