Fundamentals of Computing

Detailed Lecture Notes

Q1. Define a Computer and List Its Basic Functions
Definition:
A computer is an electronic, programmable device capable of accepting data (input), processing it
according to specified instructions, storing it, and producing output as information. Modern computers
can also communicate over networks and perform multiple, complex tasks at high speed and accuracy.
Main Functions (IPOS Cycle):
1. Input:
Process of entering data or instructions via input devices.
Examples: Keyboard (inputting text), mouse (selecting objects), microphone (audio input),
scanner (digital images), webcam (video input), touchscreens (direct manipulation).
2. Processing:
Actual work is done by the CPU (Central Processing Unit) through execution of instructions;
includes calculations, comparisons, and decision making.
Examples: Calculating payroll, running a game engine, rendering graphics, performing data
analysis.
3. Output:
Presenting information after processing, often via output devices.
Examples: Monitor (visual display), printer (hard copy), speaker/headphones (audio),
projectors, haptic devices (vibrations/physical feedback).
4. Storage:
Saving data and instructions for temporary or permanent use.
Examples: RAM (temporary storage), hard disk, SSD, CDs/DVDs, USB drives, cloud storage
(permanent/persistent).
5. Control:
The control unit within the CPU manages and coordinates the operation of input, processing,
output, and storage.
Combined Example:
Typing and saving a document:
• Input: Keystrokes entered via keyboard.
• Processing: CPU interprets, converts to characters.
• Storage: File saved to hard disk or cloud.
• Output: Text appears on monitor or prints via printer.
Q2. Block Diagram of a Basic Computer System
Main Components:
• Input Unit: Keyboard, mouse, scanner, joystick, microphone.
• Central Processing Unit (CPU):
 o Control Unit (CU): Directs actions of all components.
o Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU): Performs calculations, logical operations.
o Registers: Small, fast storage within CPU for holding intermediate results.
• Memory Unit:
o Primary: RAM (volatile, fast), ROM (non-volatile, boot instructions).
o Secondary: Hard disk, SSD, optical drives, USB.
• Output Unit: Monitor, printer, speakers, plotters, VR headsets.
Block Diagram Structure:
text
[Input Devices] → [CPU: CU + ALU + Registers] ↔ [Primary Memory] ↔ [Secondary Memory] →
[Output Devices]
Note: Label each component in your diagram clearly.
Q3. Characteristics and Developments of Each Computer Generation
First Generation (1940–1956):
• Technology: Vacuum tubes.
• Features: Large size, high power consumption, slow, lots of heat, limited programming –
machine language only.
• Devices: Punch cards, magnetic drums.
• Example: ENIAC, UNIVAC.
Second Generation (1956–1963):
• Technology: Transistors.
• Features: Smaller, faster, less heat, more reliable, lower power usage, supports assembly
languages.
• Devices: Magnetic tape for storage.
• Example: IBM 1401, CDC 1604.
Third Generation (1964–1971):
• Technology: Integrated Circuits (ICs).
• Features: Even smaller, increased speed and reliability, supported
multiprogramming/multitasking, high-level languages.
• Example: IBM 360 Series, PDP-8.
Fourth Generation (1971–Present):
• Technology: Microprocessors (thousands of ICs on a single chip).
• Features: Personal computers, GUIs, internet, portable devices, emergence of supercomputers.
• Example: Intel 4004, Apple I/II, IBM PC, modern laptops/desktops.
Fifth Generation (Present and Beyond):
• Technology: Artificial Intelligence, parallel processing, quantum computing.
• Features: Voice recognition, robotics, natural language processing, machine learning, neural
networks.
• Example: IBM Watson, Google's AlphaGo, quantum computers (experimental), smart
assistants (Alexa, Siri).
Hardware vs Software
• Hardware: Tangible, physical components.
Examples: CPU, RAM, keyboard, monitor, hard disk, motherboard, graphics card, network
card.
• Software: Intangible set of instructions/programs guiding hardware.
System Software: Windows, macOS, Linux, device drivers.
Application Software: MS Office, VLC Player, Photoshop, browsers.
Key Point:
• Hardware is inoperative without software.
• Software requires hardware to run.
Q5. Classification of Computers
By Size:
• Microcomputers:
Personal computers, laptops, desktops, tablets, smartphones, single-board computers
(Raspberry Pi).
• Minicomputers:
Mid-size, multi-user systems (mostly obsolete now). Example: DEC PDP-11.
• Mainframes:
Large organizations, thousands of users, huge data processing. Examples: IBM zSeries.
• Supercomputers:
Highest capacity/performance. Used in research, weather forecasting, scientific simulation.
Examples: Cray, Summit.
By Purpose:
• General-purpose Computers:
Flexible, handle multiple tasks/applications. Examples: PCs, servers, smartphones.
• Special-purpose Computers:
Perform dedicated jobs. Examples: ATMs, traffic light controllers, embedded systems in
washing machines/cameras.
By Functionality:
• Analog Computers:
Deals with continuous data/signals—scientific/engineering use. Examples: Old tide/pre-
digital navigation computers, analog voltmeters.
 • Digital Computers:
Works with discrete data/binary signals (0s and 1s). Examples: All modern desktops, laptops,
smartphones.
• Hybrid Computers:
Combines analog & digital. Examples: Medical equipment (ECG, blood analyzers), some
industrial robots.
Q6. Main Components of a Computer System
1. Input Devices: Keyboard, mouse, scanner, joystick, touchpad, barcode reader, webcam, mic,
stylus, fingerprint scanner.
2. CPU: Central hub carrying out all calculations and instructions.
o Control Unit (CU)
o Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)
o Registers
3. Memory: RAM (volatile, fast), ROM (non-volatile), cache, virtual memory.
4. Output Devices: Monitor, printer, speakers, projector, plotter, VR devices.
5. Storage Devices: Hard disk, SSD, USB drive, CD/DVD, tape drive, SD card, Blu-Ray, cloud
storage (Google Drive, OneDrive).
6. Software: OS (Windows, Linux, Android), applications (Excel, games, browsers), utilities
(Antivirus, backup tools).
Q7. Main Components of a Keyboard and Its Communication with the CPU
(Laser Printer Working Steps supplied in your document: Here is both keyboard & laser
printer.)
Keyboard Components & Communication:
• Key Matrix: Grid beneath the keys, detects key presses via "on/off" circuitry.
• Encoder Circuit: Converts the grid location into a digital signal (scan code) for each key.
• Controller: Stores scan code in buffer and sends via USB/PS2/Bluetooth to CPU.
• CPU Interface: The signal is received and interpreted as a character or command.
Steps (Laser Printer):
1. Laser beam draws pattern (page image or text) onto a photosensitive drum.
2. Exposed drum areas get charged.
3. Toner (powdered ink) sticks to those areas.
4. Paper passes over drum; toner transfers to paper.
5. Heat & pressure rollers fuse toner to produce the final print.
Diagram (simplified):
Laser → Drum → Toner → Paper → Heat Rollers → Output
Q8. Computer Security: Definition and Objectives
Definition:
Computer security is the protection of computer systems and data from theft, unauthorized access,
damage, disruption, or modification.
Objectives:
1. Confidentiality: Ensure only authorized users can access data/resources.
2. Integrity: Maintain accuracy, consistency, and trustworthiness of data.
3. Availability: Ensure resources/services are accessible when required.
Q9. Three Common Sources of Security Threats
1. Human Threats:
o Weak passwords, social engineering, insider threats, careless behavior.
o Example: Sharing login credentials, using '123456' as password.
o Impact: Unauthorized access, sensitive data leaks.
2. Malware Attacks:
o Software designed to harm (viruses, worms, trojans, spyware, ransomware).
o Example: Clicking on a phishing email attachment downloads ransomware.
o Impact: Data loss, file corruption, financial damage.
3. Network Threats:
o Attacks via internet/network (phishing, DDoS, man-in-the-middle, eavesdropping).
o Example: Users receive a fake email leading to data theft; bank service taken offline
by DDoS.
o Impact: Service interruptions, data theft, communication loss.
Q10. Computer Network Protocol Examples
• HTTP/HTTPS (HyperText Transfer Protocol): Exchange and display web pages securely
and insecurely.
• FTP (File Transfer Protocol): Upload and download files between computers.
• TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol): Basis for all internet
communication.
• SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol): Email sending protocol.
• POP/IMAP: Email retrieval protocols.
• DNS (Domain Name System): Resolves website names to IP addresses.
• Bluetooth, Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11), Ethernet (IEEE 802.3): LAN/Wireless communication.
Q11. Categories of Computer Networks with Examples
1. LAN (Local Area Network):
 o Scope: Restricted to a room, building, or campus.
o Example: Office, home network, school computer lab.
2. MAN (Metropolitan Area Network):
o Scope: Covers city or large campus.
o Example: City-wide Wi-Fi, cable TV networks.
3. WAN (Wide Area Network):
o Scope: Connects computers across cities, countries, or globally.
o Example: The Internet, multinational corporate networks.
4. PAN (Personal Area Network):
o Scope: Devices within a reach of an individual (approx 10m).
o Example: Bluetooth headset and smartphone.
5. VPN (Virtual Private Network):
o Scope: Secure “virtual” connection over public internet.
o Example: Employee accessing company systems remotely.
Q12. Types of Data Processing Methods (Detailed with Examples)
1. Batch Processing:
o Data collected over time, processed all at once.
o Example: Payroll processing, utility bill generation, exam result computation.
2. Real-time Processing:
o Inputs processed instantly with immediate output.
o Example: ATM withdrawals, air traffic control, live stock trading.
3. Online Processing (Interactive processing):
o Continuous transactions processed as they occur.
o Example: E-commerce orders, banking apps, airline bookings.
4. Distributed Processing:
o Tasks divided and worked on by several connected computers.
o Example: Google search, cloud applications, SETI@home distributed computing.
5. Time-sharing:
o Many users share one computer at the same time, each gets small time slots.
o Example: University mainframe computers accessed by hundreds of students.
Q13. Freeware vs Open-source Software (with More Examples)
• Freeware:
Software given free of charge, but you cannot modify its code or redistribute modifications.
 Examples: Skype, Adobe Acrobat Reader, Google Chrome, Avast Antivirus, WinRAR (with
trial), TeamViewer, Spotify.
• Open-source Software:
Code is freely available to the public; you can modify, share, and even contribute back to the
community.
Examples: Linux (Ubuntu, Fedora), VLC Media Player, Mozilla Firefox, GIMP (image
editor), LibreOffice, Blender (3D creation), Audacity (audio editing).